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Characterization of Coated Diesel Engine Cylinder Liner Material using

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Chrome Publishing
Journal of Surface Science and Coating Technology
2015, Volume 1, Issue 1, pp. 1-18

Research Article Characterization of Coated Diesel Engine Cylinder Liner

Material using Surface Metrology Techniques
Author:
1
Salah H.R. Ali,
2 1
Hassan Dadoura, Eng. and Surface Metrology Dept., National Institute for Standards, Giza, Egypt
2 2
Mohamd Ahmad, Automotive and Tractors Eng. Dept., Helwan Univ., Mataria, Cairo, Egypt
3 3
Mazin I. Nigm Mechanical Eng. Dept., Al-Azhar Univ., Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt

Correspondence:
Salah H.R. Ali,
Dr_Salah@nis.sci.eg;
SalahAli20@yahoo.com

Publication Date:
14 April 2015

Keywords:
Diesel Engine;
Cylinder Material;
Surface Coating;
Measuring Techniques and
Material Characteristics
Abstract An engine cylinder liner material is directly affected by high-temperature and high-
pressure gas, and always produce high-speed slide friction with piston rings and piston skirt.
It has been also known that tribological behavior can be achieved for properly structured liner
surface topographies. Functional surface treatments and coatings offer several possibilities to
improve the sliding properties of metal surfaces. Various physical characteristics of
electroless nickel coatings, such as hardness, wear resistance, coating uniformity, and
corrosion resistance are commonly used. There are many types and instruments are used for
cylinder measuring techniques. In this paper, materials used to manufacture liner of diesel
engine, surface treatment and liner coating materials, surface finishing, mechanical
characteristics of liner surface, measuring techniques of cylinder liner surface, tribological
behavior, and material surface quality are reviewed. From analyses, it illustrated that every
liner material or surface coating include its characteristics. Consequently, material and
surface treatment of liner should be defined to satisfy the desired engine performance quality
with low losses, minimum emission exposure with long service life span.

1. Introduction

The performance of mechanical system is limited by the capabilities of its component materials from which they
are made [1]. Engine is the source of power in an automotive. Automotive engine cylinder is fetal element in the
engine performance. Engine cylinder liner should be with high strength, hardness, heat-resisting and abrasion-
proof property. The use of lighter and stronger engineering materials to manufacture various components of the
engine has also an impact to increase the power-to-weight of the engine, and thus the automobile. In order to
reduce emissions and achieve economically and environmentally sound solutions; thermal spray coatings are an
option to manufacture wear resistant and low-friction cylinder running surfaces [2]. Consequently, the selection of
the cylinder bore material; surface topography and its quality affect the tribological response in the contact area of
piston ring on the cylinder wall [3]. Therefore, the cylinder liner friction surface should be hard enough to resist the
piston rings sliding friction in high combustion temperature and pressure [4]. Different surface treatments should
applied to the engine friction parts in accordance with the treatment cost and the desired functional efficiency.
Cast iron was wide used for cylinder liner manufacture due to its high strength and low wear rate at high
performance temperatures. On the other hand, it has a high density to increase the engine fuel consumption.
Aluminum alloys with some coatings are used to decrease power loss and to improve wear resistance against the
piston ring friction. An advanced technique is the Electroless Nickel (EN) coating on Aluminum [5].

In this review, materials used to manufacture blocks for diesel engine cylinder liner will be discussed. The
discussion included surface treatment process, surface characterization of liner material using measuring
techniques to understand the quality of surface performance. Moreover, select the materials used for diesel
engine cylinder liner to be suitable in the future research project have been presented and discussesed.
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2. Materials for Diesel Engine Cylinder

The current trend towards compact engine with high power density and increased thermomechanical load
increases the importance of tribological characteristics and requires new approaches in the area of cylinder
working surfaces. Consequently, the cylinder inner walls have to withstand higher combustion pressure and
higher piston speed. Furthermore, the precise matching of the cylinder bore with the pistons and piston rings
leads to improved engine performance [3]. There are conventional and new materials nowadays used in
manufacturing diesel engine cylinders.

2.1. Conventional Materials for Diesel Engine Cylinder

In Order to reduce oil consumption and to ensure low friction and good wear resistance, the interaction of the liner
and the piston ring (grey cast iron or steel) must be optimized in a total system approach [3]. Davis J.R. [1]
pointed that, most cylinder liners are made of gray cast iron. To increase their mechanical strength, additions of
nickel, chromium, copper, and molybdenum are required. But, Nguyen H. [2] explained that engine designs
became more complicated, the weight of the engine and the vehicle had increased. Consequently, the desire
among manufacturers to use lighter alloys that were as strong as cast irons arose, Figure 1. One such material
that being used as a substitute was aluminum alloys. In the spring of 1930’s (due to problems with durability),
aluminum alloy use in engine blocks, while increased during the 1960’s and 1970’s as a way to increase fuel
efficiency and performance.

Figure 1: Conventional Cast Iron Cylinder Liner with a Machined Surface for High Pressure (left) and Cross
Section of a Cylinder With Cast-in Grey Cast Iron Liner (Right) [3]

John Lenny Jr. [6] presented a study of replacing the cast iron liners instead of aluminum for engine cylinder
blocks. He blotted that one approach to increasing an automotive fuel economy by reducing vehicle weight and
friction loss simultaneously. This is due to the increase of thermal efficient of combustion. However, cast iron
liners are needed in aluminum cylinder blocks because of their tribological characteristics. From his conclusions,
Hypereutectic Al-Si alloy for cylinder block becomes an increasingly attractive alternative for solving the
tribological deficiency of most commercialized aluminum alloys.

2.2. New Materials for Diesel Engine Cylinder

As a development of Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) in engine cylinder liners, Manabu Fujine et al. [7] presented
a new MMC which makes it possible to reduce engine dimensions and weight, Figure 2. The author achieves
good wear properties and productivity, the MMC material for the cylinder liner was developed under the following
assumptions: typical aluminum die-cast alloy containing 11% silicon and 2.5% copper (JIS ADC12) is used for
aluminum matrix, since conventional aspirating process is used to produce the preform. The preform is consists of
either fibers or fibers and particles. Stainless steel with nitride is used as piston ring material. Wilson Luiz Guesser
[8] presented an overview was new trends in 2003 for diesel engines, opening a promising space for Compacted
Graphite Iron (CGI) has been considered as shown in Figure 3. Figure 3 indicates 229 CGI MMC particles per
2
mm . CGI invariably includes some nodular (spheroidal) graphite particles. The decision is to work with a small
excess of magnesium, in order to avoid any flake graphite formation.

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Table1 shows the tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of gray cast iron compared to CGI. Results in Table 1
clear that gray cast iron has a lower tensile strength than CGI [2].

Figure 2: MMC Aluminum Base used for Cylinder Blocks

Figure 3: Typical Microstructure of CGI: 5% Nodularity, 11% Graphite [8]

Table 1: Mechanical Properties of Tested Cast Iron Samples [2]

Mechanical properties Gray cast iron Compacted graphite cast iron

Tensile strength, MPa 160-320 300-600
Modulus of elasticity, GPa 96-110 170-190

Steffen Hoppe, et al. [9] developed two high-performance cylinder liners materials. The uses cast iron materials
GOE323 (GJL) as a micro alloy cast iron with flake graphite. GOE330 (GJV) is also used as a compacted graphite
cast iron and belongs to the group of ductile cast irons are developments which Federal-Mogul utilizes for high
and maximum stress conditions. It can conclude that the high and maximum performance cylinder liner materials
GOE323 and GOE330 provide engine designers with suitable material options for new approaches to optimizing
engine-out emissions as this means adding stress on the cylinder system by increasing pressure. Raymond
Donahue, et al. [10] presented some advancement to the old hypereutectic aluminum-silicon technology for
linerless parent bore aluminum blocks. The inherent advantages of lighter weight and better heat transfer that
aluminum (and more specifically hypereutectic Al-Si alloys) can economically provide for engine blocks have long
been recognized. The copper containing hypereutectic Al-Si alloys that have been used in the past as parent bore
materials have been compromises of low silicon content, which has translated into low wear resistances and the

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need for special surface treatments. It is concluded that in comparison to aluminum engine blocks using iron liners
as well as traditional (copper containing) hypereutectic aluminum alloys, copper-free hypereutectic aluminum-
silicon alloys of 18% silicon and above, offer the following performance advantages. Keijiro Tayama, et al. [11]
used a mono block casting cylinder liners for marine slow speed diesel engine simply because of their
tribologically superior characteristics. They resented a development of Two Layer Cylinder Liner by Hot Isostatic
Pressing (HIP) technique, introduced a solution of double layer cylinder liner. This liner consists of two different
materials. Inside material is tribologically superior material such as cast iron in this case Tarkalloy, is basically
consist of distributed graphite and carbonized stedite (Fe3P+Carbonized Fe3C) into perlite base. On the other
hand outside material is high strength material like that SCPH 21 and SCPH22. Inside and outside materials are
fixed together using HIP method. Test results show that HIP cylinder liner meets the future requirement for new
engine and will be the practical solution.

M.F. Ahmad Fakaruddin, et al. [4] presented a study to find a suitable material for cylinder liner that can withstand
the stated constraints. By using Cambridge Engineering Software (CES) a list of candidate materials was
compared to each other in terms of general properties, mechanical properties, thermal properties and material
processing energy. Plotted that liner materials were usually from different alloys of cast iron such as phosphorous,
titanium and vanadium, see Table 2.

Table 2: Element Composition of Proposed Cylinder Liner [4]

C Si Mn S Cr Ni Mo V Cu Al
3.5 1.9 0.73 < 0.2 0.23 0.07 0.31 0.015 0.27 <0.01

The environment plays an important factor to identify the requirements of material performance. Corrosive
environments of high temperature and humidity affect the performance of many materials in service and service
life span. Consequently, the Cast Nickel-Chromium Alloy is a suitable material for wet cylinder liner applications is
because it gives a very high fracture toughness, high elasticity modulus and surface hardness, good tensile
strength and bulk modulus, which drive to longer service life span. Andrew Halonen [12] cleared some wide used
aluminum alloys to weight savings, fuel economy, and heavy-duty trucks as shown in Figure 4.

Alloy Comments
A319 Common for heads and blocks.
A354 Higher strength, moderate high-temperature strength; common for turbochargers.
C355 Slightly harder than 356. Copper content for elevated temperature properties.
A356 General use alloy, good performance; good value.
357 Higher yield strength than 356 with somewhat lower ductility.
A206 Suitable for structural applications; 2x the strength of A356 at 150°C.
242 Al-Cu alloy with nickel. Works well for air- and liquid-cooled cylinder heads.

Figure 4: Aluminum Alloys Typically used in Engine Design over the Past Few Decades [12]

There are many opportunities for light weighting, many of which are based on replacing steel and other materials.
Diesel engine manufacturers have been using aluminum for a longtime, yet the material is not as common as it is
with gasoline engines. Mercedes-Benz begins using cast aluminum blocks in diesel there engines from 2005. In
2014 sprinter vans have manufactured engines with cast aluminum cylinder heads and a block with a compacted
graphite iron cylinder liner.

In spite of the above, there are still flaws and problems appear with using aluminum alloys in automotive engines.
So we emphasize important of taking advantages of metallic and nonmetallic materials together. Thus, use of
metallic or nonmetallic material in the coating of cylinder metallic material to be suitable for improve the engine
performance.

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3. Surface Treatment and Coating

Functional surface treatments and coatings offer several possibilities to improve the sliding properties during
rapping pair contact. In internal combustion engines, coatings and surface treatments are commonly applied on
one or several components of the piston, piston ring and cylinder liner system. M.M. Rahman, et al. [13] used the
analysis of finite element technique to illustrate the role of surface treatment quality on the fatigue life of vibrated
aluminum cylinder block of engine using random signal conditions. The fatigue life for nitridied surface is
surprisingly increases due to the development of compressive residual stresses and the increase of hardness
near the surface. Dae - Hyun CHO, et al. [14] pointed that many engine components involved with sliding contact
are all susceptible to scuffing failure at some points during their operating period. Therefore, it is important to
evaluate the effects of various surface coatings on the tribological characteristics of the piston ring and cylinder
block surface of a diesel engine. One potential solution that is currently being investigated is the deposition of
coatings with low friction and wear-resistance.

Several alternative technologies have been explored in order to achieve low friction and the necessary wear
resistance. One potential solution that is currently being investigated is the deposition of plating processes or
coatings with low friction and wear-resistance on engine cylinders. The plating processes are used to reduce the
clearance between the piston and cylinder surface.

M. Azadi et al. [15] reviews of thermal barrier coating applications in diesel engines and performed to select a
proper type and to find coating effects. They confirmed that coating system has effects on the fuel consumption,
the power, the combustion efficiency, pollution contents and the fatigue lifetime of engine components. They
pointed that several disadvantages such as producing nitrogen oxides also exist when a coating system is used
.Test results indicate that coatings on the cylinder liner bore produced a reduction in fuel consumption, see Figure
5. Where, the coatings of the piston and cylinder head-face surfaces were more effective in reducing heat
rejection.

The results illustrated that the fuel consumption is reduced, while the engine combustion efficiency increased, and
exhaust gases pollution rate is decreased. This means that engine dynamics will decrease to elongate the fatigue
lifetime of engine components.

Figure 5: The Specific Fuel Consumption versus the Torque for Different Surface Conditions at 1400 rpm
Constant Speed [15]

Metal deposition of nickel by the electroless technique is preferred due to its unique properties such as high
resistance to corrosion and wear, and acceptable surface hardness for different industrial applications. The
hardness and wear resistance can be further augmented by reinforcing the metal matrix with fine abrasive
particles such as silicon carbide (SiC), alumina (Al 2O3), boron carbide (B4C), diamond etc. Ceramic coatings were
used to cylinder for reduced in-cylinder heat rejection and thermal fatigue protection and for possible reduction of
engine emissions. Therefore, we must discuss and understand the modern techniques in coating processes for
automotive engine cylinders.

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3.1. Thermal Spraying Techniques

Thermal spraying technique includes a group of coating processes of metallic or nonmetallic materials, formed in
a molten or semi molten condition to form coating of powder, ceramic-rod, wire or molten material, see Figure 6.
Vinay Kumar Domakonda et al. [17] studied the reduction of heat loss from the combustion chamber of diesel
engine to improve its fuel economy. The thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) have been used for more than 20 years
to increase the combustion temperature in the diesel engines to increase the efficiency of the engine, decrease
the emission of CO and the NOx rate generation. But, the use of reduced heat rejection in diesel engines is less
useful than in Turbo-charged engines.

Figure 6: Thermal Spray Coating Process [16]

Murat Ciniviz et al. [18] analyzed the effect of ceramic coating applications on internal combustion engine
efficiency, where the engine constructional modifications are increased, parallel to development of ceramic
coating technology. Ceramic coated diesel engines can be start easier like shortened ignition delay due to heat
rejection control of the coating layer. Silent engine operation with less detonation or noise exposure can be
generated from uncontrolled combustion. The energy balance diagrams for conventional diesel engine compared
to ceramic coated engine are shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Energy Balance Illustration for Conventional Engine and Ceramic Coated Engine [18]

The thermal expansion ratios showed significant differences between coating and coated materials in aluminum
silisium alloyed pistons especially. As a scientific solution, 0.15 mm thick of NiCrAlY should be coated to the base
material as binding layer. Zirconia stabilization with yttria has been used as ceramic coating material for all engine
elements. Susumu Uozato et al. [19] investigated liner-less technology without cast iron liner to be used practically
in the field of aluminum engine block manufacture. The developed ferrous powder composition (Fe–C–Ni–Cr–Cu–
V–B alloy) has low rates of corrosion and wear resistances, relatively to the currently used casting materials such
as Fe–C–Si–B alloy and Fe–C–Si–Mo–B alloy for cylinder liners manufacture. Table 3 shows the chemical
composition of the powder, while Table 4 contains the chemical compositions of the bulk materials.

Table 3: Chemical Compositions of Spray Powder for Cylinder Block

Chemical Composition (Wt.%)

C Si Mn P S Ni Cr Cu V B Fe
3.10 2.89 0.08 0.004 0.004 8.95 2.46 4.80 0.74 0.075 Bal

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Table 4: Chemical Compositions of Current Liner Bulk Materials

Chemical Composition (Wt.%)

C Si Mn P S Mo B Fe
ST 3.09 2.31 0.73 0.23 0.117 - 0.093 Bal
GT 3.27 2.32 0.74 0.21 0.124 0.44 0.051 Bal

Mareike Hahn et al. [20] mentioned that versatile thermal spray processes and material combinations have been
applied in automotive engineering. The structure and, therefore, the properties of metal sprayed coatings are
governed by the thermal and kinetic energy introduced. Particle velocities vary according to the used technique
from 150 m/s for Twin Wire Arc Spraying (TWAS) to reach 450 m/s for Plasma Transferred Wire Arc (PTWA) and
up to 750 m/s for the High Velocity Oxygen Fuel method (HVOF). Masaki Tanaka et al. [21] developed a Ceramic-
Metal composite material to spray coating on engine piston rings and cylinder liner surface using LPPS (Low
Pressure Plasma Spray) method for marine engine. The wear rates of plasma coated engine elements were small
enough to prolong the surface service life to about 4 years.

3.2. Electroless Nickel Plating

Brenner and Riddell [22] have developed electroless Ni plating method in 1946 rather accidentally due to add
NaH2PO2, it produced effective cathode efficiencies of more than 100% in a nickel electroplating bath, which
ensures that some chemical reductions have been included and named electrodeless plating. The electroless as
an autocatalytic plating includes reduce metallic ions to the metal state when add a chemical reducing agent to
the chemical solution.

3.3. Coating for Diesel Engine Cylinder

For many years ago, automotive companies have been focusing on quality, performance, efficiency and extended
warranties. Consequently electroless nickel properties such as corrosion resistance, wear resistance, lubricity and
uniform deposit thickness have been used to great advantage in this industry. The performance of steel and
aluminum components, for instance, has been enhanced by the use of electroless nickel and typical applications
are on heat sinks, pistons, engine bearings, hose couplings, gear assemblies, carburetor parts, fuel injectors,
shock absorbers and exhaust system components. Automotive companies have recognized the benefits of
electroless nickel in all these and other applications and have their own specifications for its use [23]. Another
researcher presented a study on the performance of electroless nickel coating on aluminum for cylinder liners. It is
concluded that EN coated Aluminum has a high potential to be used as cylinder liners according to the analyses
of the performance of electroless nickel coating on aluminum for cylinder liners [5]. I.E. Ayoub [24] presented
analysis of electroless Ni-P plating on Stainless Steel. He reported that Electroless Ni-P plating treatment was
applied to stainless steel as the substrate for improving its corrosion resistance and micro-hardness. The
electrochemical data could be obtained based on the potentiodynamic polarization curves, which are shown in
Tables 5, 6 and 7.

Table 5: Chemical Composition and Deposition Condition for Ni-P Coating [24]

Composition Condition
NiSO4-6H2O 35 g/l
Na3C6H5O7 15 g/l
NaCOOCH3 - 3H2O 5 g/l
NaH2PO2-H2O 20 g/l
@ Ph 4-5
@ Temperature 80-90 °C

Table 6: Chemical Composition of Electroless Ni-P deposits [24]

Bath Composition Wt.% Atomic%

Ni-P Ni 91.25 86.8
P 8.75 13.2

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Table 7: Corrosion Characteristics of the Electroless Ni-P alloys in 3 % NaCl [24]

Parameters Values
Corrosion current 7.069E-6 A/cm2
Polarization resistance 2.07E+4 Ohm
E corrosion -0.381 V
Corrosion rate 8.919E-2 mm/year
2
Sample area 3 cm

4. Measurement Techniques for Cylinder Quality

The need for accurate dimensional measurements and quality engineering surfaces has become necessary
requirement to meet the challenges of modern technologies. There are two basic approaches, the hard metrology
techniques and the soft computing metrology techniques. The advanced soft metrology techniques include
coordinate measuring machines, roundness testing facilities, surface roughness devices and optical methods at
the level of micro- and nano-meter scales [25]. T. Mathia et al. [26] pointed that despite a great development of
optical and other techniques, a tactile profilometer is still the most common roughness measuring device in
mechanical industry. The interesting element of this device is a probe – magnetically fixed which prevents
damage (break). It is especially useful in the automobile industry, in the production of pumps and injectors, where
without fears for probe damage CNC procedures to measure roughness, waviness and outline in small holes
could been used [26].

4.1. CMM Coordinate Measurement Technique

Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) technique is one challenge for advanced coordinate metrology in modern
engineering applications. The basic function of CMM is to measure the actual dimensional and geometrical shape
of object. This measurement is compared to desired shape and evaluating the collected data using metrological
aspects of size, form, location, and orientation. The actual shape is obtaining by probing the surface of the object
at distance measuring points. CMM development is depending on calibration methods using different devices
such as ball plate artifact, hole- plate artifact and Laser Tracker [25; 27].

Salah H.R. Ali [27] presented a research article in the performance investigation of CMM measurement quality
using Flick standard. He explained new experimental investigations to improve the measurement accuracy of
dimension and roundness form of a coordinate measuring machine for particular measurement tasks.
Measurements for transverse circle location of certified Flick standard have been carried out. The CMM output
significant contributions from larger wave numbers than 25 UPR (undulation per revolution) are demonstrated at
different scanning speeds and fitting algorithms. The experimental results show that the roundness error deviation
can be evaluated effectively and exactly for CMM performance by using Flick standard. The measurement errors
of corresponding different geometric evaluation algorithm and probe scanning speed (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 mm/s) are
obtained through repeated arrangement, comparison, and judgment. He concludes that the 2 mm/s probe speed
gives smaller roundness error than 1, 3, 4, and 5 mm/s within 0.2: 0.3 m.

4.1.1. CMM Applications in Automotive Engine Material

Salah H.R. Ali [28-29] developed an inspection program to be used as an advanced metrological device in
conducting precise and accurate dimensional and geometrical measurements of engine parts during an overhaul
repair using the accurate precise measurements of CMM machine to investigate the wear between contact solid
surfaces. The setup of the CMM machine to inspect engine block attributes is shown in Figure 8.

From his conclusions, crucial engine parts that dominantly affect the engine performance such as cylinder liners,
pistons and rings, valves and seats can be reasonably inspected, contact metrology techniques are good methods
for objects characterizations.

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Figure 8: Photo of CMM Set-Up Arrangement for Cylinder Block Measurement [28]

4.2. AFM Technique

Surfaces of metals and semiconductors in real space on an atomic scale can be characterized by the Scanning
Tunneling Microscopy (STM), which become a useful tool in surface form analyses. Gerd Binnig et al. [30] have
investigated a new microscopic technique which could overcome the measuring forces on an atomic scale instead
of measuring tunneling currents between a probing tip and sample. The atomic force microscope (AFM) is a
mechanical profile meter using mechanical springs to sense the acting forces, while the STM uses piezoelectric
transducers for scanning processes. Binnig and Coworkers [31] developed the first atomic resolution on graphite
after one year. In the same time Albrecht et al. researched atomic resolution for the first time on an insulator of
boron nitride. The AFM technique has been developed monotonically where insulators such as photosensitive
silver halides, could be characterized on the system without exposure to radiation. Figure 9 shows the main
principles of AFM, which include a sharp probing tip is mounted on a cantilever-type spring. The generated force
between tip and sample contact deflects the cantilever which are carried out by a deflection sensor.

The atomic force microscope (AFM) as an advanced scanning probe microscopes (SPM) are designed to
measure local properties, such as height, friction, and magnetism using a sharp tip probe with 3-6 m tall pyramid
and 15-40nm end radius, Figure 10. The SPM raster- scans the probe over a small area of the sample to measure
the local property simultaneously.

Figure 9: Basic Principle of AFM Theory with Sample Feedback-Loop [31]

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Figure 10: (a) A new AFM Tip; Inset: The End of the New Tip; (b) A used AFM tip [31]

4.2.1. AFM Application of Diesel Engine Material

The atomic force microscope (AFM) is widely used in materials science and has found many applications in
engineering technology. The AFM measures the surface characteristics and can measure the small depth of the
produced structures exactly; an algorithm to engrave "invisible" small 3D-structures in surfaces in closed loop
control is possible [32]. The topography of engineering surfaces is commonly used to analyze surfaces before and
after operation processes. The applications of texturing include pistons, brake discs, bearings, mechanical face
seals, gas seals, hard disk sliders, machine tools guide ways, and other elements. In Figure 11, piston ring is
chromium coated and exhibits little wear apart from some minor scratching and smoothing in the direction of
sliding. The cylinder liner is made of much softer cast iron and becomes markedly different after having been worn
in the engine. The plateaux have been massively smoothed leaving the deep honing grooves clearly visible.
Typical measurements for the four surfaces are given in the Figure 11.

Figure 11: AFM Images of (a) Piston Ring and (b) Cylinder Liner [29]

4.3. Scanning Electron Microscopy Technique

The scanning electron microscope (SEM) uses a focused beam of high-energy electrons to generate a variety of
signals at the surface of solid specimens. The signals that derive from electron-sample interactions reveal
information about the sample including external morphology (texture), chemical composition, and crystalline
structure and orientation of materials making up the sample. In most applications, data are collected over a

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selected area of the surface of the sample, and a 2-dimensional image is generated that displays spatial
variations in these properties. The SEM is also capable of performing analyses of selected point locations on the
sample [33].

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that images a sample by scanning it with a
beam of electrons in a raster scan pattern. The electrons interact with the atoms that make up the sample
producing signals that contain information about the sample's surface topography, composition, and other
properties such as conductivity, Figure 12.

Figure 12: Schematic Diagram of a SEM [33]

4.3.1. SEM applications in Diesel Engine Material

The SEM is routinely used to generate high-resolution images of shapes of objects to show spatial variations in
chemical and material compositions. Precise measurement of very small features and objects down to 50 nm in
size is also accomplished using the SEM [33]. Radil K. [34] investigated the effects of honing on the wear of
ceramic coated piston rings and cylinder liners using SEM technique. The baseline or control cases consisted of
testing ceramic coated rings against ceramic coated liner specimens whose surfaces were ground and lapped
smooth. The base honing process etched a distinctive crosshatch pattern on the surface of both coatings as
shown in Figure 13.

(a) (b)

Figure 13: SEM photos of Lab Test Specimens. (a) Ring. (b) Liner.

4.4. Transmission Electron Microscopy Technique

A microscopy technique called Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) where an electronic beam is transmitted
through an ultra-thin specimen, interacting with the measured specimen as it passes through reference [35]. An
image is normally formed from the interaction of the transmitted electrons through the specimen; the image is
magnified controlled and focused onto an imaging device, such as a fluorescent screen, on a layer of
photographic film, or another detection device such as special camera, Figure 14.

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Figure 14: Layout of Optical Components in a Basic TEM [35]

4.4.1. TEM Applications in Diesel Engine Liner Material

Tribological characterization for liner material of diesel engine cylinder has been searched using TEM technique to
meet the requirements. C. Rynio et al. [36] investigated measurements methodology of the friction and total liner
wear to monitor the formation of surface oxide layers during the experiments. TEM technique showed some glaze
layers generated at 25 and 300 C under distinct differences to reduce the wear rate by a factor of five at high
temperature performance. They also searched formation of mechanical mixing in Figure 15 of oxide particles and
metal matrix in a nano-composite directly below the sliding surfaces to decrease the surface wear rate.

The imaging's in the STEM represent an advanced technique to investigate the structure and composition of
nano-scale materials, interfaces in the cell, and defects with atomic scale resolution and precision. This analysis
technique can help for an atomic level understanding of materials properties, which may be possible for liner
material characterization [37].

Figure 15: Surface Microstructure of Cylinder Linear Material using TEM Technique [36]
(a) Note the turbulent mixing between the glaze layer and the metal matrix,
(b) EDX-spectrum from the glaze layer; and (c) EDX-spectrum from the Ni-based substrate

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5. Mechanical Characteristics of Cylinder Surface

The function of the engine cylinder liner is the protection of the piston and piston rings of high wear rates
according to the liner material properties. A. Fakaruddin et al. [4] ensured that cavitation is identified as a major
contribution to liner damage of dynamic load deformation of the liner wall surface as a direct result of vibration
from piston slap and combustion pressure dynamics. Other failures include liner wall surface cracking, corrosion,
cavitation erosion and excessive wear rates. Due to variation in operating temperature ranging from room to about
o
1260 C, a perlitic layer will expand 1%, to produce tensile stresses of about 200 ksi when cooling down. This
continuous cyclic straining under the effect of high temperature creep yielding is a progressive failure source
which is called thermal fatigue. B.M. Sutaria et al. [38] simulated the piston ring friction models of single cylinder
internal combustion engine in addition to Hoshi, Sharma and Yukio analytic and experimental models. The major
assumptions for developing these models were built on hydrodynamic lubrication or mixed lubrication theory of
Rynolds equation, where proper lubrication, selection of material pair, and piston speed are essential to optimize
the piston ring assembly friction.

S. Mezghani et al. [39] discussed various forms of the wear modeling that caused running-in problems in honed
liner surface and its implications on ring-pack friction response. Plateau honing experiments under different
surface finishing conditions were carried out on a vertical honing machine with an expansible tool (NAGEL No. 28-
8470) is shown in Figure 16. The plateau honing characterizes the surface wear profile during running-in period of
cast-iron engine liners using advanced characterization techniques. The smooth surfaces produced less friction
response despite the increases of the ratio between plateau and valleys height.

Figure 16: A Vertical Honing Machine with Expansible Tool for Cylinder Block [39]

G.B. Veeresh Kumar et al. [40] presented an attempt to consolidate some of the aspects of mechanical, wear
behavior and the prediction of the mechanical and tribological properties of Aluminum MMC. Plotted that
aluminum MMCs sought over other conventional materials in the field of aerospace, automotive and marine
applications owing to their excellent improved properties. These composites initially replaced Cast Iron and
Bronze alloys but owing to their poor wear and seizure resistance. It is discovered that as the reinforcement
contents increased in the matrix material, the hardness of the composites also increased.

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6. Tribological Behavior

Scuffing or corrosive wear as tribological problems due to sulfuric acid chemical reaction of fuel content tend to
occur when diesel engines are upgraded because the conditions of operation for piston rings and the cylinder liner
have become severer by upgrading [41]. Peter J. Blau [42] illustrated that the tribological response impacts the
engine efficiency and performance of vehicles in many ways. Therefore, it is necessary to develop new design
concepts of material selection, friction, wear rates and lubrication strategies for engine and drive line components.
Kevin C. Radil [43] cleared that the cornerstone in the advanced heat engine development lay within overcoming
the tribological problems resulting from high temperatures at the piston crown ring-cylinder liner interface; the
crown ring represents the most critical part of the engine system due to its performance under high pressures and
temperatures in bad boundary lubrication conditions. Consequently, the majority of the wear experienced by the
piston top ring and liner occurs at this location. Therefore, lubrication tests of advanced composite materials; wear
effective factors, friction analysis, and surface morphology are important tools to identify optimum combinations
for enhanced engine performance and service life span.

Mehmet Caker et al. [44] studied the friction between piston ring and cylinder liner using the pin on plate
reciprocating tests using Pack-boronizing method. Cast iron cylinder liner borided and measured the frictional
coefficients of normal and borided cylinder liner in different reciprocating speeds. The selected specimens were
cut from gray cast iron of actual cylinder liners. The chemical composition of the cylinder liner used of the
experiments was given in Table 8. Pack-boronizing method was preferred because of the ease of treatment for
boronizing of gray cylinder liner. From the conclusions, the hardness of the surface has improved four times and
abrasive wear resistance has increased, the roughness of the surface is decreased and the friction coefficient has
also diminished.

Table 8: The Chemical Composition of the Cylinder Liner % [44]

C Si S P Mn Ni Cr Mo Cu Fe
3.22 1.87 0.03 0.24 0.75 0.03 0.2 0.005 0.49 93.17

7. Material Surface Performance

To increase the performance quality of internal combustion engine, the total energy must be transformed into
useful energy as possible. Thermal barrier coatings of ceramics or composites are used in order to increase
reliability and strength of hot metallic parts, increase yield and performance of engines and to avoid sudden break
down. Engine coated parts with thermal barrier are; piston, cylinder head, cylinder liner and exhaust valves.
Different techniques are used to coat the surfaces according to characteristics of the used materials; suitable to
the intended desired use for the low cost and fuel consumption are Chemical Vapor Decomposition (CVD), Ion
Coating, Splash Coating, Physical Vapor Decomposition (PVD), Flame Spray (FS), Plasma Spray (PS), Sol-gel
(SG), Detonation Gun (DG), Electron Beam Evaporation Coating (EBE), Reactive ion coating (IP), Hot izostatical
press coating (HIP) from their using rates. Decrease of fuel consumption and prolonging of service life of engine
elements can be satisfied by suitable thermal coating of the combustion chamber elements [45]. Funatani K. et al.
[46] explaned that the applications of Nickel Ceramic Composite (NCC) Coatingin 2 stroke motorcycle and diesel
engines has resulted in benefits in the following areas: Elemenation of cast iron liners - reduced cylinder wall
temberature, engine weight and increased power - lowering of fuel consumption - imroved fuel economy -
reduction in emissions - improved scuff and wear resistance on cylinder bores, piston and piston rings – friction
reduction – reduced noise from piston slap – ability to operate in corresive environments. The sum of these stated
benefits holds much potential for contributing twards greater flexibility in materials selection for the design of light
weight, fuel efficient vehicles based upon the use of aluminum engines.

P.N. Shrirao et al. [47] performed tests on a single cylinder, four strokes direct injection diesel engine. The engine
cylinder head, piston crown and valves were coated with a 0.5mm thickness of 3Al 2O3. 2SiO2 (mullite) (Al2O3=
60%, SiO2= 40%) upon a 150 μm thickness of NiCrAlY bond coat layer. Primary working conditions for the
uncoated engine and low heat rejection (LHR) engine were kept exactly the same to initiate a comparison
between the two configurations of the engine performance. They found that the standard engine heat loss to
exhaust gas was about 22 % higher than that of the surface coated engine at full load. Coating insulation
increases the exhaust gas energy due to low surface thermal conductivity, which helps to increase the engine
thermal efficiency, which increases the engine output power and decreases its specific fuel consumption.

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Karuppasamy K. et al. [48] have used Alumina - 40 % Titania and Nickel - Chromium as thermal coating material
to reduce the heat loss from engine during operation. The coating materials TBCs are done by atmospheric
plasma spraying technology. Engine working conditions were maintained the same before and after coating.
Specific fuel consumption (SFC) and exhaust gas emissions were measured for both of conventional diesel
engine compared to the same engine which is converted into Al-Ti and Ni-Cr coated diesel engine to determine
the changes in its performance quality and emission characteristics of the engine. The coated diesel engine
shows 16.6% lower specific fuel consumption than the standard engine. NOx emission from Al-Ti coated engine
cylinder is lower by 40% than the standard engine. Results show increase in brake thermal efficiency of engine is
fruition after coating.

8. Conclusion

From analyses of the reviewed publications, the following conclusions can be withdrawn:

o The quality of diesel engine performance and its service life span are functions of the cylinder liner material,
which defined the friction losses and surface specific wear rate.

o Surface finishing can be limited according to the surface material characteristics. Consequently, each liner
material or surface coating type has its limited surface finishing, which controls the tribological
characteristics.

o Surface finishing quality of engine cylinder liner requires suitable lubricant characteristics to minimize the
friction losses. Therefore, accurate surface topography classifications ensure a good choice of the
requirements of engine lubricant characteristics.

o Each material surface quality depends on the size of the used material cell form and dimensions, which
control the surface roughness and cell rigidity against friction and wear.

o In spite of today research, it still needs to compromise between the advantages of metallic and nonmetallic
materials in the automotive engine materials. This will achieved easily using non-metallic material in the
coating of metallic material to develop the engine performance. Consequently, experimental researches
have been required to compare between available techniques of liner surface materials, coating, and
finishing quality.

o Eventually, advanced measuring techniques in the level of micro- and nano-meter scales are play important
role in the characterization of developed surface for automotive engine cylinder materials.

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