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Chapter 4 - Theories of Cognitive Development
Chapter 4 - Theories of Cognitive Development
Chapter 4 - Theories of Cognitive Development
Cognitive Development
1. Developmental theories provide a framework for understanding important
phenomena
2. Developmental theories raise crucial questions about human nature
3. Developmental theories lead to a better understanding of children
Piaget’s Theory
This theory posits that cognitive development involves a sequence of 4
stages - the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal
operational stages - that are constructed through the processes of
assimilation, accomodation, and equilibration.
Sources of Continuity
Piaget thought development to have continuities and discontinuities.
With continuity consisting of 3 processes: assimilation, accomodating,
and equilibration.
Sources of Discontinuity
Piaget’s stage theroy:
1. Qualitative change
Children of different ages think in qualitatively different ways.
2. Broad applicability
The type of thinking of each stage influences children’s thinking across
various topics and contexts.
3. Brief transitions
Before entering a new stage, children pass through a brief transitional
period where they fluctuate from the old type of thinking and the new
one.
4. Invariant sequence
Everyone progresses through the stages in order without skips.
Piaget’s Legacy
Weaknesses:
1. Piaget’s theory is vague about the mechanisms that give rise to children’s
thinking and produce cognitive growth.
2. Infants and young children are more cognitively comptent than Piaget
recognized.
3. Piaget’s theory understates the contribution of the social world to cognitive
development.
4. The stage model depicts children’s thinking as being more consistent than it
is.
Despite its weaknesses, Piaget’s theory remains one of the major intellectual
accomplishments of the past century.
Information-Processing Theories
Example:
Executive functioning
Executive functions control behaviour and thought processes.
3 key executive functions are inhibition, (resisting temptation) enhancement
of working memory, (through use of strategies like only attending to the
most important info) & cognitive flexibility (imagining someone else’s
perspective in an argument despite it being different from one’s own).
The quality of exectutive functioning predicts later outcomes like high
school academic achievement, college enrollment, adult income, and
occupational prestige.
Encoding
Encoding is the representation in memory of specific features of
objects and events.
People encode information that draws their attention, but they do not
encode a great deal.
If information is not encoded, it is not remembered.
Like improved encoding, improved speed of processing plays a key
role in the development of memory, problem solving and learning.
Faster speed of processing is due to myelination and increased
connectivity among brain regions.
Strategies
Children use lots of broadly useful memory strategies between ages 5-
8, including rehearsal, which is the process of repeating information
multiple times to aid memory of it.
Another is selective attention, which is the process of intentionally
focusing on the information that is most relevant to the current goal.
Content knowledge
With age and experience, knowledge about everything increases.
This makes it easier to recall new material and integrate new material
with existing understanding.
When children know more than adults about a topic, they remember
more new information about the topic than adults.
Prior content knowledge improved memory through improving coding
and by providing useful associations.
Core-Knowledge Theories
The percentage of children who lie about transgression steadily increases
from age 2 to age 7, possibly because older children are more imaginative
in creating realistic cover-ups.
Deception like this illustrates 2 characteristic features of research inspired
by core-knowledge theories (approaches that view children as having
innate knowledge regarding special evolutionary importance & domain-
specific learning mechanisms for getting more information in these
domains)
Research focuses on knowledge that has been important through
human evolutions, like understanding and manipulating other people’s
thinking but also recognizing people’s faces, learning languages, find
way through space, understanding causes and effects, and so on.
Deception research also reflects that infants think in a more advanced
way than Piaget sugessted to be possible.
Ex. if preschoolers were completely egocentric, they wouldn’t feel
the need to lie, but they do, so they must understand other minds
to a degree.
Constructivism
Constructivism - the theory that infants build increasingly advanced
understanding by combining rudimentary innate knowledge with
subsequent experiences.
This theory proposed that young children actively organize their
understanding of important domains into informal theories.
These theories share 3 important characteristics with formal scientific ones.
1. They explain many phenomena in terms of few principles (ex. animals
want food and water and that underlies many behaviours).
2. They identify fundamental units for dividing relevant objects & events
into basic categories (ex. all objects are divided into peopoole, animals,
and nonliving things).
3. They explain events in terms of unobservable causes (preschoolers
know vital activities of animals are because of internal processes, not
external ones).
Core-knowledge constructivists emphasize that children’s initial simple
theories grow considerably more complex with age and experience.
Sociocultural Theories
Sociocultural theories - approaches that emphasize that other people and
the surrounding culture contribute greatly to children’s development.
Sociocultural theorists emphasize that much of cognitive development
takes place through interactions between children and other people who
want to help the children acquire the skills, knowledge, beliefs, and
attitudes valued by their culture.
Guided participation - individuals organize activities in ways that allow less
knowledgeable people to learn.
This often occurs in situations where the explciit purpose is to achieve
a practical goal, and learning more general skills occurs as a by-
product of the activity.
Social scaffolding - a process through which adults and others with greater
expertise organize the physical and social environment to help children
learn.
For this to work, a task that is beyond the child’s current level but can
be accomplished with help must be chosen with the goal of the task
and how to execute explained.
Cultural tools like symbol systems, manufactured objects, skills, values and
so on influence our thinking and without these guided participation and
social scaffolding proves to be difficult in situations like assembling a toy
(can’t communicate, do not have objects to assemble…).
Mechanism of Change
Dynamic-systems theories propose that changes occur through
mechanisms of variation and selection that are similar to those that produce
biological evolution.
Variation refers to the use of different behaviours to pursue the same goal.
Selection involves more frequent choice of behaviours that are effective in
meeting goals and less frequent use of less effective behaviours.
Selection among alternative approaches reflects 3 influences:
1. Relative success of each approach.
2. Efficiency
3. Novelty