GROUND2020/21 International Conference on Grounding

&
& Lightning Physics and Effects

9th LPE Belo Horizonte, Brazil - June, 2021

GEOELECTRIC MODELING FOR THE RETROFIT OF THE GROUNDING SYSTEM OF THE BOM
JARDIM DA SERRA WINDFARM

Paulo Edmundo da F. Freire, Neimar Rodrigo Alves da Silva, Jonas Zanelatto Minatto, Camila Schweig, Patricia de
Lugão, Berthold Kriegshäuser, Jorge Luis Porsani
PAIOL Engenharia, Energimp, Geoanalisys, Strataimage, USP

Abstract - Windfarms are wide-area generating plants, with

dimensions of the order of kilometers, which require a deep 1 DESCRIPTION OF THE WINDFARM COMPLEX
geoelectric model for the proper design of its grounding system.
In 2019 the Bom Jardim da Serra windfarm started a wide retrofit,
for the substitution of its 62 old aerogenerators by new ones. The Bom Jardim da Serra Windfarm Complex occupies an
Considering the high exposition of the windfarm to lightning and area of about 28 km² and consists of four windfarms with
the complex regional geology, both associated with the 62 towers. Each generating unit has 1.5 MW with three 30
geographic location of the site, the review of the grounding system meters blades, supported by towers between 60 to 100
was considered an important item of the retrofit. meters in height. The interference-free maneuvering yards
The Bom Jardim da Serra windfarm is situated on the southeast are 60 meters in diameter and the towers are spaced
edge of the Santa Catarina Plateau, the border of the Serra Geral about 380 m on average.
Formation, 1400 m above sea level. This plateau is bordered by
huge and beautiful canyons, which are very close to some
aerogenerators' towers, and was produced by the extensive Excluding the Santo Antônio windfarm, which has only two
fissural volcanism that 130 million years ago flooded 75% of the towers, the other three windfarms have each one 20
entire Paraná Basin, South of Brazil, with 800,000 km³ of lava. towers, interconnected with the substation through an
These geologic events formed volcanic layers with an average aerial double-circuit 34.5 kV line, with an average length of
thickness of about 800 m, but also up to 1500 m in the axis of the 7.3 km. The groundings of the towers are interconnected
Paraná Basin. Moisture is very high in the area and the basalt by the shield wires of the medium voltage lines, or by a 70
basement is covered by a less than one-meter thick layer of mm² bare copper cable directly buried in the ground, which
organic soil (black peat). There are basalt outcrops everywhere in
this area and they are well-intact in some places, in others quite
accompanies the medium voltage cables in the
altered. underground stretches of the lines.
The typical grounding project is based on shallow, double-layered
geoelectric models, developed from Wenner soundings, with Figure 1.1 shows a Google Earth image that illustrates the
electrode openings limited to about 100 m and with no correction entire Windfarm Complex, with the location of the towers
of the galvanic deviations. and of the 22 stations where geophysical soundings were
A geoelectric model was developed in an unprecedented way, carried out. In each station, it was done an
with the use of three different geophysical sounding methods. The audiomagnetotelluric (AMT) sounding and a Vertical
combination of the measured geophysical dataset, with some
known geological constraints, allowed for the construction of a 1D
Electrical Sounding (VES) with the Wenner arrangement.
deep geoelectrical model down to about 1 km depth, compatible Four Time-Domain Electromagnetic (TDEM) soundings
with the dimension of the windfarm. were carried out in stations A2, C3, C5 and B8.
The 1D geoelectric model shows that, in the area of the wind farm,
the volcanic package is superimposed over a layer of low
resistivity pre-volcanic sediments. Despite the basaltic basement
that dominates the entire area, the resistivities obtained are lower
than what could be expected, which indicates that the basalts in
the area are well fractured and water-saturated. The 1D
geoelectric model is compatible with the geological structure
expected for the border of the canyons and was used to simulate
the towers' groundings, which resulted in calculated impedances
(25 kHz) that are similar to the average of the measured
impedances at the aerogenerators towers.
This pioneering design approach, based in extensive geophysical
surveys, is compared to the traditional usual grounding design
based on simple and shallow geoelectric models, developed from
Wenner soundings, with openings of the current probes limited to
about 100 m wide and with no static-shift adjustment.
This is a multidisciplinary paper that applies electrical engineering
and geophysics knowledge for the solution of an engineering
problem. The paper presents the methodology used for the
construction of the average 1D deep geoelectric model of the
windfarm area, which is a unidimensional model of the subsurface
structure, composed of horizontal ground layers of different
electrical resistivities and thicknesses.
Figure 1.1: towers of the Bom Jardim da Serra Windfarm,
geophysical stations Wenner/AMT and TDEM (A2, C3, C5
and B8), and lines of the AMT profiles (red).
2 EXPOSITION OF WINDFARMS TO LIGHTNING
Windfarms can be classified as extremely exposed
installations to lightning strikes, usually subject to a
combination of several critical conditions, such as [1]:
open areas, sometimes very exposed to lightning;
high towers, which allow for the formation of ground-
cloud electrical discharges;
high resistivity grounds, which make it difficult to obtain
a good low resistance grounding;
connections with long medium-voltage overhead lines.
The grounding of a wind turbine tower can be analyzed
considering two parameters:
impulsive impedance - response of the ground to a
current impulse, typical of an atmospheric discharge,
which is the impedance presented by the grounding at
t = 0+, immediately after the lightning strike; and
dispersion resistance - valid for low frequencies, such
as a short-circuit to the ground in the medium voltage
network, which can be also associated with the
resistance that the grounding presents to the tail of the
impulse, after the transient of the lightning wavefront.
The application of a high-frequency sinusoidal current in
the grounding, either for a field measurement or for a
computer simulation, is a simplified way for the estimate of
the response of the tower grounding to the wavefront of
lightning [2]. For this assessment, the 10/350 impulse is
used, which, according to the IEC 62305-1: 2010
standard, is characteristic of the first positive polarity
discharge, typical of lightning generated on top of tall and
thin structures. These discharges are only 1% of the
lightning, but they are one of the most critical conditions to
which the wind generator can be submitted. The windfarm
towers can be ground-to-cloud
lightning, which present return discharges with higher
peak and energy values, the latter associated with the long
tail of the current impulse.
Hand [3] presents the calculation of the magnetic field in
the nacelle of a wind generator, with the COMSOL
Multiphysics software, produced by the injection of a
current of 200 A @ 25 kHz on the tip of one blade,
simulating a lightning strike. The sine wave at the
frequency of 25 kHz has a period of 40 µs (T = 1/freq.),
which takes the same 10 µs that the 10/350 µs pulse takes
to reach the peak value. The frequency range from 1 to 40
kHz concentrates the highest energy content of the
standard impulses, after its decomposition by the Fourier
transform. Therefore, the grounding response to the 25
kHz frequency emulates the response to an impulse with
a 10 µs wavefront [4].
3 GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS
Three geophysical surveys were carried out over the
windfarm complex, using different electrical and
electromagnetic methods for probing the resistivity
distribution of the subsurface. The ground was probed by
22 collocated VES + AMT soundings - the VES with
Wenner arrangement and spacings up to 128 m (for
probing the upper tens of meters); the AMT soundings for
probing the so-called near-surface, with a depth of
investigation of about one kilometer. Four complimentary
TDEM soundings were done, which is another method of
near-surface survey.
The survey included the measurement of the grounding
impedance of 22 towers, with a high-frequency ground
tester (25 kHz), which revealed an average impedance of
v
but indicators of the electrical performance of the existing
grounding system, allowing for an evaluation of the
geoelectric model obtained, based on the simulations of
the grounding system of the complete windfarm.
3.1 The Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES)
The shallow soundings were done by Geoanalisys at 22
stations distributed within the windfarm complex, with a
Terrameter ABEM SAS 4000 resistivimeter, with the
Wenner array spaced 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 and 128 m.
Figure 2.1 shows the 22 apparent resistivity curves
calculated from these measurements, as well as the
geometric average curve (red). In this graph, some values
were eliminated because they were considered not
representative of the regional apparent resistivity range -
higher than 10,000 m.
The analysis of this set of curves reveals a significant
variation of the apparent resistivities, of almost a decade,
for each sounding spacing. Although the variability of the
shallow ground is expected, part of this variation can be
attributed to static-shift deviations, which affect all the
geophysical soundings based on the measurement of the
electric field on the soil surface.
The average apparent resistivity curve was considered as
representative of the typical shallow ground in the
windfarm area. The final segment of this curve indicates
an upward trend of the apparent resistivity, but the last
point (128 m spacing) was calculated from the average of
only 4 wide-open soundings. Due to these reasons, the
shallow geoelectric model will be considered well-defined
only after the joint analysis with the near-surface
soundings (TDEM/AMT).
Figure 2.1: VES apparent resistivity curves (Wenner array).
3.2 The Audiomagnetotelluric Soundings (AMT)
The AMT soundings were done by Strataimage with
Phoenix Geophysics equipment, with magnetic sensors in
the frequency range 1 - 10 kHz. The Phoenix Geophysics
MTU-5A receiver records five time-series channels - two
for the electric field and three for the magnetic field. The
soundings were done for periods of 30 minutes.
The telluric channels (electric fields Ex and Ey) were
measured using non-polarized porous lead-chloride
electrodes, with 100 m dipoles in a cross configuration and
component X always directed towards magnetic north.
Data processing transforms the raw data-series into an
Electronic Data Interchange file (EDI), containing apparent
resistivity and phase information as a function of
frequency, in addition to other parameters (impedance,
tipper, skew, coherence, induction vectors). The dipoles
orientation was corrected for the regional true magnetic
North in the pre-processing of the data, considering the
magnetic declination according to NOAA National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Organization. The AMT curves
calculated for each sounding station were rotated to align
with the dominant regional strike.
Figure 2.2 shows the two sets of 22 invariant (1D) curves
of apparent resistivities and phases. The invariant of each
of the 22 AMT sounding stations was calculated, for each
frequency, from the geometric average of the apparent
resistivities and the arithmetic average of the phases, for
the XY and YX values. This figure also shows the average
curves (red), which are representative of the regional 1D
geoelectric model of the near-surface ground layers of the
Bom Jardim da Serra windfarm complex.
Figura 2.2: AMT apparent resistivity and phase curves.
Berdichevsky [6] proposed the construction of the 1D
average regional geoelectric model of a region using the
geometric average of the invariant of the MT impedances,
calculated from a large number of MT soundings within the
area under study. MT soundings measure electric fields on
the soil surface and, in the same way of the
electroresistivity soundings, can be affected by galvanic
deviations due to heterogeneities in the resistivity of
shallow ground layers, which introduce distortions in the
parameters of the MT impedance matrix.
These deviations are not random, which means that there
is no Gaussian distribution of errors. The consequence is
that the invariants of the apparent resistivity curves of a
regional MT survey may be all displaced up or down (more
often downward) by different factors, which are constant
for each curve in the log-log scale. This means that, in
general, the invariant of the apparent resistivity curves
(1D) of different MT stations will present lower values than
the real ones, which results in an average 1D regional
model more conductive than the real [7, 8].
In the AMT transfer function, the vertical displacement of
the apparent resistivity curve occurs by a factor
independent of the frequency, with no corresponding
change in the phase curve. This effect is especially
common in volcanic environments, such as the Bom
Jardim da Serra Complex, where changes in resistivity can
occur over short horizontal distances due to the variability
of the resistivity of lava flows and/or the fracture level of
the basaltic surface packages.
3.3 The Time Domain Electromagnetic Soundings
The TDEM soundings were done by USP, using a 100 m
side transmitting square loop configuration, with a
receiving coil in the center of the loop (central loop). The
acquisition was done with a Protem-D recorder (Geonics,
1994) and a transmitting source TEM57-MK2 (Geonics,
1998), with frequencies of 30 Hz, 7.5 Hz and 3 Hz, which
allows reaching down to ~ 1000 m in depth, depending on
the electrical conductivity of the subsurface materials.
Figure 2.3 shows the four apparent resistivity curves
calculated from the TDEM technique (A2, C3, C5 and B8),
which are very consistent with each other and were
reduced to a geometric average curve (red),
representative of the near-surface geoelectric structure of
the Bom Jardim da Serra windfarm complex. The TDEM
curves show a much smaller vertical spread than what is
observed in the Wenner and AMT curves, which can be
attributed to the fact that this electromagnetic technique
does not measure the electric field on the soil surface and,
therefore, is not affected by the static-shift.
Figure 2.4: four apparent resistivity curves calculated from
the TDEM technique and the geometric average curve,
representative of the regional basement.
Many techniques have been proposed to correct the static-
shift observed in the apparent resistivity curves of the
Wenner and AMT soundings. One of the most traditional
approaches is the use of TDEM soundings as a reference
for the near-surface resistivity layers [9, 10], disregarding
aspects of topographic variation, which means the
premise of a flat region.
4 THE COMBINED GEOELECTRIC MODEL

The ideal procedure for the combination of the different

surveys into a single geoelectric model would be by the
simultaneous inversion of the Wenner and/or AMT curves
with the TDEM curves. Considering that this software is
not available, before the inversion of each set of curves, it
was adjusted the leveling of the Wenner and AMT
apparent resistivity curves affected by the static deviation.
This leveling was achieved by plotting the three 1D
average curves in the same graph, using the empirical
conversion factors proposed by Meju [11].

Figure 3.1 shows the average apparent resistivity curves

Wenner (red), TDEM (light blue) and AMT (dark blue)
plotted on the same graph. The spacing of the average
Wenner curve and the times of the average TDEM curve
were converted to period (in seconds) using Meju's
empirical expressions [2005]. These three curves are
vertically displaced, which can be seen in the overlap
interval of the curves, between the periods of 10 -4 s and
10-2 s. For the combination of the Wenner and AMT curves
in a single geoelectric model, valid from the ground surface
to about a kilometer depth, an adjustment of the vertical
offset is necessary, which can be applied to both curves,
considering that both may be affected by the static-shift.
Assuming that the average TDEM curve is not affected by
any galvanic deviation, this curve can be used as a
reference for the average Wenner and AMT curves.
Figure 3.2: average Wenner apparent resistivity curve
adjusted with the divisor factor 2 (black) and inferred curve
(red) with the 3-layer model (blue line and table).
This model neglected the existence of a superficial layer
of soil of slightly lower resistivity and less than one meter
thick. The final segment of this curve is not well
characterized, only indicating the trend of increasing
resistivity. The final segment of the red curve does not
follow the average curve (black), reflecting the adjustment
obtained for the transition layer between the Wenner and
AMT curves, from the inversion of the AMT curves
constrained by the shallow ground layers of the Wenner
model.

Figure 3.1 also shows the average curves of apparent Figure 3.3 shows the result of the inversion of the average
resistances Wenner and AMT vertically displaced - AMT curves adjusted by the multiplicative factor 1.3. The
Wenner (/2, orange) and AMT (x 1.3, purple). The two shallower layers were constrained by the result of the
adjustments were applied in an interactive process that inversion of the Wenner curve divided by 2. The blue line
simultaneously adjusted the correction factors for both and the table show the average geoelectric model
curves (Wenner and AMT), taking as reference the obtained, with 6 layers, considered as representative of
the entire area of the Bom Jardim da Serra Windfarm.
periods 10-3 if 10-2 s). This graph also includes the Wenner
curve adjusted by the divisor factor 3 (green), which would
correspond to the areas of the windfarm complex where
the resistivity of the shallow layers is lower. This is the
case of the two towers of Santo Antônio Windfarm, where
the impedance measurements at the base of the towers
revealed an

Figure 3.2 shows the average Wenner apparent resistivity

curve after the adjustment with the divisor factor 2 (black)
and the inferred curve (red) after inversion, with the 1D soil
model stratified in 3 layers (blue line and table).

Figure 3.3: AMT 1D invariant curves (apparent resistivities

Figure 3.1: average apparent resistivity curves original and phases) adjusted by the multiplicative factor 1.3 (black)
TDEM (light blue), Wenner (red) and AMT (dark blue), and and inferred curve (red), with the imposition of the shallow
vertically adjusted curves (orange, green and purple). ground model (blue line and table, with h in km).

According to this model, the shallow ground layers, down
to a depth of 44 m, show resistivity variations within the
area of the windfarm, justifying the different grounding
characterizes the average regional basement, valid for the
entire area of the windfarm. The depth of about 660 m
(around 0.1 seconds) is compatible with the average
thickness expected for the Serra Geral formation in the
Bom Jesus da Serra region.
Below the 660 m depth are the pre-volcanic ground layers,
where the AMT signal presents lower quality, without,
however, prejudice of the geoelectric model, because at
this depth the ground layers do not affect the performance
of the grounding system of the windfarm.
5 THE PERFORMANCE OF THE GROUNDINGS
The grounding system of each windfarm consists of the
following interconnected elements:
the base of each tower including the two rings of
copper cable with 70 mm² interconnected to the
bare copper cable with 70 mm², connecting the base
of the tower with the 2.4 m coppersteel rod at the base
of the post of the 34.5 kV line (about 60 m long);
the , model was reduced from 6 layers to 4 layers with no
interconnecting the groundings of the towers.
The Púlpito Windfarm is one of the three windfarms with
20 towers and was selected to assess the performance of
the grounding system, as it is considered representative of
the typical windfarm of the Bom Jesus da Serra Complex.
Performance evaluations of the grounding system were
carried out based on simulations using the MultiGroundZ
program, developed by SES - Safe Engineering Services
& technologies ltd (www.sestech.com), a Canadian
research company founded in 1978 by Prof. Farid P.
Dawalibi, developer of the computational package CDEGS
- Current Distribution, Electromagnetics, Grounding and
Soil Structure Analysis.
Table 4.1 presents the measured and calculated
grounding resistances and impedances for a current
injection at the base of the tower and at the foot of the post
of the medium voltage line, at the arrival of the tower,
considering two conditions:
isolated tower no grounding connection with the rest
of the park, and the base of the tower is interconnected
to the foot of the medium voltage line post by a 70 mm²
bare copper cable directly buried in the ground; and
at the central tower of the windfarm connected to the
groundings of the other towers through the ground wire
of the medium voltage line.
The table also shows the effect of the treatment of the
bottom of the trench, where it is buried in the cable tower-
post, with a product that enhances the soil conductivity.
The effect of this product was simulated by a larger
diameter conductor ( 15 cm). It is noteworthy that if the
treatment was simulated by a 15 cm diameter conductive
tube, the treated trench diameter shall be larger, and it is
necessary to observe the product manufacturer's
guidelines.
The simulations of the isolated tower reveal that both the
as seen from the base of the tower, present very similar
values, which can be explained by the extremely close grid
provided by the tower foundation. The grounding
resistance seen from the base of the tower or seen from
the foot of the post However,
the grounding impedance as seen at the foot of the post
concerning the same parameter
as was verified
that in the case of the isolated tower, the arrestors located
on the top of the post are not as well-grounded as those
located in the cubicle at the base of the tower.
The grounding impedance calculated at the base of the
of the
central tower of the complete park (9.5 both reproduce
very well the performance of the average grounding
the high-
frequency (25 kHz) is confined to the tower where the
lightning strikes, not spreading to the rest of the park.
We performed a sequence of simulations to calculate the
resistance (60 Hz) and impedance (25 kHz) of the
grounding of a central tower of Parque Púlpito. In each
simulation, the depth of the geoelectric model was
reduced, with the elimination of the last ground layer. The
significant change of the two parameters monitored.
ground layer was eliminated,
remaining only the basalt
basement, the grounding resistance
elevation of 8.5%, which means that the grounding system
of the park can see more than 700 m deep, thus confirming
the importance of a deep geoelectric model, about 1 km
deep. The grounding impedance of the tower increased by
only 2% with this last model, more than expected for such
a high frequency (25 kHz).
The simulations with the complete park reveal that the
tower grounding resistance is significatively reduced, to
less than 10% of the value of the isolated tower. The
interconnection of the bases through the ground
wire of the medium voltage transmission lines guarantees,
therefore, the manufacturers d tower grounding
resistance less than 10 . In medium or low resistivity soils
(below 10 foundation
reinforcements as grounding elements may be enough to
achieve resistances and
However, in high-resistivity grounds
only with the integration of the windfarm groundings it is
possible to achieve grounding resistances
In the case where a conductivity enhancement product is
used to improve the grounding of the tower-post
interconnection cable since it is applied along the entire
length of the cable trench, the simulations of the isolated
tower reveal that the grounding resistance seen from the
post has a reduction of about 10%, however, the
grounding impedance is halved, demonstrating that this
measure is important for improving the performance of the
arresters located there. Therefore, this measure is
important in the case of isolated towers or when the
shallow ground presents high-resistivity and high
exposure to lightning strikes, as is the case of the Bom
Jardim da Serra Complex.
6 CONCLUSIONS
The main finding of this study is that the use of only
shallow soundings (Wenner) would result in a geoelectric
model with higher resistivities than those that occur in the
surveyed area and with an infinite high-resistivity
basement, which could lead to a very conservative
evaluation and thus to expensive measures. The
importance of complex geoelectric modeling was
demonstrated, using different geophysical sounding
techniques for probing different ground layers, which are
then combined into a single geoelectric model. Despite the
basalt basement that dominates the entire area, the final
geoelectric model shows lower resistivities than expected,
which indicates that the basalts in the area are well-
fractured and water-saturated. The 1D geoelectric model
obtained is compatible with the expected geological
structure of the border of the canyons and was used for
The complete windfarm grounding system was simulated
with the CDEGS MultiGroundZ software, allowing for the
grounding impedance at the
frequencies of 60 Hz and 25 kHz. The average of the
measured impedance of the tower groundings
(at 25 kHz), almost the same value calculated for the
impedance of a tower located in the central area of the
windfarm . This excellent match demonstrates the
success of the proposed methodology for the construction
of the deep geoelectric model of the windfarm, despite all
the uncertainties that do exist in this kind of modeling.
The following conclusions can be derived from the
geoelectric modeling procedure here proposed:
if only the average of the Wenner soundings were
used, the average shallow geoelectric model would
result in a more resistive geoelectric model, due to the
upward deviation produced by galvanic deviations and
to the use of a geoelectric model that does not show
the low resistivity layer below the basalt ground layer;
the addition of the AMT soundings provides near-
surface resistivity information and allows for a first-
approach adjustment of the 1D geoelectric model;
the TDEM soundings are performed as a support for
the AMT soundings and allow for the best adjustment
of the static-shift deviations.
7 REFERENCES
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Eólicos. Rio de Janeiro. Brazil WindPower agosto/2012.
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Prospecting 53, pp. 463-479, 2005.

Table 4.1: measured and calculated resistances (60 Hz) and impedances (25 kHz) for the tower and post.

Place of the Current Resistance Impedance

Configuration
Injection (60 Hz) (25 kHz)

The average value measured at 22 towers Base of the tower - 9,3

Insulated tower Base of the tower 8,6 9,0
Insulated tower Base of the post 8,6 17
Complete windfarm Base of the tower 0,7 9,3
Complete windfarm Base of the post 0,7 11
Insulated tower with the application of a product for the improvement
Base of the tower 7,9 8
of the conductivity of the cable tower-post
Insulated tower with the application of a product for the improvement
Base of the post 7,9 8,4
of the conductivity of the cable tower-post
Complete windfarm with the application of a product for the
Base of the tower 0,7 7,5
improvement of the conductivity of the cable tower-post
Complete windfarm with the application of a product for the
Base of the post 0,6 7
improvement of the conductivity of the cable tower-post