Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 172–185

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Ore Geology Reviews

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Fractal modeling and fry analysis of the relationship between structures and T
Cu mineralization in Saveh region, Central Iran
Mirko Ahmadfaraja, Mirsaleh Mirmohammadia, , Peyman Afzalb, Amir Bijan Yasrebic,d,
⁎

Emanuel John Carranzae

a
School of Mining Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
b
Department of Petroleum and Mining, South Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
c
Department of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), Tehran, Iran
d
College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, Computation Geomechanics Research Group, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
e
University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, South Africa

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The Saveh region in the middle part of the Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt (UDMB), Central Iran, contains
Structural control several Cu mineralization and deposits that may have been localized by structural controls in the region. Along
Cu vein-style the major thrust fault, the Saveh region comprises intrusive bodies associated with various Cu occurrences and
Cu manto-style deposits. The NW-SE major faults, especially the Khalkhab and Koshk-e-Nosrat faults on the Iranian plates,
Fractal modeling
created a sigmoid space for the emplacement of plutons during middle Eocene. The Cu occurrences/deposits are
Fry analysis
Saveh
either vein- or manto-style, with vein-style being dominant. The lineaments and faults in the Saveh region were
mapped using precise local data including remote sensing (Landsat ETM+), digital elevation models (DEM),
geomagnetic airborne images, geological maps and field observations. The relationship between Cu occurrences/
deposits and geological structures (the latter being described by a lineament factor (LF) or fracture density) is
important for focusing of ore-forming fluids and mineralization. This was analyzed by concentration-area (C-A)
fractal modeling and by Fry analysis. The results of the C-A fractal modeling and Fry analysis indicate that the
vein-style Cu mineralization is associated with major NW-SE-trending faults, especially the Khalkhab and Koshk-
e-Nosrat faults. Manto-style Cu mineralization in the Saveh region is associated with minor NE-SW-trending
faults.

1. Introduction characterized by hypogene dissemination and veins of Cu sulfides are

Magmatic and hydrothermal ore deposits typically exhibit spatial
relationships with faults and other crustal structures and discontinuities
(Betts et al., 2004; Bierlein et al., 2006; Carranza and Hale, 2002a,b;
Chernicoff et al., 2002; Kerrich et al., 2005; Mohebi et al., 2015; Safari
et al., 2015; Sillitoe, 1972). The spatial correlation of different types of
magmatic and hydrothermal ore deposits with structural features is the
result of emplacement of mineralization because faults/fractures play a
significant role in providing pathways for magmatic and ore-forming
fluids (Adib et al., 2017; Austin and Blenkinsop, 2009; Cox et al., 2001;
Chernicoff et al., 2002; Groves and Bierlein, 2007; Niemeyer and
Munizaga, 2008).
Porphyry and epithermal Cu deposits are the main resources for
copper production in the world and porphyry systems are associated
with to intrusions rocks. Disseminated or manto-style Cu mineralization
controlled by faults in andesitic, tuff, ignimbrite, pyroclastic rocks and a
great range of other volcanic rocks (Carranza and Hale, 2002b; Duuring
et al., 2009; Mirzaie et al., 2015; Mohebi et al., 2015; Richards, 2013,
2003; Safari et al., 2015).
The Urumieh-Dokhtar Magmatic Belt (UDMB) is the most essential
setting for magmatic and hydrothermal Cu deposits in Iran (Hezarkhani
and Williams-Jones, 1998; Hezarkhani, 2006; Richards et al., 2012;
Shafiei et al., 2009; Zarasvandi et al., 2013). This belt is 1500 km long
from the NW to SE and considered by subduction-related calc–alkaline
rocks (Berberian and King, 1981). Many different styles of Cu deposits/
mineralizations including porphyry-, epithermal- and manto-styles are
located in the UDMB, such as Sarcheshmeh (Waterman and Hamilton,
1975; Boomeri et al., 2010), Sungun (Hezarkhani and Williams-Jones
1998; Calagari, 2003), Meyduk (Aliani et al., 2009), Kahang (Afzal
et al., 2012; Yasrebi et al., 2013), Mari (Maghfouri et al., 2017),

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: m.mirmohammadi@ut.ac.ir (M. Mirmohammadi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.01.026
Received 13 November 2017; Received in revised form 15 January 2019; Accepted 27 January 2019
Available online 29 January 2019
0169-1368/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.
M. Ahmadfaraj, et al.
Narbaghi (Fazli and Ghaderi, 2014), Touzlar (Heidari et al., 2015) and
Chah-Mesi (Ebadi Rajoli et al., 2015; Cooke et al., 2005).
Many mathematical methods such as fractal modeling (Mandelbrot,
1983) and fry analysis (Fry, 1979) have been proposed for describing
spatial distribution of ore deposits and their spatial relationships with
structures (e.g., faults and ring structures). These methods have been
used by many researchers to investigate the spatial pattern of known
deposits’ occurrences for delineation of gold mineralized zones and for
understanding of geological events (Afzal et al., 2013; Carranza and
Sadeghi, 2014; Carranza, 2009; Miguel Haddad-Martim et al., 2018,
2017).
This research aims to determine the spatial relationship between
structural features and Cu occurrences/deposits in the SW part of the
Saveh 1:250,000 scale map sheet, in the middle part of the UDMB,
central Iran, by using concentration-area (C-A) fractal modeling (Cheng
et al., 1994) and Fry analysis (Fry, 1979). Linear structural features,
specifically faults, were extracted and interpreted from aeromagnetic
and remote sensing data, digital elevation model (DEM), geological
maps and field observations. A map for structure density was generated
and subsequently classified using the C-A fractal model. The main
trends in the spatial pattern of Cu occurrences/deposits were detected
via Fry analysis. The main structural zones were compared and corre-
lated with the known existing Cu occurrences and deposits in the study
area.
2. Geological setting
2.1. Regional geology
The area is situated in the SW part of the Saveh 1:250,000 scale
geological map (Fig. 1) in the central part of the UDMB and is aligned
parallel to the Koshk-e-Nosrat and Saveh faults with NW-SE trend. The
UDMB formed during the closure of the Neotethyan Ocean between
Eurasia and Arabia plates (Dercourt et al., 1986; Agard et al., 2007;
Rezaei-Kahkhaei et al., 2011). This region includes calc-alkaline rocks
within middle-Eocene volcano-sedimentary sequences intruded by
plutonic rocks during Oligocene to Miocene (Fig. 1; Aghazadeh et al.,
2015; Keshavarzi et al., 2014; Rezaei-Kahkhaei et al., 2011). There are
many massive outcrops and terranes of volcano-plutonic rocks as well
as many large-scale structural features specifically faults with NW-SE
and N-S trends, which crosscut the volcanic and sedimentary rocks in
this region.
The basement rocks in the central part of the UDMB include infra-
Cambrian-Paleozoic sedimentary rocks overlain by Mesozoic strata,
which are overlapped/intruded by Cenozoic intrusive rocks
(Aghazadeh et al., 2015). The Cenozoic magmatic activities were se-
parated into the following two major stages (Aghazadeh et al., 2015):
(1) intensive Paleogene volcanism followed by emplacement of Oligo-
cene-Miocene intrusive massifs (Berberian and Berberian, 1981;
Haschke et al., 2010; Honarmand et al., 2014); and (2) late Miocene-
Quaternary volcanism (Emami, 2000). The Paleogene magmatism
happened during the Eocene and was associated with Neo-Tethys sub-
duction. The Neogene magmatism are related to slab break-off and
thermal re-equilibration in a post-collisional tectonic setting (Omrani
et al., 2008).
Plutonic rock types in the central part of the UDMB have a variety of
lithological units including granite and quartz diorite, granodiorite,
monzodiorite and gabbro. These intrusive rocks occur widely within the
study area (Rezaei-Kahkhaei et al., 2011). The central part of the UDMB
hosts porphyry, epithermal, and manto-style metallic occurrences/de-
posits, especially for Cu, Au and related elements such as Kahang (Afzal
et al., 2010; Yasrebi et al., 2013) Dali (Ayati et al., 2008, 2013), Zefreh
(Shahraki et al., 2009), Khankishi and Narbaghi (Fazli and Ghaderi,
2014). Radiometric dating by Zarasvandi et al. (2005) (K/Ar) and Ayati
et al. (2013) (40Ar/39Ar) revealed that the known Cu porphyry deposits
were generated between 16 and 21 Ma.
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Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 172–185
2.2. Local geology
All outcrops in the region are associated with Cenozoic and older
intrusive rocks (Fig. 2). Most of outcrops are related to upper-middle
Eocene volcanic units, which have been covered by significant sedi-
mentary rocks. The plutonic rocks in the central part of the region
consist of quartz monzodiorite, quartz monzogabbro, granite and
granodiorite, which are medium-to high-K, metaluminous and I-type
with 52–71 wt% SiO2 (Rezaei-Kahkhaei et al., 2011). Felsic magmatic
rocks, which include dacite, latite and ignimbrite, exist in the eastern
part of the region. Metamorphic rocks have a trend towards the Sa-
nandaj-Sirjan zone (to the east) and have a tectonic contact with the
Eocene volcanic rocks of the UDMB. Although the basal contact of the
slate-phyllite unit is tectonized and not well-exposed, the unit is thrust,
in the study area, over Eocene volcanic rocks and Oligo-Miocene sedi-
mentary rocks (Davarpanah, 2009). Over poorly exposed Tertiary
basement rocks, which are metamorphic in the SW and sedimentary in
the W and NW, are outcrops of important volcanic and sedimentary
series of Tertiary age with lower layers cut by intrusive plutonic rocks
(Caillat et al., 1978). The SW part of the 1:250,000 scale Saveh geo-
logical map sheet is characterized by exposures of Eocene rocks how-
ever; older Upper Triassic, Lower Jurassic and Cretaceous successions
are locally exposed in some parts of this region (Caillat et al., 1978).
The most considerable volcanic activity that has happened in the Eo-
cene includes a wide spectrum of rock types such as andesite, trachyte,
trachyandesite, rhyolite, rhyodacite, ignimbrite and acidic tuffs and
intrusive rocks (granite, granodiorite, quartz monzodiorite, and quartz
monzogabbro). Displacement by pressure faulting has completely dis-
rupted the volcanic units (Rezaei-Kahkhaei et al., 2011). Numerous Cu
occurrences and deposits in the Saveh region occur within the middle
part of the UDMB (Fig. 2) including various types of Cu mineralization.
The most important Cu occurrences and deposits in the study area are
presented in Table 1. There are many silicic veins/veinlets within high
amounts of Cu minerals in the volcano-plutonic bodies hosted in faults.
As a result, the stratigraphic age of the host rocks for Cu deposits/oc-
currences is younger than the faults in the study area, as depicted in
Table 1.
2.3. Structural setting
The Saveh region is situated in a zone where structural directions of
the central Iran range vary from N130E to N100E (Caillat et al., 1978).
The general trend of the geological units in this area is NW-SE along the
UDMB, which is a part of the Alpine–Himalayan orogenic and me-
tallogenic belt. The Pyrenean and late-Alpine orogenic phases played an
integral role in the development of the Alpine–Himalayan belt and the
UDMB as well as the development of regional structures and main faults
in the UDMB. This belt hosts many magmatic and hydrothermal de-
posits (Aghazadeh et al., 2015; Berberian and King, 1981; Caillat et al.,
1978; Stampfli, 2000; Stocklin, 1974). In the SW portion of the Saveh
1:250,000 scale map, there are three sets of major and minor faults,
which are related to two different generations as follows (Caillat et al.,
1978; Rezaei-Kahkhaei et al., 2011): (1) E-W trending faults are asso-
ciated with the Pyrenean orogenic phase. These faults are apparently
the oldest generation of faults in the region and have been offset by
younger faults. The length of the displacement of the E-W trending
faults by younger faults is more than decameters in some parts. (2)
Faults with NW-SE and NE-SW trends have been formed in the last
phase of the Alpine cycle. These faults cut across various formations
with significant length and have a great abundance compared to other
existing faults in the area. All these faults are shown on the published
geological map; however, due to multiplicity only some faults have
been selected for this study (Fig. 3, Table 2) based on their significant
structural role in the emplacement of intrusive bodies (Morley et al.,
2009; Rezaei-Kahkhaei et al., 2011).
Based on previous works in the Saveh region, the main faults
M. Ahmadfaraj, et al.
Fig. 1. Study area location (blue rectangle) in the UDMB (Alavi, 1994). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to
the web version of this article.)
specifically the Koshk-e-Nosrat, Khalkhab and Saveh faults occurred in
the Eocene (Morley et al., 2009; Orang et al., 2015; Rezaei-Kahkhaei
et al., 2011). Moreover, igneous rocks were emplaced during late Eo-
cene and Oligocene and, therefore, are younger than the main faults
(Caillat et al., 1978; Davarpanah, 2009). Mineralized vein/veinlets in
the different minor faults indicate that the ore deposits/occurrences are
epigenetic because silicic vein/veinlets are present within sulfide ores
which imply that the silicic vein/veinlets are epigenetic with respect to
the ores, therefore, the mineral veins are younger than the host's stone
(Rezaei et al., 2015).
Generally, the basin-margin thrusts have trends of WNW–ESE to
NW–SE. In the study area, a thrust sheet composed predominantly of
Eocene volcanic was transported to the SW onto the NE margin of the
basin during late Upper Red Formation time (Morley et al., 2009). In
the Saveh region, the Koshk-e-Nosrat faults (Fig. 3) form outcrop geo-
metries that are straight to gradually curvilinear, which are somewhat
diverted by topography, representing that they are steeply dipping
(Morley et al., 2009). Along the Koshk-e-Nosrat fault, a large fold in the
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Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 172–185
Eocene volcanic rocks is repeated on both sides of this fault by a dextral
offset of about 7–11 km (Morley et al., 2009; Fig. 2).
During the lower Oligocene, an important dextral faulting system,
which is observable in Iran, produced a compression in the Saveh re-
gion. This phenomenon brought to the end of the evolution of Eocene-
rifting, which was replaced by plutonic intrusive massifs in a large
portion of the Central Iranian range. These intrusions and tectonic
movements were responsible for the hydrothermal alteration along
joints, fractures and faults, and mineralization and thermo-meta-
morphism of a part of these Eocene volcanic sequence (Caillat et al.,
1978). During the Oligocene, extensional tectonics prevailed in the
Saveh region resulting in the division of basement into a new horst-
graben system. These dislocation movements brought about an en-
hanced volcanic activity (Caillat et al., 1978). At the end of the Mio-
cene, important dextral-faults, which are observable all over Iran, re-
activated the great faults and resulted in preferential folding of the
important Miocene sedimentary rock series (Caillat et al., 1978).
M. Ahmadfaraj, et al.
Fig. 2. Geological map of the SW part of Saveh region and Cu occurrences/deposits shown by stars for vein- and manto-style deposits (see Table. 1 for description).
Map projection: NUTM, WGS84 (Caillat et al., 1978).
3. Material and methods
Geological structures in the Saveh region were detected by applying
directional filters to Landsat ETM+ imagery and digital elevation
models (DEM) with a pixel size of 10 m, and were also extracted from
1:250,000 and 1:100,000 scale geological maps as well as field mea-
surements. Analytical hill shading is a technique for generating shaded
topographic images of surface elevations to detect lineaments based on
simulating of the effect of natural light on the earth’s surface. These
data were used for determination of the lineament factor (LF), which
describes the abundance of structures in the study area. Based on the
final map of integrated lineaments obtained from satellite imagery,
DEM, aeromagnetic, analog and digital geological maps, a lineament
factor (lineament abundance) map portraying frequency, lengths and
intersections of lineaments was generated to study the Cu mineraliza-
tion styles in the study area. Following this, a C-A fractal modeling was
used to classify the LF in the study area. Fry analysis (Fry, 1979) was
the utilized to identify the distribution and spatial relationships be-
tween high fracture zones and regional lineaments. The Cu occur-
rences/deposits dataset was compiled from the internal reports of the
experts and private companies and Geological Survey of Iran. The re-
sults obtained by fractal modeling and Fry analysis were compared with
the locations of known Cu occurrences/deposits based on distance be-
tween the central point of high intensity LF and Cu occurrence loca-
tions. Finally, the Cu occurrences/deposits were classified as vein- or
manto-style.
Areas with high intensity LF were converted into polygons and their
respective central points were obtained and the spatial relationship and
distances of these central points from the known Cu deposits/occur-
rences were analyzed. Distances between high intensity LFs and Cu
occurrences/deposits were classified into 500 m intervals (maximum
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Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 172–185
3000 m) using ArcMap software. Different numbers of vein- and manto-
styles were determined in the different LF classes for the determination
of relationship between structures and mineralization styles. Based on
the results obtained in the previous steps and the distances between
central points of high intensity LF polygon for the known Cu occur-
rences/deposits, the Cu mineralization genetic styles (vein- or manto-
styles) were determined by the number of Cu mineralization in each
distance class. This categorization was determined based on 1 × 1 km2
cell size and distance classification of high intensity LF from Cu oc-
currences/deposits in 500 m intervals.
3.1. Fractal modeling
Fractal geometry, established by Mandelbrot (1983), is a significant
branch of nonlinear mathematics and has been put into practice in
many geological fields since the 1980 s. Fractal modeling has been used
for classification of various data in the geosciences (Agterberg, 1995;
Zuo et al., 2009; Carranza and Sadeghi, 2010; Afzal et al., 2012; Afzal
et al., 2013; Ahmadfaraj et al., 2016). Various fractal methods have
been improved and applied in the geosciences to separate geological
populations, e.g., concentration–area (C–A) by Cheng et al. (1994),
concentration–distance (C–D) by Li et al. (2003), concentration–volume
(C–V) by Afzal et al. (2011), concentration–number (C–N) by Agterberg
(1995), Mandelbrot (1983) and density-volume (D-V) by Yasrebi et al.
(2014). Fractal analysis have been carried out for classification of dif-
ferent regional variables (such as ore grade and geophysical para-
meters) based on the geological, geochemical and mineralogical char-
acteristics in different ore deposit types (Afzal et al., 2012, 2013;
Carranza and Sadeghi, 2010; Carranza, 2009Gonçalves et al., 2001;
Gumiel et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2010; Zuo et al., 2009). Log–log plots
via fractal analysis are used to explain and classify geological
 Table 1
Geological and mineralization characteristics of the Cu occurrences and deposits in the study area.
No. Name X Y Stratigraphic Age Ore elements Descriptive Style Host Rocks References

1 Abbas Abad Favbolaghi 463,228 3,887,569 Eocene Cu Manto Crystal and breccia tuff Amidi et al. (2005), Zagros Mes Sazan Co (2014)
M. Ahmadfaraj, et al.

2 Abbas Abad-1 480,581 3,899,963 Eocene-Quaternary Cu, (Ag, Pb) Manto Latitic-andesitic tuff (Zamin Kavan Alvand Co (2014)
3 Abbasabad-2 480,452 3,898,790 Eocene-Quaternary Cu, (Ag) Vein Gabbro Diorite-Granite (Zamin Kavan Alvand Co (2014)
4 Chargol-1 478,554 3,898,537 Eocene Cu Manto Latite-Andesite-Tuff Mes Poian Alborz Co (2015), Saeedi and Gholami (2011)
5 Chargol-2 478,403 3,897,370 Eocene Cu, (Ag) Manto Latite-Andesite-Tuff (Mes Poian Alborz Co (2015), Saeedi and Gholami (2011)
6 Goltapeh 468,935 3,898,141 Eocene Cu Manto Latite-Andesite Saeedi and Gholami (2011)
7 Jaafar Abad-1 447,423 3,890,488 Oligo-Miocene Cu (Mo, Au) Vein Granodiorite-Tonalite Azarm et al. (2001)
8 Jaafar Abad-2 449,725 3,889,694 Oligo-Miocene Cu , Au Vein Granite Azarm et al. (2001)
9 Koh Zireh-1 478,228 3,893,054 Oligo-Miocene Cu, (Mo) Vein Granodiorite Saeedi and Gholami (2011)
10 Koh Zireh-2 478,422 3,892,810 Oligo-Miocene Cu, (Mo) Vein Granodiorite Saeedi and Gholami (2011)
11 Koshk-e Bahram-1 475,460 3,890,481 Eocene–Oligocene Cu Manto Andesite-Andesitic basaltic-Tuff Parsi Kan Kav Co (2013), Haghparast et al. (2015)
12 Koshk-e Bahram-2 474,779 3,889,353 Eocene–Oligocene Cu Manto Andesite-Andesitic basaltic-Tuff Parsi Kan Kav Co (2013), Haghparast et al. (2015)
13 Koshk-e Bahram-3 473,106 3,890,326 Eocene–Oligocene Cu Manto Andesite-Andesitic basaltic-Tuff Parsi Kan Kav Co (2013), Haghparast et al. (2015)
14 Narbaghi-1 459,096 3,887,945 Oligo-Miocene Cu Vein Granodiorite Amidi et al., 2005, Zagros Mes Sazan Co (2014), Fazli and Ghaderi (2014)
15 Narbaghi-2 460,716 3,883,958 Eocene Cu , Ag Manto Trachyandesite Zagros Mes Sazan Co (2014), Fazli and Ghaderi (2014), Saeedi and
Gholami (2011)
16 Narbaghi-3 460,220 3,883,589 Eocene Cu , Ag Manto Trachyandesite Zagros Mes Sazan Co (2014), Fazli and Ghaderi (2014), Saeedi and
Gholami (2011)
17 Narbaghi-4 461,722 3,882,499 Eocene Cu , Ag Manto Dark pyroxene andesite-Andesitic Zagros Mes Sazan Co (2014), Fazli and Ghaderi (2014), Saeedi and
basaltic Gholami (2011)
18 Takht-e-Chaman 456,242 3,892,556 Eocene Cu Manto Porphyritic andesite Khoei et al. (1999), Amidi et al. (2005)
19 Zalibolagh-1 463,573 3,891,599 Eocene Cu Manto Porphyritic andesite Amidi et al. (2005), Haeri et al. (2015), Khoei et al. (1999)
20 Zalibolagh-2 469,036 3,888,413 Eocene Cu Manto Dark pyroxene andesite-Andesitic Haeri et al. (2015), Khoei et al. (1999)
basaltic
21 Zarandiyeh-1 460,188 3,900,810 Eocene–Oligocene Cu Vein Rhyolite-rhyodacite Pars Gostaran Aghigh Co (2014)

176
22 Zarandiyeh-2 460,230 3,900,728 Eocene–Oligocene Cu Vein Rhyolite-rhyodacite Pars Gostaran Aghigh Co (2014)
23 Zarandiyeh-3 460,213 3,900,328 Eocene–Oligocene Cu, (Au) Vein Monzodiorite Pars Gostaran Aghigh Co (2014)
24 Zarandiyeh-4 460,631 3,899,880 Eocene–Oligocene Cu Vein Gabbro-Diorite Pars Gostaran Aghigh Co (2014)
25 Zarandiyeh-5 460,932 3,899,877 Eocene–Oligocene Cu Vein Andesite Pars Gostaran Aghigh Co (2014)
26 Zarandiyeh-6 460,929 3,899,756 Eocene–Oligocene Cu Vein Andesite Pars Gostaran Aghigh Co (2014)
27 Zarandiyeh-7 460,741 3,899,597 Eocene–Oligocene Cu, (Fe) Vein Andesite Pars Gostaran Aghigh Co (2014)
28 Zarandiyeh-8 460,768 3,897,979 Eocene–Oligocene Cu, (Fe) Vein Andesite Pars Gostaran Aghigh Co (2014)
29 Zarandiyeh-9 460,747 3,899,724 Eocene–Oligocene Cu, (Fe) Vein Andesite Pars Gostaran Aghigh Co (2014)
30 Dinar Abad 430,784 3,891,266 Eocene Fe, Cu Vein Andesite-Rhyodacite tuff (Behniya et al. (2000), Consulting Engineers Chekan Co, 1996a)
31 Peyghambar-1 424,572 3,898,889 Eocene Cu Vein Andesite-Basaltic breccia-Tuff Rezaei (2015)
32 Peyghambar-2 424,676 3,898,629 Eocene Cu Vein Andesite-Basaltic breccia-Tuff Rezaei (2015)
33 Peyghambar-3 424,376 3,898,804 Eocene Cu Vein Andesite-Basaltic breccia-Tuff Rezaei (2015)
34 Kalak Bala-1 417,599 3,898,537 Eocene–Oligocene Cu, (Fe) Vein Granodiorite-Andesite-Basaltic breccia- Parsi Kan Kav Co (2010), Ghalamghash et al., 1998)
Tuff
35 Kalak Bala-2 417,315 3,898,824 Eocene–Oligocene Cu, (Fe) Vein Granodiorite-Andesite-Basaltic breccia- Parsi Kan Kav Co (2010), Ghalamghash et al. (1998)
Tuff
36 Kalak Bala-3 417,720 3,899,454 Eocene–Oligocene Cu, (Fe) Vein Granodiorite-Andesite-Basaltic breccia- Parsi Kan Kav Co (2010), Ghalamghash et al. (1998)
Tuff
37 Kan Zar 433,771 3,891,860 Eocene Cu, (Fe, Au, Ag) Vein Andesite-Andesitic basaltic-Tuff Azarm et al. (2001); Consulting Engineers Chekan Co, 1996a and b)
38 Khalkhab-1 416,489 3,891,202 Eocene–Oligocene Cu, Pb, Zn, (Ag, Sb, Vein Granodiorite-Andesite-Tuff Zharph Kavan Pasargad Co (2014)
Au)
39 Khalkhab-2 412,982 3,892,090 Eocene–Oligocene Cu, Pb, Zn, (Ag, Sb, Vein Granodiorite-Andesite-Tuff Parsi Kan Kav Co (2010), Ghalamghash et al. (1998)
Au)
40 Khalkhab-3 412,275 3,892,320 Eocene–Oligocene Cu, Pb, Zn, (Ag, Sb, Vein Granodiorite-Andesite-Tuff Parsi Kan Kav Co (2010), Ghalamghash et al. (1998)
Au)
41 Khalkhab-4 411,898 3,892,601 Eocene–Oligocene Cu, Pb, Zn, (Ag, Sb, Vein Granodiorite-Andesite-Tuff Parsi Kan Kav Co (2010), Ghalamghash et al. (1998)
Au)
42 Kohe Zagheh-1 431,375 3,895,469 Eocene–Oligocene Cu Vein Basaltic breccia-Andesite-Tuff- Ghalamghash et al. (1998)
Granodiorite
(continued on next page)
Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 172–185
 Table 1 (continued)

No. Name X Y Stratigraphic Age Ore elements Descriptive Style Host Rocks References

43 Kohe Zagheh-2 431,798 3,895,138 Eocene–Oligocene Cu, (Fe) Vein Basaltic breccia-Andesite-Tuff- Ghalamghash et al. (1998)
Granodiorite
M. Ahmadfaraj, et al.

44 Kohe Zagheh-3 434,419 3,893,352 Eocene–Oligocene Cu, (Fe) Vein Basaltic breccia-Andesite-Tuff- Ghalamghash et al. (1998)
Granodiorite
45 Kurdkhalaj 435,226 3,895,331 Eocene-Quaternary Cu, Au, Fe Vein Granite-Andesite Zarmesh group (2014a)
46 Mohammad Bagher-1 411,019 3,896,513 Eocene–Oligocene Cu Vein Basaltic breccia-Andesite-Tuff Ghalamghash et al. (1998)
47 Mohammad Bagher-2 410,066 3,896,514 Eocene–Oligocene Cu Vein Basaltic breccia-Andesite-Tuff Ghalamghash et al. (1998)
48 Niaz (Yuzak) 429,033 3,886,067 Paleocene-Eocene Fe, Cu Vein Granodiorite-Andesite (Consulting Engineers Chekan Co, 1996a, Company Zharph Kavan
Pasargad (2015)
49 Rangraz-1 449,006 3,892,518 Eocene Cu, (Fe, Mn) Vein Andesite-Andesitic basaltic Zarmesh group (2014b)
50 Rangraz-2 448,314 3,892,288 Eocene Cu, (Mo, Au) Manto Lithic Andesite-Lithic Tuff Zarmesh group (2014b)
51 Rangraz-3 446,909 3,892,908 Eocene Cu, (Mo) Vein Andesite Latite Zarmesh group (2014b)
52 Rangraz-4 446,979 3,893,325 Eocene Cu, (Mo) Manto Lithic Andesite-Lithic Tuff Zarmesh group (2014b)
53 Rangraz-5 446,721 3,893,338 Eocene Cu, (Mo) Manto Lithic Andesite-Lithic Tuff Zarmesh group (2014b)
54 Rangraz-6 447,558 3,893,369 Eocene Fe, Cu Vein Andesite Zarmesh group (2014b)
55 Rangraz-7 446,735 3,893,186 Eocene Cu Vein Lithic Andesite-Lithic Tuff Zarmesh group (2014b)
56 Siligerd 433,376 3,890,630 Eocene Cu Vein Andesite-Tuff Azarm et al. (2001), Consulting Engineers Chekan Co, 1996a, b)
57 Sirjand (khaneh Zaar) 434,722 3,889,913 Eocene–Oligocene Cu Vein Porphyritic andesite Khoei et al. (1999), Behniya et al. (2000)
58 Torshak 408,439 3,894,877 Eocene–Oligocene Cu, (Au) Vein Gabbro Diorite-Andesite-Tuff Kavosh Kani Mohajer Co (2013)
59 Vidar-1 414,549 3,912,145 Eocene-Quaternary Au, (Fe, Mn, Cu) Vein Andesite Zarmesh group (2014c)
60 Vidar-2 415,099 3,912,992 Eocene-Quaternary Ag, Au, Cu Vein Andesite Zarmesh group (2014c)
61 Vidar-3 416,266 3,914,708 Eocene-Quaternary Cu Vein Andesite Zarmesh group (2014c)
62 Vidar-4 415,980 3,911,993 Eocene-Quaternary Fe ,Cu Vein Andesite Zarmesh group (2014c)
63 Yekeh Bagheh Bala 417,041 3,891,195 Oligo-Miocene Cu, (Sb, Ag, As) Vein Granodiorite (Consulting Engineers Chekan Co, 1996a, b)
64 Chelesban 399,871 3,908,810 Eocene Cu, Au Vein Ignimbrite with trachytic to rhyolitic –

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Fig. 3. Simplified structural map of the Saveh region, showing locations of important faults (see Table 2 for further information).

Table 2
Details of important faults in the study area.
Fault name Strike Length (Km) Dip Fault type Reference

Abbas Abad 90–130 22 – Dextral strike-slip Amidi et al. (2005)

Takht-e-Chaman zone 135 9.5 90 Dextral strike-slip Amidi et al. (2005)
Koshk-e-Nosrat 100–110 150 60 S-80 S Reverse-oblique slip to sinistral strike-slip Ghalamghash et al. (1998), Orang et al. (2015)
Saveh 110 32.65 – Reverse-oblique slip to sinistral strike-slip Ghalamghash et al. (1998), Orang et al. (2015), Morley et al. (2009)
Gheshlagh 110 16 – Oblique-slip reverse Ghalamghash et al. (1998)
Ghermez Aghash 135 13 – Dextral strike-slip Ghalamghash et al. (1998), Orang et al. (2015)
Khalkhab 100 17.65 – Sinistral strike-slip Ghalamghash et al. (1998), Rezaei-Kahkhaei et al. (2011)
West Vardeh 110 5 – Thrust Fault Ghalamghash et al. (1998)
Rang Zard-North part 113–131 – 62 S-78 S Reverse to reverse-dextral-oblique slip Ghalamghash et al. (1998), Orang et al. (2015)
Rang Zard-south part 124–138 – 62 S Reverse-dextral-oblique slip Ghalamghash et al. (1998), Orang et al. (2015)
Nour Ali Baik 80 10 37 S Sinistral strike-slip Ghalamghash et al. (1998), Orang et al. (2015)
Pichgerd-Chenaghchi 125 29 – – Alai-Mahabadi and Khalatbari Jafari (2000)
Noubaran 130 38 75 SW Reverse dextral Alai-Mahabadi and Khalatbari Jafari (2000), Khodaparast et al. (2014)

Fig. 4. Maps of lineaments derived from (A) geological map with 1:250,000 scale (Caillat et al., 1978), (B) geological maps with 1:100,000 scale (Alai-Mahabadi and
Khalatbari Jafari, 2000; Amidi et al., 2005; Ghalamghash et al., 1998), (C) directional filtering of Landsat ETM+ image, and (D) analytical hill shading of 10 m
resolution DEM.

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Fig. 5. Final map of integrated lineaments in the study area.
Fig. 6. The LF map for the study area.
populations for mineralogical data because threshold values are iden-
tified as breakpoints in those plots (Afzal et al., 2013, 2011). In this
research, the C–A fractal model (Cheng et al., 1994) was utilized for
separation of zones with different LF intensities.
Cheng et al. (1994) presented the C-A fractal model, which is uti-
lized frequently by various researchers for modeling and discriminating
of geochemical anomalies from background. This model demonstrates a
power-law relationship between elemental concentration and the area
occupied by elemental concentrations greater than a certain threshold
(Cheng et al., 1994; Carranza, 2009; Heidari et al., 2013; Meigoony
et al., 2014; Rezaei et al., 2015). Cheng et al. (1994) developed this
fractal method using lithogeochemical data in the Mitchell-Sulphurets
porphyry system, British Columbia and found that fractal patterns exist
inside and outside different alteration zones. The purpose of the C-A
fractal modeling is to indicate a power–law correlation between area
(A) and threshold T concentration values, which can be expressed as:
A (T s) T 1; A (T s) T 2
(1)
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where A (T s ) and A (T s ) represent two areas with concentrations
less than or equal to and greater than or equal to the cell value T; s is the
threshold value for a concentration (here LF) zone; and 1 and 2
are characteristic powers. Threshold values represent boundaries be-
tween different classes of LF.
There is a relationship among area (A: cell’s numbers with LF values
higher than a certain threshold occupied by cell area) and threshold LF
values which can be expressed as:
A (LF s) LF (2)
where A(LF) indicates the occupied area by cells with the LF values
higher than a threshold s, and the exponent α is fractal dimension
(Cheng and Li, 2002; Cheng et al., 1994). A log–log plot for area A(LF)
versus LF value describes a multifractal behavior consisting of a series
of straight lines or segments. Each segment is an indicator of a popu-
lation, which is self-similar for certain intervals of LF values. These
thresholds were determined based on break points defined by the fitted
line segments.
M. Ahmadfaraj, et al. Ore Geology Reviews 107 (2019) 172–185

Fig. 7. The C-A graph versus cell value in the region (see Table. 3 for the LF populations).

Table 3
Range of LF values obtained by C-A fractal modeling of the LF map (see Fig. 7).
Populations Background Low intensity Middle intensity High intensity

Break points A-B B-C C-D D-E E-F F-G G-H H-I I-J

LF cell values 0–0.7 0.7–2 2–5 5–12.6 12.6–28.2 28.2–33.9 33.9–42.7 42.7–60.3 60.3–63.7

Fig. 8. Lineament factor distribution map according to the C-A model (see Table 3 for description of classes).

3.2. Fry analysis
Mapping at scales related to a geological problem with an emphasis
on structural geology is effective for analysis of directional controls
regarding mineralization. Fry analysis was established as a geometrical
method for spatial analysis (Fry, 1979). Fry analysis was applied to
specify the spatial relationships and distribution among structural
lineaments, Cu mineralization and deposits in a studied area. It involves
translations (also known as Fry plots) of point objects where every point
object is used as translation origin (Vearncombe and Vearncombe,
1999). Fry analysis was used by Vearncombe and Vearncombe (1999)
for describing the spatial distribution of five types of prospects in dif-
ferent localities and with different geologic ages. For n data points,
there are n2 – n Fry plots. Therefore, a Fry plot increases subtleties in
the point objects spatial distribution. The resulting Fry plot is further
analyzed by construction of a rose diagram recording lineament

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Fig. 9. Central points of high intensity LF areas (HP) and locations of known Cu mineralization (see Table 4 for description about index type and distance).

Table 4
Distances between central points of high intensity LF areas (HP) with Cu index and known Cu mineralization. V: Vein, M: Manto.
Cells Fry plot Rose diagram Relationship

Major trend the Fry plots of Cu Axial ratio of ellipse defined by rose Vector mean Confidence interval
mineralizations (degree) diagrams of Fry plots (degree)

Total lineaments and fractures of Strong

study area
1 90 6.92 100.7 (280.74) 13.9 strong
2 60 2.41 124.9 (304.94) 3.2 Weak
3 – – 102 (281.97) 11.6 –
4 99 2.15 101 (281.05) 6.6 Very strong
5 71 1.29 70.9 (250.94) 6.2 Very strong
6 110 2.73 93.6 (273.64) 6.8 Strong
7 – – 115.5 (295.54) 3.3 –
8 – – 122.2 (302.16) 6.8 –

6
number of occurrences/deposits

3
Vein

2 Manto

Fig. 10. Number of vein- and manto-style Cu mineralizations associated with different classes of distances to central points of high intensity LF areas (HP).

frequency vs. directional sector. The Fry method produces a graphical Fry analysis was carried out for cells with dimensions of
point distribution, the ‘Fry plot’, that directly displays the strain ellipse 29.5 × 19.5 km2. These cell sizes were determined based on the dis-
in form of a characteristic central vacancy and/or a high point density tances between Cu occurrences/deposits and high intensity LF. This cell
ring in vicinity of the central vacancy (Kumar et al., 2014). size is considered proper for distinguishing between manto-style from

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0
HP- HP- HP- HP- HP- HP- HP- HP- HP- HP- HP- HP- HP- HP- HP- HP- HP-
12 13 14 18 20 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 34 36 37
0-500 1 3 2
500-1000 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
1000-1500 1 1 1 1
1500-2000 2 2 2 1 1 1
2000-2500 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 1
2500-3000 3 1 1 1 2 1 1

Fig. 11. Number of Cu mineralization per class of distances of central points of high intensity LF areas (HP) from known Cu deposits/occurrences.

Table 5
General characteristics of Fry plots and rose diagrams.
Cells Fry plot Rose diagram Relationship

Major trend the Fry plots of Cu Axial ratio of ellipse defined by rose Vector mean Confidence interval
mineralizations (degree) diagrams of Fry plots (degree)

Total lineaments and fractures of 103 1.93 108.2 (288.22) 2.3 Strong
study area
1 90 6.92 100.7 (280.74) 13.9 strong
2 60 2.41 124.9 (304.94) 3.2 Weak
3 – – 102 (281.97) 11.6 –
4 99 2.15 101 (281.05) 6.6 Very strong
5 71 1.29 70.9 (250.94) 6.2 Very strong
6 110 2.73 93.6 (273.64) 6.8 Strong
7 – – 115.5 (295.54) 3.3 –
8 – – 122.2 (302.16) 6.8 –

vein-style mineralization especially in the SE part of the region. Then,
the trend of lineaments was evaluated in the form of rose diagrams
using Rockworks software. Lineament and fault trends are compared
with rose diagrams. Construction of rose diagrams for lineament and
faults in individual cells and in the whole study area helped to interpret
the spatial patterns of the mineral deposits. Rose diagrams displaying
paleo-current data, including the vector mean and standard deviation,
vector magnitude, maximum percentage, number of measurements, and
number of stations (Moreno et al., 2011).
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Lineament extraction
The Landsat ETM+ data show lineaments in the study area (Fig. 4C).
The azimuth of 315° is the major trend of faults based on the 1:250,000
and 1:100,000 scale geological maps (Alai-Mahabadi and Khalatbari
Jafari, 2000; Amidi et al., 2005; Caillat et al., 1978; Ghalamghash et al.,
1998). Furthermore, the kernel size (7 × 7) shows main lineaments
within a shaded relief map (Fig. 4C) in the study area. The 10-m re-
solution for the DEM of the study area was applied for detection of
minor lineaments (Fig. 4D). Major lineaments have NW-SE and W-E
trends whereas minor lineaments have a trend of NE-SW. The major
lineaments played a main role in the emplacement of the intrusive rocks
(Figs. 4 and 5).
4.2. Classification of lineament factor (LF) map by fractal modeling
In this study, the dimension of gridding cells is 1 × 1 km2 for the
generation of an LF map based on the distribution of lineaments and
fault positions. An LF map was constructed based on the frequency,
lengths, and number of lineament intersections with scores of 1, 2 and 3
using RockWorks software package (Fig. 6). The abundance of fault
intersections is important for magmatic and hydrothermal mineraliza-
tion especially vein- and manto-style of deposits because these inter-
sections create suitable spaces for the emplacement of Cu mineraliza-
tion within the host rocks which have highest score (Berger et al.,
2008). However, lengths of faults are important for the formation of
hydrothermal deposits and according to the fluid flow approach, the
length of faults has the second importance in the area. Faults frequency
includes pre- and post-mineralized structures and it had the lowest
score (Carranza, 2009; Pirajno, 2009).
On the basis of LF cell values, the C-A plot was created and,
therefore, four populations were distinguished (Fig. 7). Direct lines
fitted to the points on this plot illustrate a power-law relationship be-
tween the thresholds values and area. Additionally, the LF values have a
multifractal nature in this region, which indicates that there are several
populations in the LF distribution. High intensity LF cell values are
greater than 28.2. Middle intensity LF cell values vary between 12.6
and 28.2. Low intensity LF cell values vary between 0.7 and 12.6.
Background LF cell values are < 0.7 (Table 3, Fig. 8). As a result, the
high intensity parts of the LF map are associated with the Koshk-e-
Nosrat, Khalkhab and Saveh faults, which are older than magmatic
rocks and mineralization in the central and eastern parts of the study

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Fig. 12. Distribution of Cu occurrences/deposits and lineaments on the ETM satellite image in the whole study area and each numbered cell: (A) Fry plot for total
lineaments and fractures of study area: (B) Rose diagram for total lineaments and fractures of study area; (A1) Fry plot for cell number 1; (B1) Rose diagram for cell
number 1; (A2) Fry plot for cell number 2; (B2) Rose diagram for cell number 2; (A3) Fry plot for cell number 3; (B3) Rose diagram for cell number 3; (A4) Fry plot for
cell number 4; (B4) Rose diagram for cell number 4; (A5) Fry plot for cell number 5; (B5) Rose diagram for cell number 5; (A6) Fry plot for cell number 6; (B6) Rose
diagram for cell number 6; (A7) Fry plot for cell number 7; (B7) Rose diagram for cell number 7; (A8) Fry plot for cell number 8; (B8) Rose diagram for cell number 8;
(see Table 5 for more description).

area.
A central point of high intensity LF areas is hereafter referred to as
HP (Fig. 9). Based on the results (Table 1), 49 of the 64 known Cu
occurrences/deposits in the study area are located < 3 km from HP, of
which 14 are manto-style and 35 are vein-style. There are 37 HPs, and
only 17 of them are mined and are located < 3 km of a known manto-
and vein-style mineralization, whereas for the other HPs neither manto-
nor vein-style mineralization is observed is observed within 3 km of
their vicinity. Comparison between high intensity LF areas and dis-
tances of HPs from the known Cu mineralization indicates that high
intensity LF areas are located < 1 km of Cu vein-style mineralization
(Fig. 9, Table 4). Moreover, many Cu manto-style mineralization are
located > 1 km from high intensity LF areas.
Most Cu vein-style mineralizations exist in high intensity LF areas
(Fig. 10). In this study, six Cu vein-style deposits are located < 500 m of
a high intensity LF area (Fig. 11). Furthermore, eight Cu vein-style
deposits are situated 500–1000 m of a high intensity LF area (Fig. 11).
4.3. Comparison between Fry plots and Rose diagrams
The distribution trend of the Cu occurrences/deposits was achieved
by constructing a Fry plot utilizing GeoFryPlots software. In Table 5, an
overview of the Fry plots and the rose diagrams is presented. Com-
parison between results derived via the Fry plots and rose diagrams
indicates a direct correlation between trends of structures and trends of
Cu vein-style mineralizations (Fig. 12). However, there is a difference
between the trends of Fry plots for manto-style mineralization and the
trends of main structures (Fig. 12). Thus, the results obtained by Fry
analysis indicate that the vein-style Cu deposits/occurrences have a
direct relationship with WNW-ESE-trending faults whereas the manto-
style Cu deposits/occurrences are associated with NE-SW-trending
faults.
5. Conclusion
The results obtained by C-A fractal modeling and Fry analysis based
on lineament factor derived by remote sensing, geological observations
and DEM data showed that there is high spatial correlation between Cu
occurrences/deposits and faults and fractures in the Saveh region,
central Iran. Vein- and manto-style Cu mineralizations have, respec-
tively, NW-SE and WNW-ESE trends that are similar to the trends of the
main lineaments. The vein-style Cu mineralizations are associated with
lineaments and faults in the areas with high lineament factor intensity.
In contrast, manto-style Cu occurrences/deposits are situated in the E
and SE parts of the study area and have with good spatial association
with the regional faults, specifically the Khalkhab and Koshk-e-Nosrat
faults based on the fractal and Fry analysis. However, intrusive masses,
which exist between the Khalkhab and Koshk-e-Nosrat faults, have a
spatial relationship with vein-style Cu mineralization whereas manto-
style Cu mineralization occur in the marginal parts of the intrusive
bodies. The results derived from the study area reveal that the fractal-
Fry modeling can be used in the primary stages of exploration of manto-
and vein-style Cu mineralizations.

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