ANIMAL DIVERSITY

WHAT IS A SPECIES?
8.5-9 million species. Species→ most fundamental unit. Different definitions of species.

Understand evolutionary divergence and convergence.

Rapid evolution of Anolis lizards→ extremely shot lifespawn they changed their behaviour and their morphology.
Rapid evolution. Usually diversification occurs over longer timescales.

1. Biological species concept: A group of actually or potentially breeding natural populations that are
reproductively isolated from other groups. -Ernst Mayr.
Ex: Lions and Tigers: they can crate hybrids between them but when you make these hybrids they are not
able to reproduce.
There are problems with this concept: bacteria, it is inapplicable to asexually reproducing organisms, and it
is also inapplicable to historic changes, we have no idea if they could reproduce.
Corvus corone Corvus cornix→ what level of hybridation is it allowed????
Its not a binary thing it is more about gradation.
2. Phenetic species concept: A group of organisms that resemble one another and are distinct of one set.
There could be intraspecific variation, big plasticity forming ecophenotypes, Depending on your main
proble, one phenotype can produce different phenotypes. Species complex: Cryptic species sibling species.
It can be good for categorycing different species in the historical records but the records can be very alike.

SYSTEMATICS AND PHYLOGENY

Linneus the father of taxonomy who proposed his classification (Taxonomy natura)

• Classification: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, order, family, genus, especies.

The systematics is the study of pattern of evolutionary relationsgips among taxa, the phylogeny os the evolutionary
tree common for a group of ornganisms.

Cladistics: A method of hypothesizing relationships among organisms based upon uniquely shared characetrs. The
assumptions of this ‘’law’’ are; charaters change or are acquired over the time, any group of organisms is related
by common descent and bifurcating pattern of branching or splitting.

➔ The most recent common ancestor of human and frogs appears earlier than the one of the fishes and the
frogs.

Cladogram: the length of the lines don’t mean anything at all.

• Vultures (buitre): example of polyphyletic group.

WHAT IS A CHARACTER?
A trait or feature inherited by an organism absence or presence of a feature, nucleotide in a DNA sequence.

Synapomorphy and plesiomorphy. For ex fur is a mammal synapomorphy vut lungs are a mammal plesiomorphy.

Homology: character for two species if it is derived from their common ancestor. Analogies are something sor of
opposite. The convergent evolution is a phenomenom which occurs when characters idependently arise form
different ancestors. Can also be the loss of a feature.

The divergent evolution occur when closely related species have differentiated, for example morphological
adaptation to different niches.
SECOND LECTURE: ADAPTATION

A feature of an organism that enhances the survival or reproduction of the organism that bears it, not product of
design but selection.

➢ Snakes evolve to flexible skulls so they can eat eggs

The exaptation is a feature which evolved for a purpose initially but it has been co-opted to serve a new function.
For example penguin wings which co-opted underwater swimming.

➢ Birds evolved from therapode dinosaurs and bird-feathers may have initially had a thermoregulatory
function.
➢ Sexually selected adaptation→ honest signals (?).

Not all traits necessary have an adaptative function

How to recognize an adaptation:

It has to be with the design, one way to do it is giving the feature engineering solutions, the second is exposing the
adaptation to an experimental manipulation. Finally you can use a comparative method.

➢ Ex: each dot is a different species, red are polygamous and black are monogamous. Whar we see is
marched for body weight polygamous species have larger testes than monogamous taxa. Sperm
competition, males need to produce more sperm.

It is important to know that adaptations have their limits, for example, cheetahs are really fast but they can be
faster, since it would mean reducing their boones density so much.

Trade-offs: compromise. Using a comparative method they discover that there is a trade off between the volume
and the hynoid volume of gibbons. They are a lot of trade-offs which are corelated with adaptations.

NEONTOLOGY PALAEONTOLOGY

Neontology is referred to the things that we know from the neo, the new, mean while paleontology is the study of
the old. Studying and recomposing the clades of the animal kingdom there was observed such a big gap between
choanoflagellates and metazoans molecular phylogeny.

The earliest animals had a non mineralized bodie, without bones, and the fossil record is incomplete.

Two different types of evidences with two different types of problems.

When we are dealing with the history of earth, we mostly look at the Phanerozoic, when most life appeared.
Before, there is a big gap period during which nothing really happened when it comes to animal life until the
Cambric, when basic life on earth appeared.

Cambrian: time when the trace fossils Treptichnus appeared, evidence of movement. There were also trilobites,
fossils of arthropods.

Darwin had a dilemma, several of the main divisions of the animal kingdom suddenly appeared in the lowest
fossiliferous rock, he could not explain why there weren’t rich fossiliferous deposits. The case at present must
remain inexplicable. -Origin of the species.

He expected to see a gradient of complexity during time. That’s Darwins dilemma.

PRE-PHANEROZOIC LIFE

➔ Photosynthesis lead to accumulation of atmospheric O2 at great oxygenation event. There were not the
actual levels of oxygen until the near end of the Proterozoic.
➔ Evidence of oxygen: Banded iron formations, in the rocks with iron bands there was a biomarker
synthesized by photosynthetic organisms, the 2-alpha-methylhopanes.
➔ Stromatolites
 After the accumulation of oxygen eukaryotic organisms started to appear after the endosymbiosis of bacteria.
Fossils evidence of multicellularity multiple instances of multicellularity in life, including metazoan stem.
Multicellularity is important due to its one of the main characteristics of being an animal, but also of plants and
fungi.

Main of the organisms of the fossil record from phanerozoic were only these, evidences of multicellular living
things.

PRE-CAMBRIAN:

Exploring the rocks, Rogeer Manson, came across the charnia masori and charniodiscus, in rocks before the
cambrium with evidences of complex life. The Ediacaran fauna is the term that refers to the first evidences of
animal life, fossils which looked like ‘’plants’’. The ones who gave the name were the one found in Ediacaran Hills
in Australia.

➔ Branching forms: Similar fundamental morphologies, but different sizes and shapes, similar kind of growth.
There were initially intrerpeted as cnidarian, but actually it doesn’t really fit because of its morphology.
The branching forms, have different shapes but fundamentally similar frond morphology and FRACTAL
growth. Animals doesn’t show fractal growth (multiple levels of growth), same fundamental structure. They
formed their own kind of group, Rangeomorphs.
➔ Radial forms: Some of them were interpreted as cnidarians, but more likely to be holdfast of Rangeomorph
fronds. Triradials, cuatriradials, etc. are not known.
➔ BILATERIAN forms: more modern. They initially were compared to artropods but they certainly don’t stac
at all, they are more evolved than Rhangeomorphs but they don’t have the fundamental features that
would make them animals yet, no guts, no muscles, etc. Kimbrella has been a subject of study, it has been
compared to a molusc, ctenophore, cnidarian, etc.
Dickinsonia had some layers of simetry, glide simetry which means each segment is slightly offset from each
other. Dickinsonia left evidence of traces, indicating it was digesting the underlying microbial mat, similar
of the placozoan, this is consistent with osmotrophy as their high surface area.
Dickinsonia has also been demonstrated to be composed of animal like molecules, they were able to
extract materia, gas chromatography of organic remnants shows evidence of animal-like cholesteroids, and
not algae typical biomarkers.
Kimbrella→ evidence of motility, evidence of grazing. The evidence shows the possibility of them being
limpets, modern mollusks , Kimbrella might be a modern kind of animal.
Haootia→ they showed to have striated fibers, and this might mean they had animals and they were
animals. These kind of organisms were interpreted as cnidarians.

24-isopropyl is a unique biomolecule synthesized by demosponges and recovered in most of the fossils before
Ediacaran, there might be an evidence of sponges existing. Identifying sponges fossils might be so difficult since
they don’t have symmetry. There were evidences of animal presence evidence in the Ediacaran but it’s a little bit
tricky to determine.

EDIACARAN ECOLOGY

Preserved in situ as large flat microbial planes, massive microbial mat substrate. Most organisms were epibenthic,
that developed a simple ecosystem.

Fractofucus (Rangiomorphs) → Geospatial analysis of spacing between Fractofusus specimens on bedding plane
made the scientist spot there were 3 classes according to what size they had, there were large, medium and small,
using that were able to reconstrute the idea they were clustering. There were big ones randomly distributed along
the bedding plane, around the big ones there were medium ones and around these last there were small ones, this
evidence made scientist think they were having asexual reproduction, these organisms were broadcasting through
the environment, spawning randomly.

After a long period of relative stasis, large fossils turn up in the Ediacaran deposits. That could be possibly due to
the deglaciation, allowing organisms to develop. The Ediacaran was preceded by a massive deglaciation.The
Gaskier one is the one implicated now, but there have been other glaciations previously. The main reason why this
deglaciation was the one which lead to animal radiation was the appearance of oxygen, if we take a look to the
records of the reconstructions of oxygen levels, an extra pulse of oxygen right before the Ediacaran can be spotted,
which can be linked to what was happening to Ediacaran zoology. The increase of oxygen could lead to improve the
oxidative respiration, if we look to the fossil record we observe Ediacaran organisms appear to have very high-
surface area to volume ratios. Oxygen was the limitans factor.

Another possible cause might be the carbon excursion, arrival of lots of carbo might have changed the nature of the
environment that the organisms found themselves in.

There are several changes between modern ecosystems and past ecosystems, they go from a 2D with little
barrrowing flat model to a 3D model.

Beginning of burrowing→ evidence of evolution of organisms

LOPHOTROCHOZAS
It is a really diverse group, it is a super phylum. It is an incredibly diverse clade, with about 13 phyla. Non common
morphological trati across all groups but they are monophyletic, with a single ancestor.

Bryazoa, the moss animals, they are colonial of clones, they are largely marine and very small, they can resemble
to aquatic plants. Most of them marine.

➢ Entoprocta: separe phyla but very resemble to the to bryozoa.

➢ Cycliophora: They were discovered recently, living on the mouth paws of the lobsters.

GNATHIFERA:

Well supported clade made of 3 phyla, they have mastax.

➢ Rothifera: wheely animals, thorny headed worms, around 300 speceis. Aquatic.
➢ Micrognathozoa: Absolutely tiny, with very complex jaw structures made of 16 components. They live in
extreme ambientes. They lay two different kind of eggs.
➢ Gnathostomulida: Jaw worms, they are hermaphrodites.
➢ Gastrotricha: extremely small, aquatic,
➢ Platyhelminthes: flat worms, flukes, tapeworms. Firstly scientist thought they were simple primitive
animals, but actually they have eyesports, nervous system and bilateral simetry. The parasytes have such a
complex life cycle.

LOPHOPHORATES:

➢ Brachiopoda:
➢ Nemertea (ribbon worms): some of the longest animals on planet earth. With proboscides,

Annelids:

Annelids are segmented worms, their body is divided in different segments called METAMER, each segment contains
a part of nervous, circulatory, digestive systems and coelomic cavity, in fact, the coelomic cavity is filled with
liquid, then it is used as a hydrostatic skeleton which moves thanks to the action of the muscles surrounding it,
causing which is called peristaltic movements, each segment is separated by structures called septa, which prevent
the coelomic liquid from going from one segment to another.

From each segment, a chitinous structure called setae surges, these structures help with the locomotion process.

The circulatory system is closed, and the nervous system is made of 2 nervous cords and 1 pair of ganglia for each
metamer. Sensory system of tactile organs, taste buds, statocysts (in some), photoreceptor cells, and eyes with
lenses (in some); specialization of head region into differentiated organs, such as tentacles, palps, and eyespots of
polychaetes.

➢ Polychaetas: Marine annelids, they have a well-differentiated head, which can be separated into the
peristomium and prostomium, in which the mouth and eyes can be found. One of the main features of
polychaetes is the possession of parapodia, these parapodia can be vascularized and be used as part of the
respiratory system.
 ➔ Polychaetes can experience some kind of weird reproduction system called epitochy, by which the
individual remains sexually inactive during one year long and then the time when the individual experiences
morphological changes comes and it becomes sexually active. It cab become sexually active by 2 different
ways.
1. Epigamy: the individual experiences morphological changes and then becomes sexually active.
2. Eschizogamy: the individual does not become sexually active, it releases some gametes and these
reproduce asexually to give rise to sexually active individuals.
➢ Citellates: It ingroups the oligochaetes an Hirudinea, they are named after the ring surrounding their body,
which is called clitella. The main differences with polychaetas are:
1. Reduced prostomium.
2. Without parapodia and little chetas.
3. Hermaphrodites and little gonads.

Oligochaetes: most of them are terrestrial or fresh water individuals, some of them can have setae but this
is not an habitual trait, they are small, they move through peristaltic movements. Most of them are
detritivores, they have calciferous glandules, their main function is to get the calcium of aliments. They
have lateral hearts and 5 main bloody vessels. They are hermaphrodites and interchange sperm during
reproduction, they put the clitella in front of the gonads of the other individual and keep together until
the end of reproduction.

Hirudinea: They inhabit wether land, sea water or fresh water areas. They have 2 different suckers, one
oral sucker and one posterior sucker. The septa disappear within this group and the caelome is occupied by
a connective tissue. The clitella only appears during reproduction. Leeches are hematophagous animals
and secret anticoagulant substances such as hirudin, that way they can suck a big amount of blood.

Ecological importance of annelids→ drainage, prevent compaction,aeration, fertilization. Extremely important

➢ Leeches: They secrete anticoagulants to make the blood easier to consume.

Mollusca: 20000 species of mollusks. They are extremely diverse, dominated the ocean. Extremely varied in
morphology, ecology, etc. Emerged in the Cambrium, whe have terrestrial forms. They are very diverse but the
basal anatomy is composed by a soft body, unsengmented system, the mantile is what proctects the body. They
have a specialized feeding structure called radula, specialized in rasping grass from rocks. Very small teeth. This
ancestral amodel has been modified in other kind of mollusks for example the beak of cephalopods

➢ Gastropods:Most of them are herbivorous. Nudibranchy. Planktonic larva.

➢ Cephalopods: quite recognizable group. Highly specialized predators with a lot of corvengent features with
other clades. Hydrodinamic forms. They have a really powerful cognitive abilities.

ARTHROPODS
Segmental body with pronounced tagmatisation, head, thorax, abdomen.

Jointed appendages

Open circulatory system+Chitonous exoskeleton

Highly cephalized, sensory organs

Sexually dimorphic

SUB-PHYLA: TRILOBITES

Marine animals, pelagic forms, we don’t really know homw many species they were. We don’t know anything of the
sift tissues only exoskeleton.

If longevity of a clade was equivalent to success, they were so successful, they extinted in Permiam extinction.

CHELICERATA
10-20000 species. They started being marine animals, many groups were so spicious in the past but now they are
not.

Cephalotorax, chelicerae, pedipalps, eyes and abdomen. Pedipalps are modified among all the group.Most of the
animals in this group liquiy presses before eating them.

Picnogonids:

They are marine, most of them small, they are carnivorous, they have a proboscids. Unusually they have male
parental care,

Xiphosurids:

There are two tipes, Eurypterida (extinted) which were the way bigger than a human. In the carboniferous the
oxygen levels were elevated and it could explain why there were that big amount of big arthropods, and
Xiphosurids (horseshoe crab) they are polyandrous, they have book gills, huge compound eyes, they have
hemocianine in their veins.

Aracnida:

80.000 species described. One of the first chelicerates which conquered the land was the trigonotarbida, they are
extinted.

The aranae. They are all carnivours and predators except 1 species. There are several predating strategies inside
this clade, many of them use their spiders web, most of them have acute visions. Tnere are also active predators
like jumping spider, but there are a lot of ways of catching the prey.

➢ There is one herbivorous spider.

Opiliones have just one body section, 6000 species. Many of species have 1 pair of eyes ubicated in a small
‘’tower’’ in their upper body.

The order solifugae live in arid environments, they can go too big, they have got relatively large chelicerates.

The order scorpions are predators. Around 1400 species, they dominate the biomas in desserts. Realli suitable
adaptations to help them, very slow metabolism so they can survive almost a year without food. There is parental
care by the mother.Chelicerae are mpdified in claws.

The thelyphonida are the water scorpions, produce a chemical deffense which smells as vinegar.

The clade amblypygid, not scorpiosn, not spiders, they live in tropical regions, with quite big size, they are not
poisonous. There is parental care within this clade.

Acari are so small, eith 1050 species , a lot of species are parasytes.