CELL: TYPES, FUNCTIONS,

AND MODIFICATION
for General Biology 1 Grade 11
Quarter 1/ Week 2

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PRE-ACTIVITY
Label Me. Identify and label the correct parts of the cell. Write your answers in
your notebook.

Source: https://researchpedia.info/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/difference-btw-plant-
cell-and-animal-cell.jpg

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I. WHAT I NEED TO KNOW
DISCUSSION
Cells are the basic structures of all living organisms. Every
organism is composed of one or two structurally different types of
cells: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes come from the Greek term pro meaning “before”
and karyon meaning “kernel” referring to the nucleus. Prokaryotic
cells have no nucleus, and their genetic material (DNA) is
concentrated in a region called the nucleoid which does not have a
membrane separating it from the rest of the cell. The major parts of a
prokaryotic cell include cell wall, cell membrane, ribosomes, and a
nucleoid.
Two domains of organisms comprise prokaryotes: Bacteria and
Archaea. Bacteria make up most of the prokaryotes. In addition,
Archaea are found in extreme environments such as hot springs or
near volcanoes. The difference between Bacteria and Archaea is
their type of cell wall. Archaea have a thicker cell wall that is very
strong and protects it from the heat and chemicals found in harsh
environments, while Bacteria have a more permeable cell wall that
provides less protection from high temperatures or extreme pH, but
takes less energy to build.
Both Bacteria and Archaea consist of unicellular organisms.
Prokaryotes are important to all life on Earth for a number of reasons.
They play a critical role in the recycling of nutrients by decomposing
dead organisms and allowing their nutrients to be re-used. They are
also important for many metabolic processes. Bacteria in our guts
and mouth help with the digestion of food by breaking down difficult
to digest carbohydrates and other compounds.

A prokaryotic cell is a simple, single-celled (unicellular)

organism that lacks a nucleus, or any other membrane-bound
organelle. We will shortly come to see that this is significantly different
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in eukaryotes. Prokaryotic DNA is found in the central part of the cell:
a darkened region called the nucleoid.

Figure 1. Prokaryotic cell.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Prokaryote_cell_diagram.svg

Eukaryotes
The oldest fossil evidence of eukaryotes is about 2 billion years
old. Eukaryotes are combination of two Greek terms eu meaning
“true” and karyon meaning “nucleus.” Thus, eukaryote means “true
kernel” or “true nucleus,” alluding to the presence of the
membrane-bound nucleus in these cells. The word organelle means
“little organ,” and organelles have specialized cellular functions, just
as the organs of your body have specialized functions.

A cell has a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-

bound compartments or sacs, called organelles, which have
specialized functions. The major organelles found in a eukaryotic cell
are cell membrane, cell wall, ribosomes, nucleus, mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, and lysosomes. They are both unicellular and
multicellular eukaryotes. The four kingdoms of eukaryotic organisms
are Kingdom Plantae, Kingdom Animalia, Kingdom Fungi, and
Kingdom Protista.
Plants are photosynthetic organisms containing cell walls and
specialized reproductive tissue. Animals are organisms that lack cell
walls, are capable of locomotion, and have a digestive tract. Fungi
digest their food externally and then absorb it through their cell walls.

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 Plants, animals, and fungi are all multicellular organisms. Protists
are single-celled motile organisms that can be either photosynthetic
or heterotrophic.

Figure 2. Eukaryotic cell.

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=eukaryotes+images&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1
&fir=dhv4mrEubFlS9M%252CO10cwibhAdgBpM%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_-
kTsKGvEATxm6ZgRktVdr4iEKFM5wQ&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj9monMsbbqAhUJa94KHYtuBlwQ9QE
wAnoECAoQIA&biw=1366&bih=657#imgrc=68xsIWpOBsjqaM&imgdii=dQb8M7w6ITIVPM

Animals are capable of movement, although not all animals

have muscles used for movement. In the most commonly
encountered animals, the mobile stage is the adult, although some
animals (such as corals and sponges) have sessile (or nonmobile)
adult phases and mobile juvenile forms. Both animal and plant
evolutionary history show the development of multicellularity and
they move from water to land (as well as a secondary adaptation
back to water, for example dolphins, whales, duckweed, and
elodea).
Animals developed external or internal skeletons to provide
support, skin to prevent or lessen water loss, muscles that allowed
them to move to search for food, brains and nervous systems for
integration of stimuli, and internal digestive systems.

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Animal tissues are divided into four main types:
1. Epithelial Tissue
This type of tissue is commonly seen outside as coverings or as
linings of organs and cavities. It is characterized by closely-joined
cells with tight junctions. Being tightly packed, tight junctions serve as
barriers for pathogens, mechanical injuries and fluid loss. Cells that
make up epithelial tissues have distinct arrangements:
A. Cuboidal- for secretion
B. Simple columnar - brick-shaped cells; for secretion and active
absorption
C. Simple squamous - plate-like cells; for exchange of material
through diffusion
D. Stratified squamous - multilayered and regenerates quickly for
protection
E. Pseudo-stratified columnar - single layer of cells; may just look
stacked because of varying height; for lining of respiratory tract;
usually lined with cilia (i.e., a type of cell modification that sweeps
the mucus)

Figure 3. Epithelial tissue.

Source: https://www.kullabs.com/classes/subjects/units/lessons/notes/note-detail/1141

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2. Connective Tissue - These tissues are composed of the following:
A. BLOOD - made up of plasma (i.e., liquid extracellular matrix):
contains water, salts and dissolve proteins, erythrocytes that carry
oxygen (RBC), leukocytes for defense (WBC), and platelets for blood
clotting.
B. CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER (CTP)- made up of loose
connective tissue that is found in the skin and fibrous connective
tissue that is made up of collagenous fibers found in tendons and
ligaments. Adipose tissues are also examples of loose connective
tissues that store fats which functions to insulate the body and store
energy.
C. CARTILAGE - characterized by collagenous fibers embedded
in chondroitin sulfate. Chondrocytes are the cells that secrete
collagen and chondroitin sulfate. Cartilage functions are cushion
between bones.
D. BONE - mineralized connective tissue made by bone-forming
cells called osteoblasts which deposits collagen. Blood vessels and
nerves are found at a central canal surrounded by concentric
circles of osteon.

Figure 4. Connective tissue.

Source: https://termandhistology.wordpress.com/histology/four-type-of-
tissues/connective-tissues/
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3. Muscle Tissue
These tissues are composed of long cells called muscle fibers
that allow the body to move voluntary or involuntary. It gives rise to
muscles' ability to contract. This is opposed to other components or
tissues in muscle such as tendons or perimysium. It is formed during
embryonic development through a process known as myogenesis.
Muscle tissue consists of elongated cells also called as muscle
fibers. This tissue is responsible for movements in our body.
Movement of muscles is a response to signals coming from nerve
cells.
In vertebrates, these muscles can be categorized into the
following:
A. Skeletal - striated: voluntary movements, attached to the
skeleton
B. Cardiac - striated with intercalated disk for synchronized heart
contraction, involuntary, located in the walls of the heart
C. Smooth - not striated; involuntary, located in walls of hollow
visceral
organs

Figure 5. Muscle tissue.

Source: https://medlineplus.gov/ency/imagepages/19841.htm

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4. Nervous Tissue
These tissues are composed of nerve cells called neuron and
glial cells that function as support cells. These neurons sense stimuli
and transmit electrical signals throughout the animal body. Neurons
connect to other neuron that receives impulses from other neurons,
while the axon is the part where the impulse is transmitted to other
neurons.

Figure 6. Structure of a typical neuron.

Source: https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/nervous/tissue.html

Plant cells with similar structure and functions form plant

tissue.
Plant tissues come in several forms: vascular, epidermal,
ground, and meristematic. Each type of tissue consists of
different types of cells, has different functions, and is located
in different places. Plant tissues are divided into two main
types:
1. Meristematic tissue - is actively dividing to produce new cells.
Meristematic tissue consists of undifferentiated small cell, with dense
cytoplasm and large nuclei. The cells differentiate into new tissue of
the plant. Meristematic tissue is found at the meristems of plants:
A. Apical Meristem - are located at the growing points at the
tips of roots and stems and results in an increase in the length of
these structures.
B. Lateral Meristem - results in the growth in thickness or width of
woody roots and stems. This tissue is also called cambium; cork
cambium divides to form the cork cells that form the outer bark of a
woody plant. Vascular cambium divides to make xylem and
phloem tissue
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 Figure 7. Meristematic tissue.
Source: https://byjus.com/biology/meristematic-tissue/

2. Permanent Tissue
These are specialized in function and do not divide constantly.
Differentiation of cells begins as soon as cells have been formed by
cell division, and results in changes in structure. There are three
groups of permanent tissue:
A. Epidermal Tissue - This is the outermost layer of cells that covers
the roots, stems, and leaves. They are tightly packed, with no
intercellular air spaces. The main function of the epidermal cells is to
protect the underlying tissue from injury.
a. Guard cells - are bean-shaped epidermal cells that occur on
either side of a stoma which is the opening that occurs on the
surface of a leaf. The guard cells function to open and close the
stoma, thus controlling the loss of water by transpiration.
b. Hair cells - are formed by an extension of the cell wall. The hair
functions to increase the surface area of the root to maximize the
uptake of water and nutrients.
B. Vascular tissue - functions to transport and support.
a. Xylem Tissue - transport water and mineral salts from the
ground water through the roots to the stems and leaves. It consists
of vessels and tracheids - both cells have cell walls that are
strengthened with lignin and both types of cells are dead at
maturity.
b. Phloem Tissue - transport food from the leaves, where
photosynthesis takes place, to areas undergoing growth or storage

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sites. Phloem tissue consists of long columns of sieve tubes and
companion cells.

3. Ground Tissue
This type of tissue forms the body of the plant and is
responsible for support, storage, and photosynthesis. There are three
types of ground tissue:
A. Parenchyma - thin walled and alive at maturity; often
multifaceted
B. Collenchyma - thick walled and alive at maturity
C. Sclerenchyma- thick walled and dead at maturity

Figure 8. Anatomy of flowering plant tissue systems.

Source: https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/anatomy-of-flowering-
plants/tissue-systems/

What is cell modification?

Cell specialization or modification occurs after cell division

wherein newly formed cells are structurally modified so that they
can perform their function efficiently and effectively.

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Apical modification
It is a cell modification found on the apical surface of the cell.

Cilia and flagella

➢ Cilia are usually short, hair-like structures that move in
waves.
➢ Flagella are long whip-like structures.
➢ Formed from microtubules

Figure 9. Cilia and flagella.

Source: https://byjus.com/biology/difference-between-cilia-and-flagella/

Figure 10. Both cilia and flagella function for cell locomotion.
Source: Exploring Life Through Science, General Biology 1, Phoenix Publishing House

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 Villi and microvilli

➢ Villi are finger-like projections that arise from epithelial layer

in some organs. They help to increase surface area allowing
for faster and more efficient adsorption.
➢ Microvilli are smaller projections that arise from the cell’s
surface that also increase surface area allowing faster and
more efficient adsorption.

Figure 11. Structure of microvilli.

Source: https://microbenotes.com/microvilli-structure-and-functions/

These projections increase the surface area of the small

intestine for the absorption of nutrients, and as a higher surface area
= higher rate of transportation processes such as diffusion, they thus
increase the rate of absorption.

Pseudopods
➢ Temporary, irregular lobes formed by amoebas and some
other eukaryotic cells
➢ Bulge outward to move the cell or engulf prey
➢ From the Greek word pseudes and podos, meaning
“false” and “feet”.

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 Figure 12. Pseudopods.
Source: https://www.quora.com/What-purpose-does-a-pseudopod-serve-to-an-
amoeba

Extracellular matrix (ECM)

➢ Compound secreted by the cell on its apical

surface
➢ Cell wall in the extracellular structure in plant cells that
distinguishes them from animal cell
➢ Glycoprotein is the main ingredient of ECM in animal cells.
➢ They cover external surface, line up internal organs, take
up nutrients, export wastes, and interact with the external
environment.

Figure 13. Extracellular matrix acts like glue to bind the cells together in the
tissue and provides mechanical strength.
Source: https://www.regentys.com/research/

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 Basal Modification

➢ Cell modification found on the basal surface of the cell

desmosomes/hemidesmosomes
➢ Anchoring junction on the basal surface of the cell
Rivet-like links between cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
components such as the basal lamina that underlie
epithelia. Primarily composed of keratin, integrin, and
cadherin

Figure 14. Cell modification found on the basal surface of the cell hemidesmosomes.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:402_Types_of_Cell_Junctions_new.jpg

Lateral modification
A cell junction that provides contact between
neighboring cells or between the cell and extracellular
matrix.

Tight Junction
➢ Acts as barriers that regulate the movement of the
water and solutes between epithelial layers
➢ Prevent leakage of ECF

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 Figure 15. Tight junctions join two together to form a leak-proof sheet.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:402_Types_of_Cell_Junctions_new.jpg

Adhering Junction
➢ Anchoring junction on the lateral surface of the cell
➢ Very similar to the anchoring junction of the basal
surface of the cell
➢ Fasten cells to one another

Figure 16. Adhesion junctions act like screws together with cytoskeletal fiber to form a
strong sheet.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:402_Types_of_Cell_Junctions_new.jpg

Gap Junction
➢ Also known as communicating junctions
➢ Closable channel that connect the cytoplasm of
adjoining animal cells
➢ Presence of connexon that allow direct exchange of
chemical between the cytoplasm of the cells
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 Figure 17. Gap junctions allow small molecules to flow between neighboring cells.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:402_Types_of_Cell_Junctions_new.jpg

Part 1. Directions: In your notebook, write T if the statement is correct

and write F if not.

1. Eukaryotes are complex cells with a nucleus and other

membrane-bound organelles.

2. Bacteria are examples of eukaryotes.

3. Bioengineers try to kill all bacteria because they are all

harmful.

4. Through a process called bioremediation, bioengineers

try to promote the growth of bacteria which can eat
substances that are toxic to humans.
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Part 2. Directions: Match column A with column B. Write the letter of
your answer in your notebook.
A B
5. Epithelial tissue a. It is a type of plant tissue that is
6. Connective tissue specialized in function and does not divide
7. Muscle tissue constantly. It serves as guard and
8. Nervous tissue protection.
9. Meristematic tissue
10. Permanent tissue b. This type of tissue forms the body of the
11. Ground tissue plant and is responsible for support, storage,
and photosynthesis.
c. This type of tissue is responsible for plant
growth. It is present at the tips of roots, stem,
and branches.
d. This type of tissue is commonly seen
outside as coverings or as linings of organs
and cavities.
e. It is a group of tissues in the body
that maintains the form of the body and its
organs and provides cohesion and internal
support.
f. This type of tissue is composed of long cells
called muscle fibers that allow the body to
move voluntary or involuntary. It gives rise to
the muscles' ability to contract.
g. It is a type of tissue that is composed of
nerve cells called neuron and glial cells that
function as support cells.

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Part 3. Directions: Read and understand the statement below.
In your notebook, write a short essay for your answer. You will
be graded based on the rubric provided.

12-20. Relate the importance of some cell modification by describing

their adaptation to carry out specialized function (e.g., microvilli,
root hair). (9 points)

Rubric: Content ------- 5 points

Organization -- 4 points

Total: 9 points

II. WHAT I HAVE LEARNED

EVALUATION/POST-TEST
Answer Me!

Directions: In your notebook, write the letter that corresponds to the

correct answer.

1. Which of these do all prokaryotes and eukaryotes share?

A. nuclear envelope C. organelles
B. cell wall D. plasma membrane

2. A typical prokaryotic cell compared to a

eukaryotic cell.
A. is smaller in size by a factor of 100
B. is similar in size
C. is smaller in size by a factor of one million
D. is larger in size by a factor of 1

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3. Which type of cell has a nucleus?
A. prokaryote C. bacteria
B. eukaryote D. algae

4. Which type of cell does not contain membrane-bound

organelles?
A. prokaryote C. bacteria
B. eukaryote D. algae

5. Which type of cell has ribosomes?

A. prokaryote C. eukaryote
B. both prokaryote and eukaryote D. none of the above

6. The meristematic tissues and permanent tissue are types

of .
A. Endoplasmic tissues C. Simple tissues
B. Phloem tissues D. Xylem tissues

7. The major categories of plant tissues are .

A. Compound tissues only C. Epidermal tissues
B. Simple tissues only D. Compound and
simple tissues

8. What do you call a finger-like projection that arises from epithelial

layer in some organs that helps to increase surface area allowing
for faster and more efficient adsorption?
A. Cilia C. Villi
B. Flagella D. Microvilli

9. It is a temporary, irregular lobe formed by amoebas and some

eukaryotic cells that functions to move or engulf prey.
A. Cilia C. Villi
B. Flagella D. None of the above

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10. It is a lash-like appendage that protrudes from the cell body
found on the apical surface of the cells.
A. Cilia C. Villi
B. Flagella D. Microvilli

11. They are usually short, hair-like structures that move in waves with
protuberances that project from the much larger cell body.
A. Cilia C. Villi
B. Flagella D. Microvilli

12. A type of junction that act as barriers that regulate the

movement of the water and solutes between epithelial layers.
A. Tight junction C. Gap junction
B. Adhering junction D. Microvilli

13. It is also known as communicating junction.

A. Tight junction C. Gap junction
B. Adhering junction D. Microvilli

14. It acts like screws together with cytoskeletal fiber to form a strong
sheet.
A. Tight junction C. Gap junction
B. Adhering junction D. Microvilli

15. It is also called a false foot.

A. Cilia C. Villi
B. Flagella D. None of the above

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