Formations

UNCONVENTIONAL RESERVOIRS

Hamid Emami-Meybodi

Universidad de Los Andes

June 2023
Outline 2

Petroleum Resources

Tight Oil and Gas

Shale Oil and Gas

Coalbed Methane

Natural Gas Hydrates

Petroleum Resources 3

Conventional vs. Unconventional Reservoirs

• Conventional reservoirs are those that can be produced at economic flow

rates and that will produce economic volumes of oil and gas without large
stimulation treatments or any special recovery process (Holditch, 2003).

• An unconventional reservoir is one that cannot be produced at economic

flow rates or that does not produce economic volumes of oil and gas
without assistance from massive stimulation treatments (such as hydraulic
fracturing) or special recovery processes and technologies, such as steam
injection (Holditch, 2003).
Petroleum Resources 4

Resources Classification: Resource Triangle

Conventional reservoirs
Conventional
Medium/heavy oil

Unconventional
Tight oil Tight gas
• Increasing cost
Bitumen
CBM • Increasing technology

• Increasing resource size

Tar sands Shale oil Shale gas
• Decreasing reservoir quality

Oil shale Gas hydrates

Unknown

Resource triangle
(Modified from Holditch, 2003)
Petroleum Resources 5

Conventional (localized) vs. Continuous Accumulations

• Conventional resources exist in discrete petroleum accumulations related

to a localized geological structural feature and/or stratigraphic condition
(typically with each accumulation bounded by a down-dip contact with an
aquifer) that is significantly affected by hydrodynamic influences such as
the buoyancy of petroleum (oil and gas) in water. The petroleum is
recovered through wellbores and typically requires minimal processing
prior to sale (Chan, 2008).

• Continuous accumulations are defined as petroleum accumulations that

have large spatial dimensions and which lack well-defined down-dip
petroleum/water contacts. Continuous accumulations are not localized by
the buoyancy of oil or gas in water (Schmoker 2005).
Petroleum Resources 6

Continuous Accumulations
• Main required elements • Examples
o Abnormal pressure (either high or low) o Basin-centered gas
o Low matrix permeabilities (generally ≤ 0.1 mD) o Coal-bed methane
o Continuous hydrocarbon saturation o Shale oil and gas
o Lack a downdip water contact (water leg) o Gas hydrates

(Modified by Moslow, 2008 – from Pollastro and Schenk, 2002)

Petroleum Resources 7

Conventional vs. Unconventional and Localized vs. Continuous

Conventional reservoirs Unconventional reservoirs

Localized Localized Continuous

Gas Oil Gas Oil Gas Oil

Typical oil and gas reservoirs Tight gas Tight oil Shale gas Shale oil
e.g., sandstone reservoirs
Heavy oil Basin-centered Basin-
tight gas centered
tight oil

Coalbed methane Oil shale

Gas hydrate Bitumen

Tar sands
Petroleum Resources 8

Petroleum System Definition

• A petroleum system a is a dynamic hydrocarbon system that functions in a

restricted geologic space and time scale (Demaison and Huizinga, 1994).

• The essential elements and processes and all genetically-related

hydrocarbons that occur in petroleum shows, and accumulations whose
provenance is a single pod of active source rock (Magoon and Dow, 1994).
Petroleum Resources 9

Petroleum System Elements

• Source rock: A rock with abundant hydrocarbon-prone organic matter.
• Reservoir rock: a rock that is sufficiently porous and permeable to accumulate a large
amount of petroleum.
• Seal rock: A rock through which oil and gas cannot move effectively (such as
mudstone and claystone).

• Migration route: Avenues

in rock through which oil
Anticlinal T rap
and gas moves from the Top Seal Rock
source rock to trap. Reservoir Rock

• Trap: The structural and

stratigraphic configuration
Source Rock
that focuses oil and gas (Organic Rich)
into an accumulation.
24803

(Modified from Armentrout’s notes, 2000)

Petroleum Resources 10

Petroleum System Processes

• Generation: Burial of source rock to temperature and pressure regime sufficient to
convert organic matter to hydrocarbon.
• Migration (Primary): Movement of hydrocarbon out of the source rock toward and into
a trap. (Migration of oil , gas and water in a trap due to buoyancy is called secondary).
• Accumulation (Entrapment): A volume of hydrocarbon migrating into a trap faster
than the trap leaks resulting in an accumulation.

• Preservation: Hydrocarbon
Gas
remains in reservoir and is Cap
Oil
not altered by biodegradation Entrapment Water Seal Rock
Reservoir
or water-washing. Rock

• Timing: a trap must exist Migration

120° F
either before or coincident
with the time of migration. Generation
350° F

2480

(Modified from Armentrout’s notes, 2000)

Petroleum Resources 11

Traps
• Structural: Forms as a result of changes in the structure of the subsurface. Three basic
forms, fault (offset of rocks such that oil and gas accumulates in reservoir rock), anticline
(rock layers folded into a dome), and salt dome.
• Stratigraphic: Rock layers changing from a good reservoir to non-reservoir due to change
in rock type (pinch-out), reservoir quality (diagenesis), or removal (erosional unconformity).

Anticline
Fault
Salt Dome

Pinchout

Unconformity

(After American Petroleum Institute, 1986)

Petroleum Resources 12

Example of Petroleum System: Identification

• Inventory of accumulations (nine fields) provide geochemical typing of hydrocarbons and
matching of a hydrocarbon to a specific source rock.

250 Ma
Raven

A Marginal
A’
Owens
Teapot

Pod of Active Big Oil

Source Rock Just
Hardy Lucky

David

Immature Source Rock

Zero Edge of
Reservoir Rock
(Modified by Armentrout 2000, from Magoon and Dow, 1994)
Petroleum Resources 13

Example of Petroleum System: Critical Moment

• Critical moment refers to the (interval of) time that best depicts the generation-migration-
accumulation of hydrocarbons in a petroleum system.

GEOGRAPHIC EXTENT OF PETROLEUM SYSTEM

A Trap 250 Ma Trap Trap A’
STRATIGRAPHIC
EXTENT OF
PETROLEUM SYSTEM

Overburden

Sedimentary
Essential

basin-fill
elements of Seal
POD OF ACTIVE petroleum
system
Reservoir
SOURCE ROCK
Source
Petroleum accumulation Underburden
Top of oil window
Bottom of oil window
Location for burial history chart

(Modified by Armentrout 2000, from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

Petroleum Resources 14

Example of Petroleum System: Present Day

• Subsequent rifting of the basin results in modification of traps containing the initial
accumulations of hydrocarbon.

GEOGRAPHIC EXTENT OF PETROLEUM SYSTEM

Present-Day Trap
A Trap Trap A’

STRATIGRAPHIC
EXTENT OF
PETROLEUM SYSTEM

Overburden
Seal
Petroleum accumulation Reservoir
Top of oil window
Source
Bottom of oil window
Underburden

(Modified by Armentrout 2000, from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

Petroleum Resources 15

Example of Petroleum System: Burial History Chart

• Showing the critical moment when the source rock reaches maturity and hydrocarbons
are generated during a time interval.

Overburden
Depth (Km)
400 300 200 100

Reservoir
Lithology

Source
Rock

Seal
Paleozoic Mesozoic Cen.
Unit
D M P P TR J K P N

Thick 1
Fm
Generation

2
Placer Fm
George Sh
Top oil window Boar Ss
Top gas window Deer Sh 3
Elk Fm
Critical Moment Time of Expulsion and Migration (Trap must already exist)
(Modified by Armentrout 2000, from Magoon and Dow, 1994)
Petroleum Resources 16

Example of Petroleum System: Events Chart

• Showing the relationship between the essential elements and processes as well
as the preservation time and critical moment.

400 300 200 100 Geologic Time

Scale
Paleozoic Mesozoic Cenozoic
Petroleum
D M P P TR J K P N System Events

Rock Units

Source Rock

Elements
Reservoir Rock

Seal Rock
Overburden Rock

Processes
Trap Formation
Gen/Migration/Accum

Preservation

Critical Moment

(Modified by Armentrout 2000, from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

Petroleum Resources 17

Resource Assessment: Play-level Assessment Approach (Conventional)

USGS 1995 National Assessment used “play” as the basic level of assessment.

• A sedimentary basin is a depression filled with sedimentary

rocks. The depression, formed by any tectonic process, is lined Four levels of
by basement rock. petroleum investigation

• A petroleum system is a natural system that have a pod of Sedimentary Basin

active source rock and all related oil and gas and which Economics
NOT
includes all the geologic elements and processes that are Important
essential if a hydrocarbon accumulation is to exist. Petroleum System

• A play is a set of known or postulated oil and gas

accumulations sharing similar geologic, geographic, and
Play
temporal properties, such as source rock, migration pathway, Economics
VERY
timing, trapping mechanism, and hydrocarbon type. Important

• A prospect is a potential trap that must be evaluated to see if Prospect

it contains commercial quantities of hydrocarbons. A series of (Modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

related prospects is a play.

Petroleum Resources 18

Resource Assessment: Play-level Assessment Approach (Conventional)

1) Dip-closed anticlinal fields (Raven, Big Oil)
2) Hanging-wall fault closure fields (Just, Owens, Hardy)
Example: 2 basins; 1 petroleum system; 4 plays
3) Pinch-out fields (Marginal, Lucky)
4) Thrusted anticline fields (Teapot)

(Modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

Petroleum Resources 19

Resource Assessment: Assessment Unit Approach (Continuous)

Since 2000 USGS uses “assessment unit” as the basic level of assessment.

• Total Petroleum System (TPS): A mappable entity encompassing genetically related petroleum
that occurs in seeps, shows, and accumulations (discovered or undiscovered) that have been
generated by a pod or by closely related pods of mature source rock, together with the essential
mappable geologic elements (source, reservoir, seal, and overburden rocks) that controlled
fundamental processes of generation, migration, entrapment, and preservation of petroleum
(Schmoker 2005).

• Assessment Unit (AU): A mappable volume of rock within a TPS that encompasses fields
(discovered and undiscovered) which share similar geologic traits and socio-economic factors
(Schmoker 2005).

• Cell: A subdivision or area within an AU having dimensions related to the drainage areas of
wells. A continuous AU is a collection of petroleum-containing cells.
Petroleum Resources 20

Resource Assessment: Assessment Unit Approach (Continuous)

AU
Area evaluated Untested area
TPS by drilling
Gas field Fault
Oil field
Oil show

Tar sands

Untested area
having potential for additions
to reserves in next 30 years

Hypothetical Cell
stratigraphic oil AU
Structural oil AU Structural gas AU

Basin-centered continuous
gas accumulation

(Modified from USGS, 2003)

Petroleum Resources 21

Resource Assessment: Assessment Unit Approach (Continuous)

• Assessment parameters (USGS, 2003)

1) Total AU area (U),
2) Percentage of the total AU area that is untested (R),
3) Percentage of the total AU area that is untested and has the potential to add to
reserves within the forecast span (S),
4) Area per cell of untested cells having the potential to add to reserves within the
forecast span (Vi),
5) Total recovery per cell (Xi),
6) Average oil and gas ratio of untested units,
7) Oil and gas ratio of the AU.

All these parameters are used to calculate reserves directly.

Petroleum Resources 22

Resource Assessment: Reserve Estimation

• In unconventional reservoirs, moderate differences in assumptions can lead to

widely different estimates of reserves.

• Example: Williams Fork tight gas paly in Piceance Basin, Colorado

USGS (2003) Advanced Resources (2006) with

with data through 1999 data through 2005 (S. Basin only)

Play Area (mi2) 1,989 1,008

Well Spacing (acres/well) 80 20

Wells Drilled 822 2,920

EUR/Well (Bcf) 0.9 1.3

Success/Accessibility Factors (%) 22% 83%

Recoverable Resource (Tcf) 3.1 31.5

(Data from Advanced Resources International Inc., 2006)

Petroleum Resources 23

Petroleum Province

• Petroleum province or petroleum basin is a USGS-defined area having

characteristic dimensions of perhaps hundreds to thousands of kilometers
encompassing a natural geologic entity (e.g., sedimentary basin, thrust belt, delta)
or some combination of contiguous geologic entities.

• Provinces definition is used because it is a convenient indicator of the extent of

geologic units.

• The USGS recognizes 937 petroleum provinces throughout the world. North
America has 179 provinces.

• A basin is a depression filled with sedimentary rocks. The depression, formed by

any tectonic process, is lined by basement rock. But, the term basin used with a
proper noun refers to a petroleum province, e.g. Williston basin.
Petroleum Resources 24

Unconventional Gas/Oil Reservoirs

• Tight sand • Coalbed methane (CBM)

• Shale • Gas hydrates

(Modified from US DOE, 2011)

Tight Sand Oil and Gas 25

• Low permeability, fine to very-fine grained sandstones where natural gas or oil
has migrated and become stored and trapped.

• The major differences between tight and conventional production arise because
of the poor permeability of tight reservoirs.

• Oil and gas cannot be produced at economic flow rates or that do not produce
economic volumes of natural gas or oil without large stimulation treatments or
special recovery processes and technologies.

• Why tight?
1) Grain size of the rock is very fine.
2) The rock is relatively tightly cemented, diagnostically altered, and has pores that are
poorly connected by small pore throats and capillaries.
Tight Sand Oil and Gas 26

• There are no “typical” tight oil and gas reservoirs. They can be: deep or shallow; high-
or low-pressure; high- or low temperature; continuous or localized; homogenous or
naturally fractured; single layer or multiple layers; sandstone or carbonate.

• Two general types are

1) Basin-centered gas accumulations (BCGA)

2) Low-permeable, poor-quality reservoir rocks in conventional structural and stratigraphic traps

(Modified from NEB, 2011)

Tight Sand Oil and Gas 27

Characteristics
• Oil or gas migrated from a source rock (source ≠ reservoir).

• Maybe trapped conventionally or be part of a continuous accumulation.

• Low matrix permeability (< 0.1 mD, and often < 0.01 mD).

• Low matrix porosity (generally 3 – 10%).

• Primarily free (compressed) gas storage.

• Sandstone (fine-grained sand, silt) or carbonates.

• Natural fractures may contribute to productivity.

• Discontinuous sweetspots, multilayers.

• Variable matrix (mineralogic) composition.

• Low recovery efficiency compared with a conventional reservoir.

Tight Sand Oil and Gas 28

Production Profile

• For a tight gas, both the initial rates and expected ultimate recovery per well is
significantly less than for those conventional wells.

(Modified from Al Kindi et al., 2011)

Tight Sand Oil and Gas 29

• North American
(unconventional)
plays are found in
ancient foreland
basins where
tectonic activities
(uplifting, erosion,
faulting, …)
(After Ziff Energy, 2010)

depressed the
earth’s crust and
flooded the
continental margins.

• Appalachian Mountain range, Rocky Mountain Cordillera, and Ouichita thrust belt
are primary influences of the major basins.
Tight Sand Oil and Gas 30

U.S. Tight Oil and Gas

Williston Basin Appalachian

Anadarko Basin
Pinedale Basin
Basin

Piceance
Basin

(Modified from EIA, 2010)

Deep Bossier
Basin
 Tight Sand Oil and Gas 31

Tight Oil Example: Williston Basin, Bakken TPS, Parshall Field

Bakken TPS a source rock-reservoir couplet 1) Lodgepole formation

system, consisting of both tight reservoirs and 2) Bakken formation
rich, mature source rocks.
o Recoverable oil ~ 2.1 billion
3) Three Forks formation
o Recoverable oil ~ 1.9 billion

B
Mountrail County

Parshall
Sanish
A

Bakken TPS

A
B
Williston Basin
Province
Oil producing cell
Gas producing cell
Oil and gas producing cell
Williston Basin Province
Bakken TPS

(Modified from USGS, 2013) (Modified from Sonnenberg et al., 2011)

 Tight Sand Oil and Gas 32

Tight Oil Example: Williston Basin, Bakken TPS, Parshall Field

Backken formation Lithofacies
Upper shale Lithofacies 4 Lithofacies 3 Lower & Pronghorn

Upper: Dark brown to

black, mudstone with
pyrite laminae and
Lenses; TOC=14.8

L5: Pyritic dolostones

L4: Grey brown

interbedded sequence
to very finegrained
sandstone, siltstone and
mudstone, algal,
burrowed

L3: Medium-grained
sandstone, laminated.

CBF: Wavy bedded to

thinly laminated very-
fine grained
sandstone to siltstone,
burrowed, pyritic

L2: Medium grey limy to

dolomitic silstone,
heavily burrowed,
Sclarituba and
Helminthopsis

L1: Medium grey,

burrowed lime
mudstone, crinoids

Lower: Medium dark

brown-black
organic-rich shale, pyrite
laminae, feathers, and
lenses; TOC=10.4%
QUESTION: Well testing in middle Bakken (L4 & L3 in Pronghorn: Mixed
silicicalstics and
carbonates
Sanish & Parshall) indicates that permeabilities are ranging
from 0.2 to 0.5 mD, which is an order of magnitude higher
than those obtained from in core analyses ~ 0.02 mD, WHY!? (Modified from LeFever et. al., 2013)
Tight Sand Oil and Gas 33

Tight Oil Example: Williston Basin, Bakken TPS, Parshall Field

Parshall reservoir properties
• Kerogen Type II
• Located within lithofacies 3
• High oil saturation (oil-wet system)
• Network of microfractures
• Matrix permeability ~ 0.02 mD
• Porosity ~ 5 - 9%
• Low water saturation ~ 20-30%
• Increased pressure gradient ~ 0.73 psi/ft
(Modified from Whiting Petroleum, 2011)
• Source, both upper & lower Bakken shales
A B

Mountrail County

A Parshall

(Modified from LeFever and Nordeng, 2010)

Sanish
B
Tight Sand Oil and Gas 34

Tight Oil Example: Williston Basin, Bakken TPS, Parshall Field

ANSWER: Due to the presence of numerous

microfractures. Price (1999) described the Bakken
formation as the “best-interconnected reservoir” in the
world based on pressure communication between wells. Regional
fractures in
middle Bakken
shale
Open fractures in Bakken formation
1) Stress-related regional: orthogonal fracture sets that
consist of a set, of smooth, subparallel fractures, and
a more irregular set of cross fractures.

2) Structural-related tectonic: associated with specific

Macro-expulsion
features like folds or faults. fractures in
upper Bakken
shale
3) Pore pressure related (Expulsion): associated with
overpressure due to hydrocarbon generation.

(Modified from Sonnenberg, 2011)

Tight Sand Oil and Gas 35

QUESTION: A well is drilled in a basin-centered gas accumulation with k = 0.02

md, porosity = 6%, Sw = 40% (Sg = 60%). Water and gas production from this well
are very poor (almost no production). Why?

• This is due to permeability jail, which is a geologic concept.

• In low K reservoirs such as tight sand, there is a

saturation region where relative permeability to both
gas and water are so low that neither phase has any
effective flow.
qo = v x A = – (k kro/μo dp/dx) A

• PJ requires early migration of hydrocarbon to a

reservoir rock and then continuous diagenesis (physical
and chemical alteration) that destroys permeability.
Tight Sand Oil and Gas 36

QUESTION: Why did oil/gas stay in small pores where there is no barrier to trap them?

• In general:
o Oil cannot displace resident water because pore throats 2𝜎𝜎 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜 −𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤 >
𝑟𝑟
are to narrow (buoyancy force < capillary force).
large r
o Significant pressure is required to overcome the
capillary forces in the tight rocks.
o Causing a moderate pressure build up inside pore PB = (ρw – ρo) g dz
network due to hydrocarbon generation.
Pc=2σ cosθ/r

• Parshall field:
small r
o Immature upper Bakken shale acts as a seal.
2𝜎𝜎 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜 −𝑃𝑃𝑤𝑤 <
𝑟𝑟
o Causing high pressure build up inside pore network due
to hydrocarbon generation.

o Pore pressure related microfractures.

Shale Oil and Gas 37

Shale

• By far the most abundant sedimentary rock (~60%), shale is the least studied,
and least well-defined sedimentary rock.

• Various definitions, most including reference to grain size (< 0.0625 mm).

• Sometimes there is a reference to mineralogy and fissility (how easily it splits

along planes).

One definition (ERCB):

“a lithostratigraphic unit having less than 50% by weight organic matter, with
less than 10% of the sedimentary clasts [rock bulk volume] having a grain size
greater than 62.5 μm (0.0025 in.) and more than 10% of the sedimentary clasts
having a grain size less than 4 μm (0.00016 in.)”
Shale Oil and Gas 38

Terminologies

• The terms shale gas or gas shale refer to a fine-grained reservoir in which gas is self
sourced and some of the gas is stored in the sorbed state (Bustin, 2005).

• Oil found in the original shale source rock, similar to shale gas and typically called
shale oil, which is different from an oil shale (kerogen shale).

• Different types by color

o Black shale: high TOC, gas/oil cracked from high

quality oil-prone source, shale formation was
deposited under conditions of little or no oxygen in
water.

o Gray shale: lower TOC, gas/oil cracked from

moderate quality source interspersed with silts.

Black Shale Gray Shale

(Modified from Miller et al., 2010)

Shale Oil and Gas 39

A Classification Example

Biogenic
Antrim
Tight Shale Hybrid Shale
Combination
(gas & oil/ Organic-rich Barnett Bakken
condensate 0.8 (dry gas, > 1.4 Antelope Eagle Ford
– 1.4 Ro%) Ro%) Tuscaloosa Niobrara

Barnett Barnett

Low mature
< 0.8 Ro% Fractured Shale
Hybrid or organic New Albany
rich+lean (dry gas, Monterey
organic > 1.4 Ro%) Bakken
Pierre
Haynesville (Modified from Jarvie, 2012)
Bazhenov

Shale Oil
Shale Gas
Shale Oil and Gas 40

Characteristics
• Self-sourcing reservoir (source = reservoir).
• Part of a continuous accumulation.
• Low matrix permeability (often < 0.01 md, sometimes < 0.0001 md).
• Low matrix porosity (generally 3 – 10%).
• Variable TOC (< 50% by weight OM), which affects sorption and mechanical properties.
• Primarily Type II and Type III organic matter.
• Free- (compressed) gas storage and sorbed-gas storage (10%).
• Variable matrix (mineralogic) composition, often with high clay content.
• Mechanical properties are key driver for production (brittle shales are easier to
hydraulically fracture, and create fracture complexity).
• Natural fractures may contribute to productivity.
• Discontinuous sweetspots, multi-layers.
• Often highly heterogeneous and laminated (difficult to characterize).
• Dry gas, wet gas, light oil.
Shale Oil and Gas 41

Production Profile

• A typical decline type curve for Eagle Ford shale gas:

(Modified from EIA, 2011)

 Shale Oil and Gas 42

Assessed Shale Oil and Shale Gas Formations as of May 2013

(From Ahmed and Meehan, 2016)

Shale Oil and Gas 43

U.S. Shale Plays

(From Ahmed and Meehan, 2016)

Shale Oil and Gas 44

Shale Gas Example: Appalachian Basin, Marcellus

(From Ahmed and Meehan, 2016)

Shale Oil and Gas 45

Shale Gas Example: Appalachian Basin, Marcellus B

Marcellus shale play is the one of three

A
overlapping shale, older Utica and younger
Sandstone, siltstone, and shale

Devonian, plays in Appalachian basin province.

Siltstone, sandstone, and conglomerate
Siltstone and grey shale
Grey shale and siltstone
Tully limestone
Dark grey shale and siltstone
Organic-rich black shale

Devonian

Devonian shale

Marcellus shale
Utica shale Marcellus
Appalachian Basin Province

Utica

(Modified from USGS, 2011) (Modified from Rex Energy, 2014)

Shale Oil and Gas 46

Shale Gas Example: Appalachian Basin, Marcellus B

B
A

• Geographically the largest

shale gas play in the U.S.

• Covers an area of more

than 100,000 square miles
at an average thickness of
50 ft to 200 ft.
Shale Oil and Gas 47

Shale Gas Example: Appalachian Basin, Marcellus

• Complex mineralogy and high organic content

Marcellus Shale interval in southwestern Pennsylvania Rock thin-section SEM images

(Modified from Zagorski et al., 2012)

Shale Oil and Gas 48

Shale Gas Example: Appalachian Basin, Marcellus; Characteristics

• Its the largest shale gas resource in U.S., recoverable reserve potential of 220–489 Tcf.

• Thermal maturity increase in a southeasterly direction, from 0.5% Ro in NW PA and E Ohio (gas-
gas condensate) to >3.5% Ro in NE PA and SE NY (dry gas), TOC ranges from <1% to 15 wt%.

• Drilled wells are in depth of 4000–8500 ft with average thickness of >50 ft.

• Porosity ~ 4–8% and permeability ~ 130–2000 μD (permeability > 500 μD very good shale gas).

• Pressure gradient decreases in central and southern West Virginia, which is related to an
inadequately developed seal or degradation of seal integrity by natural fracturing.

o South West Virginia: 0.10 to 0.25 psi/ft (under-pressured),

o Central West Virginia: 0.25 to 0.4 psi/ft (transitional),

o Southwestern Pennsylvania to Southern New York: 0.43 to 0.80 psi/ft (normal to over-

pressured).
Shale Oil and Gas 49

Prospective Shale Basins of Northern South America

• Prospective shale gas and shale oil potential within marine deposited Cretaceous shale
formations in three main basins:
1. Middle Magdalena Valley (Colombia)

2. Llanos (Colombia)

3. Maracaibo/Catatumbo
(Venezuela/Colombia)

• A fourth basin
4. Putumayo (Colombia)
has not been assessed

(ARI 2013)
 Shale Oil and Gas 50

Northern South America Shale Reservoir Properties and Resources

(ARI 2013)
Shale Oil and Gas 51

Shale Gas Example: Middle Magdalena Valley Basin (MMVB), La Luna

The MMVB is Colombia’s most explored

conventional oil and gas producing
petroleum province, with over 40 discovered
oil fields that produce mainly from sandstone
reservoirs.

La Luna Formation is the principal source

rock in the MMVB, which is a marine
deposited black shale.

(Montes, 2010)
Shale Oil and Gas 52

Shale Gas Example: Middle Magdalena Valley Basin (MMVB), La Luna

Schematic Cross-Section of MMVB

Schematic Cross-Section of Western Region of MMVB

Shale Oil and Gas 53

Shale Gas Example: Middle Magdalena Valley Basin (MMVB), La Luna

La Luna Formation Properties

• Average gross thickness about 1500 ft

• Net pay about 950 to 1900 ft

• TOC content about 10%

• Effective porosity about 15%

• Favorably low 17% clay content (should be quite brittle)

• In Sintana’s area, Ro% is about 0.7 to 1.0% (oil window)

• Pressure gradient ranges from 0.55-0.80 psi/ft

Coalbed Methane 54

• A deposit comprised of greater than 50% by weight or 70% by volume of OM.

• Coal is the source and reservoir for the gas (similar to shales) and most of the gas
is adsorbed.
Outcrop (macrofabric)
• Although coal is black and seems to be
“featureless”, it is a bedded organic
sediment, which varies in physical and
properties compositional properties,
both vertically and laterally.

• Most coal is derived from Type III OM

and generally represents the in situ
accumulation of land-derived
vegetation subjected to alteration and
compaction. (Modified from Clarckson and Bustin, 1997)
Coalbed Methane 55

Terminologies

• Maceral: microscopic components of coal and originate from its organic precursors

(macerals are to coal as minerals are to sandstone).

• Ash: composed of minerals and inorganic matter in coal, determined from proximate

analysis.

• Cleats: natural fractures in coal.

o Cleat is the old mining term for the natural fractures in coal.
Coalbed Methane 56

Terminologies

• Rank: a measure of thermal maturity and offers total amount of carbon in coal.

o The physical, chemical and behavioral properties of the macerals change with changes in rank.

• Type: is the unique composition of a coal.

o The proportion of different organic macerals and inorganic minerals.

• The rank and type of coal affect:

o the volume of thermogenic gas that has been generated,

o the capacity of the coal to retain the gas,

o the development of natural fractures (cleat) which are the permeability pathways,

o the physical properties and response to stimulation procedures.

Coalbed Methane 57

Characteristics

• Self-sourcing reservoir (source = reservoir).

• More than 50% by weight organic matter.

• Usually Type III OM.

• Primarily sorbed gas storage due to high organic matter content.

• Naturally-fractured, with fractures being the key to productivity.

• Stress and desorption sensitivity of fracture porosity and permeability.

• Simultaneous gas and water production (multi-phase flow).

• Typically dry gas.

Coalbed Methane 58

Production Profile
• The flow and production mechanism within CBM has more similarity to shale oil and gas
than to the production of oil or gas associated with tight rocks.

(From Ahmed and Meehan, 2016)

Coalbed Methane 59

Worldwide Resources

(Modified by Clarkson and Bustin, 2010, from Kuuskraa, 2009)

Coalbed Methane 60

U.S. CBM

(Modified from EIA, 2009)

 Coalbed Methane 61

U.S. Production History (1989–2013)

2000 1466 TCF in 2013

New Mexico
1500 Wyoming
CBM Production (TCF)

25%
23%
1000 Colorado
Oklahoma 4%
30%

500 Utah 3%

Virginia 6%
Other 5%
0 Alabama 4%
1988 1993 1998 2003 2008 2013 2018

(Data from EIA, 2013)

752 TCF in 1993

New Mexico
64%
Colorado
17% Alabama
14%

Other 5%
(Modified from USGS, 2009)
 Coalbed Methane 62

San Juan Basin

Fruitland TPS
CBM Example: San Juan Basin, Fruitland TPS Province

• Fruitland formation, part of Fruitland TPS, is

located between overlying Kirtland shale formation
B
and underlying Pictured Cliffs sandstone
formation.
A

• Consists of coal, carbonaceous shale, siltstone,

and sandstone.

• Sandstones in the Fruitland are minor reservoirs

for gas; most gas production is from CBM.
(Modified from USGS, 2002)

Kirtland (shale)

Fruitland (CBM)

Pictured Cliffs
(sandstone)

A 82 miles B
Natural Gas Hydrates 63

• An ice-like solid (clathrate)

composed of gas (guest)

molecules in a cage of water (host)

Natural Gas Hydrates 64

Water is a polar molecule …

• Water has a weak, partial negative charge in one region of the molecule (the
oxygen atom in water) and partial positive charge around its hydrogen atoms.
Natural Gas Hydrates 65

Water and hydrogen bonds …

• When water molecules are forced together,

positively- and negatively-charged regions
are attracted to the oppositely-charged
regions of nearby molecules. This force of
attraction (dotted line) is called a hydrogen
bond.

• Upon freezing, water crystallizes into

hexagonal patterns (lattices) due to the
presence of hydrogen bonding.
Natural Gas Hydrates 66

Water expands upon freezing …

Liquid water structure Ice structure

Solid water (ice) floats because its molecules take up more space in the
solid state than they do in the more chaotic liquid state (notice the empty
spaces within the ice structure).
Natural Gas Hydrates 67

• Hydrogen bond causes the water molecules to align in regular

(pentagonal or hexagonal) orientations at low temperature.

e.g. snowflakes

• The presence of certain molecules

(“guest molecules” of suitable size)
causes the aligned water molecules
e.g. hydrates
(“host molecules”) to wrap around the
guest (at conditions different than

(NETL/DOE)
freezing), and precipitate as a solid
phase (“hydrate”).
Natural Gas Hydrates 68

• Hydrate crystals have complex, three-

dimensional structures in which water molecules
entrap “guest molecules”.

• No bonding exists between the guest and

the host molecule. Guest molecule is free to
rotate inside the cage. This is not a chemical
compound! (it is better described as a solid
solution).

• 80% in weight of the structure is water. This is actually ice! Ice with a special appeal
to us: it has hydrocarbons trapped in it!

• This “ice” forms at temperatures well above water freezing point if pressure is high
enough.
(Ayala’s notes, 2016)
Natural Gas Hydrates 69

Four elements for hydrate formation

1) presence of water

2) presence of hydrate-forming natural gas molecules

3) high pressure

4) low temperature
Natural
Water
Gas

Low High
T P
Natural Gas Hydrates 70

Hydrate Structures
• Size of the cavity determines the largest molecule that the given hydrate
structure can host. The most common types of hydrate are Structure I & II.

Structure I Structure II
Accepts small Accepts larger
molecules (e.g. molecules (e.g.
Small cage Large cage Small cage Large cage
methane) (polyhedron (polyhedron propane) (polyhedron (polyhedron
w/12 sides) w/14 sides) w/12 sides) w/16 sides)

• Not all molecules form hydrates! It depends on their chemical nature and size.
• Larger gas molecules cannot form hydrates due to cavity (size) restrictions.
• Typical hydrate forming molecules in NG: C1 (S-I), C2 (S-I), C3 (S-II), iC4 (S-II),
N2 (S-II), H2S (S-I), CO2 (S-I)
• Non formers: nC4, C5, C6 and any larger paraffin hydrocarbon.
• Methane hydrate (S-I) is by far the most common naturally-occurring hydrate!
Natural Gas Hydrates 71

Energy Content and Resource

• 1 ft3 of hydrates give 160 SCF of gas (like a dry gas reservoir at 2500 psia or 16 MPa).

• Gas content of hydrates are 40 – 50 SCF/ft3 of rock (CBM ~ 8 –10 and tight gas ~ 5 –10).

• Two times of total carbon in coal, gas, oil, and bitumen:

Gas Hydrates
53%
Organic carbon
Atmosphere <1% distribution on earth
Fossil Fuels
Ocean 5%
27%

Land 15%

• Huge uncertainties in magnitude of resource and recoverable reserves.

Natural Gas Hydrates 72

Geological Setting Occurrence

• Two different setting

o Onshore in cold areas

o Where water meets the land

Natural Gas Hydrates 73

Equilibrium Curve

• Hydrate formation is clearly favored by low temperature and high pressure.

• The hydrate equilibrium curve is a critical piece of information.

• The locus of the P-T hydrate transition line is a function of composition of the natural
gas, type of hydrate, and presence of inhibitors in the water phase.

Hydrate
and/or Liquid HC
Hydrate free water & water
& Ice
Equilibrium
Hydrates

Pressure
curve
Pressure

Conditions at with gas No hydrates

HC gas & water and liquid water combine
HC Gas
to form hydrates
& Ice
Temperature
Temperature
Natural Gas Hydrates 74

Pressure and Temperature Conditions for Hydrates

Permafrost Ocean

(Modified from Amundsen and Landro, 2012)

Natural Gas Hydrates 75

Methods of Production from Hydrate Formations

1) Depressurization Equilibrium curve

Hydrates

Pressure
No hydrates

Temperature Equilibrium curve

2) Thermal stimulation
Hydrates

Pressure
No hydrates
Equilibrium curve
Temperature
Hydrates
3) Inhibitor injection
Pressure

No hydrates

Temperature