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Regional Geology Reviews

Series Editors
Roland Oberhänsli, Institute of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Potsdam,
Potsdam, Brandenburg, Germany
Francois Roure, Direction Geologie-Geochimie-Geophysique, Institut Francais du Petrole,
Rueil Malmaison Cedex, France
Dirk Frei, Department of Earth Sciences, University of the Western Cape, Bellville,
South Africa
The Geology of series seeks to systematically present the geology of each country, region and
continent on Earth. Each book aims to provide the reader with the state-of-the-art
understanding of a regions geology with subsequent updated editions appearing every 5 to
10 years and accompanied by an online “must read” reference list, which will be updated each
year. The books should form the basis of understanding that students, researchers and
professional geologists require when beginning investigations in a particular area and are
encouraged to include as much information as possible such as: Maps and Cross-sections, Past
and current models, Geophysical investigations, Geochemical Datasets, Economic Geology,
Geotourism (Geoparks etc), Geo-environmental/ecological concerns, etc.
Sami Khomsi • Francois Roure
Editors

Geology of North Africa

and the Mediterranean:
Sedimentary Basins
and Georesources

123
Editors
Sami Khomsi Francois Roure
Faculty of Earth Sciences, Geoexploration Direction Geologie-Geochimie-Geophysique
King Abdulaziz University Institut Francais du Petrole
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Rueil Malmaison Cedex, France

ISSN 2364-6438 ISSN 2364-6446 (electronic)

Regional Geology Reviews
ISBN 978-3-031-18746-9 ISBN 978-3-031-18747-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18747-6
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We dedicate this book to our dear colleague and friend Professor Mourad
Bedir who passed away in December 2022.
Mourad is a highly recognized Tunisian geoscientist in the domain of
subsurface geology and seismic interpretations. He was a pioneer in
subsurface basin analysis in Tunisia, especially in the southern Gafsa and
Sahel domains. He was also a very active member of the geologic maps
project under the direction of Professor Fouad Zargouni.
He presented in 1988 a highly viewed PhD on the subsurface geology of the
Sahel of Mahdia in the Atlasic Foreland Basin. Since then, he also presented
an important “These d’Etat” on sedimentary basins dynamics and reservoir
occurrences in the foreland domains of the Sahel and Southern Atlas. He was
one of the first Tunisian geologists involved in seismic interpretation. He
introduced also seismic stratigraphy in Tunisia.
Mourad published more than 70 peer-reviewed papers in international
journals and conference papers. He managed and contributed to some major
national and international works and research projects. He is one of the main
founders, together with professors Fakher Jamoussi, Ammar Melayeh,
Abdelkrim Charef, Mohamed ben Youssef, and Sami Khomsi, of the
Georesources Laboratory since 2000 . The laboratory is one of his main
scientific/administrative achievements. He was also General Manager
(Directeur General) of the CERTE for 6 years from 2006 to 2011.
Professor Mourad Bedir supervised more than 10 PhD on the subsurface
geology of Tunisia, involving both structural and stratigraphic interpretations
of geophysical records.
In such sad circumstances, we wish to present our sincere condolences to the
family of Professor Mourad Bedir; his wife Wafa; and his daughters, Myriam,
Malek, and Marwa.
We also present our condolences to the members of the Georesources
Laboratory, the CERTE, University of Carthage and all the colleagues who
worked or shared their research and time in the field or in the Lab with
Mourad.
We lost a great scientist and a highly beloved father and friend.
Sami Khomsi
Francois Roure
Preface

This book constitutes an overview of the sedimentary basins of North Africa and the
Mediterranean Sea. It comprises 11 original chapters covering a wide range of major regional
structures and geo-resources focusing on the tectonic and geodynamic evolution of several
regional Foreland and Fold-and-Thrust Belts (FFTB) such as the Rif-Tell and the Atlas. It is
subdivided into 4 main topics as follows:

First Thematic: Geodynamic Evolution of the Mediterranean

and Peri-Mediterranean Sedimentary Basins and Regional Geology

This theme is covered by two chapters:

1. The Mediterranean Sea: a laboratory to characterize micro-continental drift and oceanic

basin formation processes. By D. Aslanian et al,
2. Three inverted Tethyan margins in the Rif belt (Morocco) Review and discussion. By A.
Michard et al.

In the Chap. 1, Aslanian et al. discuss and present a synthesis of the sequence of deep
geodynamic processes involving the lithosphere that lead to the genesis of passive margins and
associated oceanic basins in the Mediterranean and Peri-Mediterranean realm. These processes
have major consequences on the thermal and tectonic evolution of the margin, as well as on
geodynamic reconstructions and tectonic evolution. They present different interpretations in
the Peri-Mediterranean basins, i.e., in the Eastern Mediterranean and Levant-Northern Arabia,
as well as in the Western Mediterranean, i.e., the Alboran, Algerian and Adria basins, the north
African paleo-Tethyan margin and the Sicily Strait. They use multiple approaches involving
interpretations of deep seismic experiments, regional geology and paleoteconic reconstruc-
tions. They also propose to conduct a wide-angle and multi-trace reflection seismic survey
along 5 regional profiles (171 deployments of ocean bottom seismometers -OBS-). These
profiles will allow determining the geometry, structure, and acoustic velocity of the different
segments of the Algerian Basin, the base of the crust—Moho—and underlying lithospheric
mantle.
In the Chap. 2, Michard et al. present and discuss a review of the westernmost Tethyan
margins in the Rif belt of Morrocco in the Western Mediterranean. They describe new results
on the remnants of the margins of the former basin as exposed in the Rif belt. In fact, the
external zones of the belt expose remnants of the southern Jurassic Ocean-Continent Tran-
sition (OCT) of the Maghrebian Tethys and a Triassic volcanic-rich segment of the
NW-African passive margin showing serpentine and gabbro slivers included in the accre-
tionary prism derived from the inversion of the African passive margin. The northern margin
of the Maghrebian Ocean is classically represented by the Dorsale Calcaire and pre-dorsalian

vii
viii Preface

Triassic-Paleogene units at the external border of the Internal Zones (Alboran Domain). Their
chapter based on important field works and regional reconstructions involving paleo-tectonic
margin evolution provides major results concerning the tectonic slivers sampled in the former
southern margin of the Maghrebian Tethys currently exposed in the External Rif accretionary
prism. From NE to SW, outcrops comprise serpentinites from the Late Jurassic OCT, and
gabbro bodies intruded during the Early Jurassic in the distal African margin, respectively.
These authors present also new results focusing on the Rif belt formed synchronously with the
Betic Cordillera (northern branch of the Gibraltar Arc) during the Cenozoic tectonic events
related to the Africa-Eurasia convergence associated with the subduction of the westernmost
Tethyan lithosphere of the Ligurian-Maghrebian basin. In this work, they describe the rem-
nants of the margins of the latter basin as exposed in the Rif belt. They integrate their
observations/interpretations into the regional geology, thus providing a brilliant overview
of the Western Tethyan margin.

Second Thematic: Stratigraphy and Sedimentary Record

This theme is covered by two chapters:

3. Stratigraphy and structure of the Tellian thrust sheets of northeastern Algeria and its
relationship with the Sellaoua and High Madjerda foreland: Souk Ahras case. By A.
Chabbi et al.,
4. Facies analyses and basin evolution of the Cretaceous-Tertiary rift-related sedimentary
succession of Haddat Ash Sham area, west central Arabian Shield, Saudi Arabia. By A.
A Messaed et al.

In Chap. 3, Chabbi et al. present new results on their works in the High Mejerda foreland
basin of the Algerian Tell. Their work is based on precise biostratigraphy and a set of new
structural transects which allow them to present a very large view of the structural architecture
of Souk Ahras Tellian thrust sheets and their relationship with the Sellaoua and High Medjerda
Valley. They recognize and present two contractional systems in the Souk Ahras region. The
northern thrust system displays an imbricate fan of thrusts involving local and intra-formational
décollement driven by the specific mechanical stratigraphy. Large Triassic bodies cannot be
geometrically linked to this thrust system and should rather record former salt tectonics. Their
structural transects allow visualizing the overall geometry of the thrust imbricates and the role
of Triassic salt involved in the deformations. Their work presents also new constraints not only
on the structural style but also on the biostratigraphy by new attributions.
In Chap. 4, Mesaed et al. describe the facies architecture and sedimentary basin evolution
of the rift-related Cretaceous-Tertiary succession of Haddat Ash Sham area, throughout the
Arabian Shield in Saoudi Arabia. They present fieldwork and on-site paleo-stress measure-
ments together with thin sections. They provide also lithostratigraphic logs with detailed facies
descriptions and field observations, thus allowing paleo-environmental reconstitutions within
the Paleogene marginal deposits of the Arabian Shield. Their interpretations are presented as
block diagrams showing the depositional models of the studied sedimentary successions of
Haddat Ash Sham area with the synsedimentary faulting events controlling the synsedimen-
tary depositional configurations.
Preface ix

Third Thematic: Tectonic Evolution, Structural Styles, and Oil/Gas Traps

of the North African Foreland Basins

This theme is covered by four chapters:

5. Petroleum system evaluation of Upper Cretaceous and Eocene plays, offshore and onshore
southern Pelagian Basin, Tunisia. By K. Gruber et al.,
6. Mesozoic and Cenozoic tectono-sedimentary evolution and subsidence history of
south-eastern Tunisia: Jeffara Basin petroleum prospectivity and hydrocarbon provinces.
By R. Khouni et al.
7. Evaluation of Ordovician and Triassic reservoirs in the Chotts area and implied burial and
thermal maturity history of their impregnating source rock. By Kraouia S. et al.
8. An overview of the Eastern Atlas folds and thrust belt and its foreland basin along the
North-South Axis and Chorbane-Ktitir platform: Surface /Subsurface major structures and
tectonic evolution (North Africa). By Mezni R. and Khomsi. S.

In Chap. 5, Gruber et al. present an overview of the petroleum system evaluation of Upper
Cretaceous and Eocene plays, offshore and onshore southern Pelagian Basin, Tunisia. Their
works give a state-of-the-art view of the oil traps potentialities in this important North African
oil and gas province. Their results allow new evaluation and further understanding of the risks
on key elements for hydrocarbon prospectivity in the basin in an attempt to highlight areas of
low risk for individual plays. Their work is based on a regional synthesis involving subsurface
maps with paleogeography and facies maps as well as a play sketch for the Pelagian Basin,
illustrating the individual reservoir distribution, seal and source occurrence and trapping styles
for the different plays present in the Pelagian Basin. Their works in the area constitute an
updated synthesis of the Cretaceous-Paleogene HC potential of the Pelagian province. Their
chapter is very rich in subsurface interpretations in terms of well-logging correlations and
seismic interpretations and subsurface maturity maps of the source rocks.
In Chap. 6, Khouni et al. give an overview of the Meso-Cenozoic sedimentary basin of the
Jeffara. Khouni et al. use seismic sections to describe and interpret the main structures. They
focus on the magnificent salt wall affecting the Meso-Cenozoic sedimentary sequences. They
also present subsidence curves and relate the subsidence changes to the major tectonic pulses
operating within their study area. They also integrate the Jeffara tectonic evolution in the more
general regional geology of the Pelagian-Sirt offshore basin. Their structural interpretations are
used to describe the main Meso-Cenozoic oil plays and propose some ways for future oil
exploration in this major petroleum province of the North African margin.
In Chap. 7, S. Karoui et al. present a complete study and assessment of the
Ordovician-Upper Silurian- Triassic petroleum system in the Chotts area, an important oil and
gas province limiting the Atlas belt and the Northern Saharan platform. Karaoui et al. present
the Upper Silurian Fegaguira Formation which is thought to be an active source rock in the
Chotts Basin of southern Tunisia. This major source rock horizon has probably contributed to
the HC charge of both underlying Ordovician and overlying Triassic clastic reservoirs in the
area. However, various debates are still held regarding either the source rock distribution and
thermal maturity but also the reservoir’s viability and extension. Their interpretations are
based upon subsurface data and play evaluation focusing on the characterization of Ordovician
and Triassic reservoirs through the integration of logging data of twenty wells drilled in the
southern Chotts Basin aiming to better delineate prolific levels. They also applied 1D Basin
Mod modeling to reconstruct the Fegaguira source rock burial and thermal histories and also to
estimate its hydrocarbon generation and expulsion potential versus time. Their work consti-
tutes a nice piece of work on the Pre-Triassic emergent petroleum systems at the scale of North
Africa, and opens a new exploration perspective for oil and gas exploration in the southern
part of the Atlas belt, at the northern edge of the Sahara platform.
x Preface

In Chap. 8, Mezni and Khomsi present a regional overview of the Eastern Atlas fold and
thrust belt and its foreland basin along the North-South Axis and Chorbane-Ktitir platform:
major surface /subsurface structures and tectonic evolution. This overview is based on surface
observations through the N-S Axis, northern branch of the South Atlas Front together with
presentations and interpretations of seismic sections with a focus on some regional key
structures such as the Chorbane anticline. The interpretations allow us to visualize and
characterize important diapiric structures related to the Triassic salt, thrusting and positive
inversions of the former inherited structures of the Jurassic-Cretaceous Tethyan rifting.

Fourth Thematic: Geology and Water Resources in Northern Africa: Case

Studies

This theme is covered by three chapters:

9. Aquifer structuring and hydrogeological investigation in North African regions using

geophysical methods: a case study of the aquifer system in the Kairouan plain (Central
Tunisia). By F. Lachaal et al.
10. Use of geochemical tracers for the characterization and quantification of water leakage at
the Joumine dam site, Tunisia. By F. Ben Hamouda et al.
11. Determination of suspended sediments using a nuclear probe in the Medjerda River,
Tunisia. By F. Ben Hamouda et al.

In Chap. 9, F. Lachaal et al. apply the subsurface geology methods to study the aquifer
structuring and hydrogeological investigation in North African regions using geophysical
methods: a case study of the aquifer system in the Kairouan plain (Central Tunisia). They
present a set of seismic sections to characterize the geometry of some subsurface reservoirs
focusing on Nasrallah-Chorbane-Sidi El Hani and Southern Cherichira, east of the Cherahil
mountain belt. They identify potential Upper Miocene-Quaternary reservoirs through seismic
interpretations. They also present a piezometric map of the western plain of Kairouan and they
characterize the piezometric fluctuations of Kairouan aquifer, thus evidencing a decrease in the
water level, in an area suffering constant aridity.
In Chap. 10, Ben Hamouda et al. present a study on the use of geochemical tracers for the
characterization and quantification of water leakage at the Joumine dam site, Northern
Tunisian Atlas. In fact, the Joumine reservoir, located in the northwest of Tunisia, has an
upstream watershed area of 418 km2 and the reservoir capacity is 130 Mm3. Shortly after the
first filling of the reservoir in 1987, an important water leak was detected at the dam toe
immediately after its construction. The emerging flow rate at the maximum level in the
reservoir was close to 500 L/s. An important sinkhole was detected in a limestone block
outcropping in the left abutment. The emergency work aimed at impermeabilizing the sinkhole
by the injection of mine tailings, resulting in a decrease lof the flow rate of the leakage to about
120 L/s. The flow rate of the leakage was monitored in two drains D1 and D2, located at the
dam toe. The current study by ben Hammouda constitutes a good example illustrating the
usefulness of geochemical tracer methods for obtaining more precise and rapid information on
the main features of water leakages, which, if ignored, would have resulted in greater repair
costs or could even have affected the stability of a dam.
In Chap. 11, Ben Hamouda et al. present a study on suspended sediments using nuclear
probe in the Medjerda River, which is the largest river in the northern Tunisian Atlas. Their
contribution focuses on the suspended sediment concentration in Medjerda River as detected
by the attenuation of radioactivity emitted from a radioactive source of Americium (241Am)
dipped in the water. This attenuation of Gamma rays emitted from the 241Am, due to the
presence of the sediments transported in great amounts during flood events, is measured using
a scintillation detector made up of a crystal of NaI. The suspended particles are measured in
Preface xi

Slouguia hydrometric station (NW) located on the Medjerda River. Their study allowed
measuring the number of particles that were transported by the river during the period of
observation in 2005, which is estimated at 778.103 tons, i.e., equivalent to a volume of 294.
103 m3.
This book was initiated in the fall of 2019, starting 2020 i.e., shortly before the first official
cases of the Pandemia. Despite numerous delays due to COVID impacts on both reviewers and
authors, we want to thank Springer for its continuous support, as well as the patience of the
authors.

The Editors
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Pr. Sami Khomsi
Rueil Malmaison Cedex, France Pr. Francois Roure
Contents

Part I First Thematic: Geodynamic Evolution of the Mediterranean

and Peri-Mediterranean Sedimentary Basins and Regional Geology
1 The Mediterranean Sea: A Laboratory to Characterize Micro-Continental
Drift and Oceanic Basin Formation Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3
Daniel Aslanian, Philippe Schnürle, Maryline Moulin, Mikael Evain,
Romain Pellen, Marina Rabineau, Alexandra Afilhado, Nuno Dias,
and Camille Noûs
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 The Geodynamic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Eastern Mediterranean (Levant Margin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 The Western Mediterranean (Alboran-Algerian-Adria Basins) . . . . 8
1.3 Pre-existing Wide-Angle and Reflection Seismic Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.1 Levant Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.2 The Western Mediterranean Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Similar Variations on Other Margins: The Proto-Oceanic Crust . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5 The ARCMAL Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6 The BasAlg Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.7 Expected Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2 The Westernmost Tethyan Margins in the Rif Belt (Morocco),
A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 31
André Michard, Ahmed Chalouan, Aboubaker Farah, and Omar Saddiqi
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2 Geological Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.2 External Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.3 Maghrebian Flyschs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.4 Internal Zones: The Alboran Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3 The Southern Margin of the Maghrebian Tethys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.1 Ocean-Continent Transition in the Eastern Rif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.2 Tracking the Southern Tethys Margin in the Central Mesorif . . . . 38
2.4 The Northern Margin of the Maghrebian Tethys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.2 Stratigraphic Record of the Rift-Drift Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.3 Maghrebian Tethys Conjugate Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5 The Beni Bousera Incipient Paleomargin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5.1 The Beni Bousera Marbles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5.2 Geodynamic Significance of the Beni Bousera Marbles . . . . . . . . 47
2.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.6.1 Paleogeography of the Alboran Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.6.2 Up-Down-Up Movements of the Subcontinental Peridotites . . . . . 50

xiii
xiv Contents

2.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Part II Second Thematic: Stratigraphy and Sedimentary Record

3 The Tellian Units, the Sellaoua Window and the High Medjerda
Foreland in the Souk Ahras Area, NE Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 63
Chabbi Abdallah, Chermiti Asma, Brusset Stéphane, Chouabbi Abdelmadjid,
and Benyoussef Mohamed
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.2 Geological Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3 Material and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.4 Stratigraphic Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.4.1 Ouled Driss Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.4.2 Boukebch–Dekma Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.4.3 Interpretation and Correlation of Stratigraphic Results . . . . . . . . . 71
3.5 Surface Structural Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.5.1 Ouled Driss Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.5.2 Boukebch–Dekma Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.6 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4 Facies Analyses and Basin Evolution of the Cretaceous-Tertiary
Rift-Related Sedimentary Succession of Haddat Ash Sham Area,
West Central Arabian Shield, Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 81
Ali Abdullatif Mesaed, Rushdi Jamel Taj, and Sami Khomsi
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.1.2 Aims and Methods of Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2 Geologic Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3 Facies Analyses and Basin Evolution of the Sedimentary Succession
of Haddat Ash Sham Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 83
4.3.1 Lower Fluvio-Lacustrine Clastic Member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 83
4.3.2 Shallow Marine Middle Oolitic Ironstones-Carbonate
Member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.3.3 Upper Tidal Flat-Fluvio-Lacustrine Clastic Member . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.4 Depositional History of the Study Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.5 Discussion and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Part III Third Thematic: Tectonic Evolution, Structural Styles,

and Oil/Gas Traps of the Northern Africa Foreland Basins
5 Petroleum System Evaluation of Upper Cretaceous and Eocene Plays,
Offshore and Onshore Southern Pelagian Basin, Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Karin Göttlich, Jean Rodriguez, Sabrine Mnii, Wala Mzoughi, Tam Lovett,
and Gabor Tari
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2 Petroleum Geology of the Southern Pelagian Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.2.1 Source Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2.2 Reservoir Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.2.3 Seal Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.3 Data Sets, Methodology and Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Contents xv

5.4 Conclusion of Evaluated Plays in the Southern Pelagian Basin . . . . . . . . . 134

5.4.1 Turonian Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.4.2 Turonian to Coniacian Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.4.3 Campanian to Maastrichtian Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.4.4 Ypresian Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.4.5 Lutetian to Bartonian Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6 Mesozoic and Cenozoic Tectonosedimentary Evolution and Subsidence
History of South-Eastern Tunisia: Jeffara Basin Petroleum Prospectivity
and Hydrocarbon Provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Radhouane Khouni, Mohamed Sabri Arfaoui, Mohamed Ghanmi,
and Fouad Zargouni
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.2 Lithostratigraphy and Major Unconformities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.3 Structural Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.3.1 Available Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.3.2 Syn-Sedimentary Deformations Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.4 Paleo-Stress Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.4.1 Paleozoic-Triassic Extensive Episode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.4.2 Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous Extensive Episode:
Syn-Rift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.4.3 Aptian-Albian Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.4.4 Upper Cretaceous Episode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.4.5 Paleocene-Eocene Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.4.6 Eocene–Oligocene: Atlasic Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.4.7 Oligocene–Miocene Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.4.8 The NNW-SSE Event (After Villafranchian Compression) . . . . . . 153
6.5 Synthesis and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.5.1 Structural System of the Jeffara Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.5.2 Structural Style of the Jeffara Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.5.3 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.6 Petroleum Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.6.1 Jeffara Basin: Structural Architecture and Stratigraphic
Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.6.2 Jeffara Basin Petroleum Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.6.3 Exploration History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.6.4 Evidence of Stratigraphic Traps and Potentiality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7 Ordovician–Upper Silurian–Triassic Petroleum System Assessment
in the Chotts Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
S. Kraouia, A. Ben Salem, M. Saidi, K. El Asmi,
and A. Mabrouk El Asmi
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.2 Geographical, Geological and Structural Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.3 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.4 Lithostratigraphic Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.5 Petrophysical Characterization of Reservoirs in the Study Area . . . . . . . . . 172
7.6 1D Modelling of the Fegaguira Formation in the Southern Region
of the Chotts Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
xvi Contents

7.7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8 An Overview of the Eastern Atlas Fold and Thrust Belt and Its Foreland
Basin Along the North–South Axis and Chorbane–Ktitir Platform: Surface/
Subsurface Major Structures and Tectonic Evolution (North Africa) . . . . . . . 187
Riadh Mezni and Sami Khomsi
8.1 Geological Framework of the Eastern Maghreb and Tunisian Atlas . . . . . . 187
8.2 Stratigraphy Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.2.1 Clansayesian–Cenomanian: Fahdene Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.2.2 Turonian–Santonian: Aleg Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.2.3 Campanian–Early Maastrichtian: Abiod Formation . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.2.4 Late Maastrichtian–Paleocene: El Haria Formation . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8.2.5 Ypresian (Early Eocene): Metlaoui Formation and Its
Equivalents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.2.6 Middle–Late Eocene: Souar Formation and Its Equivalents . . . . . 199
8.3 Structural Framework of the Eastern Atlas and Its Foreland Basins . . . . . . 200
8.3.1 The North–South Axis (NOSA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.3.2 The Sahel Foreland Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.3.3 Pre-Cretaceous Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.3.4 The Late Cretaceous–Eocene: Tectonic Inversion
and the First Atlas Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.3.5 Post-inversion Phase: Oligocene—Early Miocene Period . . . . . . . 205
8.3.6 Studied Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.4 Wells Data and Lithostratigraphic Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.4.1 Lithostratigraphic Correlation (C1): Kairouan–El Hancha . . . . . . . 206
8.4.2 Lithostratigraphic Correlation (C2): Nasrallah–El Hancha . . . . . . . 207
8.5 Presentation and Interpretations of Representative Seismic Sections . . . . . . 209
8.5.1 Section L1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.5.2 Section L2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.5.3 Section L3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.5.4 Section L5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
8.5.5 Seismic Section L6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
8.5.6 Section L9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
8.5.7 Section L10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
8.5.8 Section L11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
8.6 Subsurface Isochrone Maps of the Turonian–Coniacian,
the Campanian–Maastrichtian, and the Early Eocene Formations . . . . . . . . 219
8.6.1 Isochron Map of the Top of Turonian–Coniacian Horizon:
Bireno–Douleb Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
8.6.2 Isochron Map of the Top of the Abiod Horizon
(Campanian–Maastrichtian) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
8.6.3 Isochron Map of the Top of Ypresian: Bou Dabbous/El
Gueria Horizon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
8.7 Discussion: Structural Style and Integration in the Structural
Evolution of the Atlas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
8.7.1 Major Structural Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
8.7.2 Balanced and Restored Transects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8.7.3 The Triassic Salt Tectonics Related to the Major Faults
Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
8.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Contents xvii

Part IV Fourth Thematic: Geology and Water Resources in Northern

Africa: Cases Studies
9 Aquifer Structuring and Hydrogeological Investigation in North African
Regions Using Geophysical Methods: Case Study of the Aquifer System
in the Kairouan Plain (Central Tunisia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Fethi Lachaal, Hajeur Azaiez, Rahma Bruni, Hakim Gabtni, and Mourad Bedir
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
9.2 Geographical and Geological Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
9.3 Hydrogeology Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
9.4 Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
9.5 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
9.5.1 Gravity Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
9.5.2 Wireligne Logging Data Analysis and Aquifer Lithology . . . . . . . 251
9.5.3 Seismic Reflection Profiles Interpretation and Seismic
Stratigraphy Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
9.5.4 Electric Resistivity Tomography Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
9.5.5 Hydrodynamics of the Shallow Aquifer in the Kairouan
Plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
9.6 Conclusions and Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

10 Use of Geochemical Tracers for the Characterization and Quantification

of Water Leakage at the Joumine Dam Site, Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Mohamed Fethi Ben Hamouda, Souha Sari, and Luis Araguas-Araguas
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
10.2 Main Features of the Study Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
10.3 Material and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
10.4 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
10.4.1 Water Levels in the Dam Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
10.4.2 Electric Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
10.4.3 Determination of Magnitude of Groundwater Contribution . . . . . . 270
10.4.4 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
10.4.5 Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
10.4.6 Tracer Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
10.4.7 Stables Isotopes of Water (2H, 18O) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
10.4.8 Carbon 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
10.4.9 Tritium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
10.5 Conclusions and Suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
11 Determination of Suspended Sediments Using Nuclear Probe
in the Medjerda River, Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Mohamed Fethi Ben Hamouda, Mohamed Mondher Rejeb, Noura Azizi,
and Mohamed Hedi Trabelsi
11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
11.2 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
11.2.1 Principle of a Nuclear Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
11.2.2 Determination of the Water Depth in the River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
11.2.3 Determination of the Flow Rate of the Wadi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
11.2.4 Determination of the Concentration of Suspended Elements . . . . . 280
xviii Contents

11.2.5 Determination of the Solid Flow Gs of the Elements

in Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
11.2.6 Determination of the Amount of Sediment Crossing
the Section of the River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
11.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
11.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

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