THEORI

ESOFLI
TERATURE:

(
Lit
erat
urel
esson
not
es)
FORM THREE
2022
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BYSI
R;
DASTANMWESI
GECLEMENCE,
CHRI
STTHEKI
NGNYANTAKUBWAGI
RLSSECONDARYSCHOOL,
P.
O.BOX04,
SENGEREMA.
MWANZA-
TANZANI
A.
(
LITERATUREDEPARTMENT)
Dast
ancl
emence4@gmai
l
.com

PROVERB23:13
“
Wit
hhol
dnotcor
rect
ionf
rom t
hechi
ld:f
ori
fthoubeat
esthi
m wi
tht
her
od,
heshal
lnotdi
e”

1
TOPI
C1:I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOLI
TERATURE
01. THEOVERVI
EW OFTHETERM LI
TERATURE

a)Meani
ngofl
i
ter
atur
e

Ther
eisnosi
ngl
edef
ini
ti
onoft
hatsui
tst
hemeani
ngofl
i
ter
atur
e.Asar
esul
t,t
her
e
hav
ebeenv
ari
ousat
tempt
stodef
inet
het
erml
i
ter
atur
e.Someoft
heseat
tempt
sar
e;

 Li
ter
atur
eisawor
kofar
tthatusest
hel
anguagecr
eat
ivel
yto por
trayt
he
messaget
othei
ntendedaudi
ence.

 Li
ter
atur
eisawor
kofar
tthatusest
hel
anguagecr
eat
ivel
ytoexpr
esshuman
r
eal
i
tiest
othesoci
ety
.

 Li
ter
atur
eisani
magi
nat
ivewor
kofar
tthatusesl
anguaget
oref
lectsoci
al
r
eal
i
ties.

Ther
efor
e,t
hedef
ini
ti
onofl
i
ter
atur
eshoul
dincl
udesomei
mpor
tantt
ermsasf
oll
ows;
“
Lit
erat
urei
sani
magi
nat
ivewor
kofar
tthatusesl
anguagecr
eat
ivel
yandi
magi
nat
ivel
y
t
opor
traysoci
alr
eal
i
ties(
soci
ety
)”.

b)Keyt
erms/
concept
susedi
nli
ter
atur
e

Thedef
ini
ti
onofl
i
ter
atur
eisi
ncompl
eteunl
essi
tinv
olv
est
heseconcept
s;

i
. Ar
t–r
efer
stot
hewayofdoi
ngt
hings.I
tincl
udescr
eat
ivi
ty,decor
ati
on,beaut
y,
pai
nti
ng,col
ori
ng,t
hreadi
ng,beaut
if
icat
ion,embr
oider
y.I
tis cr
eat
ivi
tyt
hat
compr
isest
heuseofat
tent
ionofi
ndi
vi
dual
s.Ar
tisdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wo(
2)t
ypes
whi
char
e;

 Per
for
mingar
t:i
tisanar
tthatusesmov
ementofbodi
esandv
oicest
oconv
eya

2
 pat
ri
sti
cexpr
essi
on.Per
for
mingar
tincl
udesdance,
musi
candact
ing.

 Fi
near
t:i
t’
sanar
tthatar
ecr
eat
edf
oraest
het
icori
ntel
l
ect
ualpur
pose.I
t
i
ncl
udesf
urni
tur
emaki
ng,
pai
nti
ng,
scul
ptur
ing,
drawi
ng,
pot
ter
yet
c.

i
i
. Language–i
sthesy
stem ofar
bit
rar
yvocalsy
mbol
susedf
ori
nter
act
ionand
communi
cat
ion,exchangi
ngandshar
ingofi
deas.Languagei
ssoani
mpor
tant
t
ooli
ncommuni
cat
ioni
ndel
i
ver
ingt
hei
ntendedmessage.Nol
i
ter
atur
ecanexi
st
wi
thoutal
anguage.

i
i
i. Cr
eat
ivi
ty/
imagi
nat
ive– i
t’
sasi
tuat
ionofappl
yi
ngski
l
ls,decor
ati
on,pai
nti
ng,
desi
gni
nganobj
ectandmaki
ngi
tuni
quef
rom ot
her
s.

i
v. Soci
ety–i
tist
hepeopl
e,f
olkori
nhabi
tant
sofacer
tai
nar
eaorl
ocat
ion,who
makeupt
hesoci
ety
.

v
. Ar
ti
st–i
saper
sonwhodeal
swi
thar
t,danci
ng,
drawi
ng,
pai
nti
ngandper
for
ming.
Anar
ti
stcanbeanor
ator
,per
for
mer
,dr
amat
ist
,nov
eli
storapai
nter
.

02. LI
TERATUREASANART

Li
ter
atur
eissai
dtobeanar
tduet
othef
oll
owi
ngpoi
nt;

a)Languageuse;t
hel
anguageusedi
nli
ter
atur
eisdi
ff
erentf
rom t
hel
anguageof
ev
ery
dayuse.Li
ter
atur
eusesf
igur
esofspeech,
andwor
dsar
eassi
gnedanext
ra
meani
ngt
hanwhatt
heyor
dinar
il
yimpl
y.Somewor
dscar
ryl
i
ter
almeani
ngand
ot
her
shav
esy
mbol
i
cmeani
ng.Ther
efor
e,y
ouneedt
odi
gabi
tdeeperbef
ore
y
ouset
tl
eandsayt
hisi
swhati
tmeans.

b)Char
act
erandchar
act
eri
zat
ion;l
i
ter
atur
eusesr
ealpeopl
eorot
herchar
act
ers
t
hatr
epr
esentr
ealpeopl
eint
he out
side wor
ld.I
nani
mat
e bei
ngs may
be
per
soni
fi
edi
nawayt
hatt
heyr
epr
esenthumanqual
i
tiesandactaccor
dingl
y.
Thi
saddsar
ti
sti
cef
fectt
othel
i
ter
arywor
k.

c)Choi
ceandpr
esent
ati
onofi
nci
dences;l
i
ter
atur
eisnotj
ustacol
l
ect
ionoff
act
s

3
 andst
ori
est
ober
epor
ted.I
nci
dent
sinl
i
ter
atur
ear
epr
esent
edi
nar
ti
sti
cway
t
hatmakest
heaudi
encest
hinkt
hatt
heyar
eact
ual
l
yhappeni
ng.Ther
eist
heuse
ofski
l
lfulnar
rat
ivet
echni
quesl
i
ke poi
ntofv
iew,f
lashback,f
oreshadowi
ng,
suspenseet
cal
lthesehel
pther
eadert
ovi
sual
i
zet
heev
ent
sast
hought
heyar
e
j
ustunf
oldi
ngbef
oret
hei
rey
es.

d)Sel
ect
ionofset
ti
ng;wr
it
erssel
ectaset
ti
ngt
hatgoest
oget
herwi
tht
hecont
ent
oft
hei
rwor
ks.Forexampl
e,somei
ssuesl
i
kepov
ert
y,i
gnor
ance,
classes,
misuse
ofpoweret
car
ecommoni
nAf
ri
cancont
ext
.

e)Sel
ect
ionoft
it
le;l
i
ter
arywor
ksl
i
kepl
ays,nov
elsandpoemshav
eti
l
ethatgoes
t
oget
herwi
tht
het
arget e,TheTr
edmessage.Forexampl ial
sofBr
otherJer
o
l
i
nkedt
het
it
lewi
tht
hecont
entpr
esent
edbyusi
ngt
hemai
nchar
act
erBr
other
Jer
o.

f
) Li
ter
atur
eisi
magi
nat
iveandsy
mbol
i
cinnat
ure;
thel
anguageusedi
nli
ter
atur
eis
usual
l
yimagi
nat
ive.Ther
efor
e,l
i
ter
atur
ejustuses l
anguage i
magi
nat
ivel
y
r
epr
esent
edsoci
alr
eal
i
ties.

03. FUNCTI
ONSOFLI
TERATURE

Si
ncel
i
ter
atur
edoesnotdev
elopf
rom av
acuum,butf
rom t
hesoci
etyi
nwhi
chi
t
emanat
es,
ithasgotdi
ff
erentr
olest
opl
ayi
nthesoci
ety
.Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeoft
he
mosti
mpor
tantr
olesofl
i
ter
atur
eint
hesoci
ety
;

a)Li
ter
atur
eeducat
espeopl
eint
hesoci
ety
.

Li
ter
arywor
ksar
eusedt
oimpar
tknowl
edget
othemember
soft
hesoci
ety
.Itcr
eat
es
awar
enesson di
ff
erentsoci
al-pol
i
ticaland economi
cmat
ter
staki
ng pl
acei
nthe
soci
ety
.Iteducat
es t
he y
oung peopl
e on how t
hey ar
e expect
ed t
o behav
ein
accor
dancewi
tht
hedemandsoft
hei
rsoci
eti
esandt
her
olest
heyar
erequi
redt
oful
fi
ll
.

b)Li
ter
atur
eexpr
essespeopl
e’
scul
tur
e.

4
Si
ncel
i
ter
atur
edev
elopsf
rom t
hesoci
ety
,itaut
omat
ical
l
yexpr
essest
hecul
tur
eofi
ts
peopl
e.Al
lcul
tur
alaspect
sli
ket
radi
ti
ons,
bel
i
efs,
cust
oms,
nor
mset
car
eexpr
essedso
t
hatt
hesoci
etymaycher
isht
hegoodonesandcar
ryt
hem ov
ert
othenextgener
ati
ons
andmodi
fyordi
scar
dtheout
dat
edones.

c)Li
ter
atur
eisusedt
oent
ert
ainpeopl
e

Mostl
i
ter
arywor
ksappealt
oemot
ions.Byr
eadi
ng,l
i
steni
ngandwat
chi
ngl
i
ter
ary
wor
kswegetent
ert
ained.Poemsanddr
amascr
eat
eanenj
oymentt
otheaudi
ence
di
ff
erentf
rom onewegetwhenwear
eeat
ingf
oods.Li
ter
aryenj
oymenti
scal
l
ed
aest
het
icpl
easur
e;f
orexampl
e,comedi
esandmel
odr
ama.

d)Li
ter
atur
eisusedt
oinf
luencepeopl
eint
hesoci
ety
.

Mor
eof
tent
hannotpeopl
ewhoar
eint
erest
edi
nwat
chi
ng,
li
steni
ngandr
eadi
ngl
i
ter
ary
wor
ksar
etempt
edt
oactl
i
ket
hosechar
act
ersi
nther
espect
ivel
i
ter
arywor
k.Dur
ingt
he
st
ruggl
efori
ndependencef
orexampl
e,l
i
ter
arywor
kswer
eusedt
oinst
il
lrev
olut
ionar
y
i
deast
otheoppr
essedt
otakeupar
msagai
nstt
heoppr
essor
.Consi hepoem Your
dert
Pai
nbyAr
mandoGuebuza.

e)Li
ter
atur
eisusedt
odev
elopl
anguage

Byr
eadi
ng,l
i
steni
ngandwat
chi
ngl
i
ter
arywor
ks,peopl
eimpr
ovet
hei
rlanguageski
l
ls
such as l
i
steni
ng,speaki
ng,r
eadi
ng and wr
it
ing.Peopl
e may al
so i
mpr
ovet
hei
r
v
ocabul
aryst
ocksi
ncet
heywi
l
lnotonl
ycomeacr
ossanumberofnewwor
dsbutal
so
knowhowt
heyar
eusedi
nreal
cont
ext
.Aut
hor
sdoal
socomewi
thnewwor
ds,
phr
ases,
i
dioms,
figur
esofspeecht
hathel
ptodev
elopt
hel
anguage.

f
) Li
ter
atur
eisusedt
oli
ber
atepeopl
ement
all
yandphy
sical
l
y.

Li
ter
arywor
kspr
esentt
hemessaget
hathel
pst
oli
ber
atet
hesoci
etyment
all
yasa
r
esul
ttheyl
i
ber
atet
hemsel
vesphy
sical
l
y.I
tconcer
ti
zest
hesoci
etyaboutt
heexi
stence
ofoppr
essi
vesy
stemsandsuggest
sway
stogetr
idoft
hosesy
stems.Exampl
e,uni
ted
west
and,
div
idedwef
all
.

g)Li
ter
atur
eisusedt
ocr
it
ici
zet
hesoci
ety
.

5
Li
ter
atur
emaybeusedt
ocr
it
ici
zet
hesoci
etyi
nasenset
hati
tpoi
ntsoutt
hebur
ning
i
ssuesandr
equest
sthesoci
etyt
oresol
vet
hem.Mor
eof
tent
hannotl
i
ter
aryar
ti
sts
poi
ntsoutt
heev
il
sdonebyt
het
radi
ti
onalsoci
ety
.Exampl
e,per
pet
uat
ingt
heout
dat
ed
cust
omsl
i
keFGM,wi
dow i
nher
it
ance,f
orcedmar
ri
age,et
candaskt
hesoci
etyt
o
di
scar
dthem.Theymayal
sopoi
ntt
hewr
ongsdonebyt
her
uli
ngcl
assandsuggestt
he
way
stogetr
idoft
hesel
eader
s.

04. I
MPORTANCEOFSTUDYI
NGLI
TERATURE

a)Li
ter
atur
ehel
psusgr
owbot
hper
sonal
l
yandi
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
y.I
topensdoor
sforus.
I
tst
ret
chesourmi
nd,
dev
elopsouri
magi
nat
ion,
incr
easesourunder
standi
ngand
enl
argesourpowerofsy
mpat
hy.I
thel
psusseebeaut
yint
hewor
ldar
oundus.

b)I
tli
nksuswi
tht
hecul
tur
al,phi
l
osophi
calandr
eli
giouswor
ldofwhi
chwear
ea
par
t.

c)I
tenabl
esust
orecogni
zehumandr
eamsandst
ruggl
esi
ndi
ff
erentpl
acesand
t
imes.

d)I
tmakesushuman.Li
ter
atur
eexci
sesouremot
ionst
hroughi
nter
est
,concer
n,
sy
mpat
hy,
tensi
on,
exci
tement
,regr
et,
fear
,laught
erandhope.

e)I
tident
if
iest
hesoci
ety
.

f
)Itbr
oadenspeopl
e’
sthi
nki
ng.

g)I
tpr
eser
vesandt
ransmi
tspeopl
e’
scul
tur
e.

h)I
tuni
tespeopl
e.

i
)Itencour
agespeopl
e.

j
)Itcr
eat
esempl
oymentt
opeopl
e.

6
05. CONTEXTI
NWHI
CHLI
TERATUREI
SAPPLI
EDI
NTHESOCI
ETY

Cont
exti
sasi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
chsomet
hinghappensandt
hathel
psy
out
ounder
standi
t.
I
tisal
soknownasenv
ironmentorci
rcumst
anceorbackgr
ound.Ther
ear
edi
ff
erent
cont
ext
sinoursoci
eti
esi
nwhi
chl
i
ter
atur
eisappl
i
ed.Theseenv
ironment
sincl
udet
he
f
oll
owi
ng;

a)Educat
ioncont
ext

Li
ter
atur
eisusedi
nschool
s,col
l
egesanduni
ver
sit
iesasoneoft
hef
iel
dofst
udy
.
Thr
ough st
udy
ing l
i
ter
atur
e,we getpr
ofessi
onalorexper
tsl
i
ke anal
yst
,nov
eli
st,
pl
aywr
ight
s,poetorpoet
ess,t
eacher
s,aut
hor
s,andpr
ofessor
sofl
i
ter
atur
e.Musi
cians
ar
eal
soexper
tsofl
i
ter
atur
e.Theyuset
hei
rknowl
edget
oent
ert
ainandeducat
ethe
memberoft
hesoci
etyt
hrought
hei
rsongs.

b)Rel
i
giouscont
ext

I
ndi
ff
erentr
eli
giousdomi
nat
ions,l
i
ter
atur
eisapar
tandpar
celoft
hei
rwor
shi
p.The
chur
chchoi
rsappl
ytheknowl
edgeofl
i
ter
atur
etocomposesongs,pr
act
iceandsi
ng
t
hem.Thewayt
heysi
ng,
prai
seandwor
shi
pingsongsaswel
lashy
mnsandl
yri
csongs
empl
oysl
i
ter
aryt
echni
ques.Thel
anguageusedatchur
chesi
schar
act
eri
zedbypoet
ic
l
anguagef
orexampl
eint
heHol
yBi
blet
her
ear
ebookssuchast
hebookofpr
over
bs
andpsal
m.Al
so,t
hedr
amat
izat
ionofbi
bli
calev
ent
ssuchasofNoahi
sthewor
kof
l
i
ter
atur
e.

c)Economi
ccont
ext

Fr
om t
hehi
stor
yofmanl
i
ter
atur
ehasbeenused f
ordi
ff
erentpur
pose.Thus,
l
i
ter
atur
ecannotbei
sol
atedwi
tht
heor
igi
nofmant
hroughl
aborpr
ocessassoci
ated
wi
tht
he maki
ng and usi
ng t
ool
s.Human bei
ngs had t
o use l
anguage t
o
communi
cat
edi
ff
erenti
ssuesr
elat
edt
olabordi
ff
erent
iat
ion.Pr
imar
il
y,l
i
ter
atur
e
wasi
nor
alf
ormssuchassongs(
laborsongs)
,my
ths,f
orkt
alesai
medatwar
ning,
encour
agi
nghar
dwor
king,cr
it
ici
zi
ngev
ilandmai
ntai
ningsoci
alv
aluesorpeopl
e
composeddi
ff
erentsongst
hataccompani
edt
hem dur
ingt
hei
reconomi
cact
ivi
ti
es
andaf
teri
t.Exampl
eofsongs/
poemsi
ncl
udesTheLazyManbyYor
uba.

7
d)Pol
i
tical
cont
ext

Li
ter
atur
epl
aysabi
grol
einpol
i
ticalact
ivi
ti
es.Fr
om t
hehi
stor
yofpol
i
ticalst
ruggl
e
f
ori
ndependence,i
thasbeenobser
vedt
hatpol
i
ticall
eader
sandot
hermember
s
usedl
i
ter
atur
easat
oolofcommuni
cat
ion.Theycomposeddi
ff
erentsongst
o
mobi
l
izepeopl
etouni
teandst
ruggl
eforf
reedom.Forexampl
e,t
hepoem ofYour
Pai
nwasmeantt
ohel
ppeopl
eofMozambi
quet
ohav
esel
f-
awar
enessont
he
i
mpactofcol
oni
ali
sm.Thi
ssong i
nspi
red and mot
ivat
ed t
hem t
o uni
te hence
st
ruggl
efort
hei
rfr
eedom.Li
ter
atur
eis appl
i
ed dur
ing pol
i
ticalcampai
gn t
o
i
nfl
uencepeopl
etov
otef
orapar
ti
cul
arpol
i
tical
par
tyl
i
keCCM orCHADEMA.

e)Mar
ri
agecont
ext

Li
ter
atur
eisal
soappl
i
eddur
ingmar
ri
agecer
emonywher
ebydi
ff
erentsongsar
e
sungf
orenj
oyment
,war
ningandeducat
ingt
hecoupl
es.Forexampl
e,weddi
ng
songsar
emai
nlysungbyt
her
elat
iveoft
hebr
idet
oshow appr
eci
ati
onf
ort
he
cer
emonyandf
ort
hesuccessf
ulmar
ri
age.

f
) Funer
alcont
ext

Li
ter
atur
eisappl
i
edt
hroughi
tswor
kssuchassongs,pr
over
bs,poemst
oconsol
e
t
her
elat
ivesanddi
ff
erentf
ri
endsoft
hedi
seasedper
son.I
nHehet
ri
bemencr
yin
poet
icf
orm bynami
ngt
henamesoft
hei
rrel
ati
veswhopassedl
ongt
imeago.They
cal
litKuy
eyel
a.Thesongssungdur
ingt
hef
uner
alar
ecal
l
eddi
rges.Di
rgesar
e
songssungorper
for
medatf
uner
aloratmemor
ialser
viceswher
ebyt
hesi
nger
s
mour
nthedeadper
sont
hrought
hesong.Theyconv
eydeepf
eel
i
ngandsadness.

g)Soci
alcont
ext

I
nthi
scont
ext
,li
ter
atur
eappl
i
edaccor
dingt
othepur
poseoft
hesoci
algat
her
ing.
Li
ter
arywor
kssuchassongs,
comedi
es,
idi
oms,
prov
erbsandshor
tst
ori
esar
eused
orper
for
medt
oeducat
e,cr
it
ici
ze,war
nandent
ert
ainpeopl
e.Theai
mist
omakea

8
 per
sonr
efor
msandbehav
einasoci
all
yaccept
abl
eway
.Comedyper
for
medt
o
ent
ert
ainpeopl
e.

h)Fami
l
ycont
ext

Li
ter
atur
eappl
i
edi
nfami
l
ylev
elwher
ebypar
ent
s,guar
dians,adul
ts,nei
ghbor
sand
y
out
husel
i
ter
arywor
kst
ocommuni
cat
ethei
remot
ionsandf
eel
i
ngsi
ndi
ff
erent
way
s.Member
soft
hef
ami
l
ysuchasel
der
soradul
tsaswel
lasy
out
hnar
rat
e
di
ff
erentst
ori
essuchasf
abl
e,anecdot
e,andf
orkt
aleandsi
ngdi
ff
erentsongsl
i
ke
chi
l
dbi
rt
handchi
l
dnami
ngsongs,
lul
l
abi
est
oeducat
e,ent
ert
ainandwar
nthey
oung
gener
ati
on.

06. FORMSOFLI
TERATURE

Ther
ear
etwomaj
ort
ypes/
for
msofl
i
ter
atur
enamel
y;

a)Or
all
i
ter
atur
e;t
hisi
sat
ypeofl
i
ter
atur
ethatpr
esent
sthemessaget
hrough
wor
dsofmout
h.I
tist
heol
destf
orm ofl
i
ter
atur
esi
ncei
twaspr
act
icedbef
ore
t
hei
nvent
ionofwr
it
ings.Exampl
e,my
ths,
par
abl
e,l
egendset
c.

b)Wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
e;t
hisi
saf
orml
i
ter
atur
ethatpr
esent
sthemessaget
hrough
wr
it
tenf
orm.I
tbeganwi
tht
hei
nvent
ionofwr
it
ings.I
thast
womaj
orf
orms,
whi
char
efi
cti
onandnon-
fi
cti
on.Exampl
esofwr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
eincl
udebi
ogr
aphy
,
aut
obi
ogr
aphy
,nov
els,
play
s,shor
tst
ori
es,
essay
set
c.

Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenor
alandwr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
e

a)Bot
hpor
trayonsoci
alr
eal
i
ties.

b)Bot
husel
anguageasi
tsmedi
um ofcommuni
cat
ion.

c)Bot
hconsi
stoft
woel
ement
sthatar
efor
m andcont
ent
.

d)Bot
hper
for
m si
mil
arf
unct
ionsl
i
keeducat
ing,dev
elopi
ngl
anguageanduni
ti
ng
peopl
e.

Di
ff
erencebet
weenor
alandwr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
e

9
 a)Or
all
i
ter
atur
epr
esent
edor
all
ywhi
l
e,wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
epr
esent
edt
hroughwr
it
ings

b)Or
all
i
ter
atur
epr
eser
vedi
nmemor
ywhi
l
e,wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
epr
eser
vedi
nwr
it
ings
l
i
kenov
elsandshor
tst
ori
es.

c)Or
all
i
ter
atur
einv
olv
esper
for
mancewhi
l
e,wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
edoesnoti
nvol
ve
per
for
mancer
athert
hanr
eadi
ng.

d)Or
all
i
ter
atur
e adopt
simmedi
ate changes whi
l
e,wr
it
ten l
i
ter
atur
e does not
adher
etoi
mmedi
atechanges.

e)Or
all
i
ter
atur
eisr
ichi
nty
peswhi
l
e,wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
ehasf
ewt
ypes.

f
) Or
all
i
ter
atur
eisr
ichi
nchar
act
erswhi
l
e,wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
eisl
i
mit
edt
ohuman
char
act
ers.

g)Or
all
i
ter
atur
eisownedbyt
hewhol
ecommuni
tywhi
l
e;wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
eisowned
byt
heaut
hor
.

h)Or
all
i
ter
atur
eisol
dinagewhi
l
e,wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
eisy
oungi
nage.

07. LANGUAGEANDLI
TERATURE

Languageact
sast
hebr
idgewher
ewegetmessages.

a)Feat
uresofl
anguageusedi
nli
ter
atur
e

i
. I
tisi
magi
nat
ivei
nnat
ure

Thel
anguageusedi
nli
ter
atur
ecr
eat
esment
alpi
ctur
eint
her
eader
s’mi
nd.When
t
her
eaderr
eads,
heorshecanhav
eapi
ctur
eofsomet
hing.Thi
sisdonebyf
igur
es
ofspeechsuchasexagger
ati
onandmet
aphor
.

i
i
. I
tdoesnotf
oll
owt
hest
andar
dri
desofgr
ammar

Thi
smeanst
hatanywr
it
eroff
ict
ionorl
i
ter
arywor
kisf
reet
ovi
olat
ether
idesof
gr
ammart
oconv
eyacer
tai
nint
ent
ion.

i
i
i. I
tissy
mbol
i
cinnat
ure

10
I
nli
ter
atur
ewor
dsar
eusedt
opr
esent
sacer
tai
nideaorsomet
hing.Exampl
e,i
n
YOURPAI
N,t d‘
hewor bl
ood’
symbol
i
zessacr
if
ice.

b)Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenl
i
ter
atur
eandl
anguage

i
. Li
ter
atur
eusesl
anguageasamedi
um t
opr
esentt
hei
ntendedmessage.

Thear
ti
stsmustpossessawi
der
angeofv
ocabul
ari
esandagoalcommandov
er
appr
opr
iat
eoccasi
onandr
ightt
hatexpr
esst
hemeani
ngi
ntended.

i
i
. Languagei
susedt
oinf
luenceot
herpeopl
es’
mind.

Thef
unct
ionsoft
hespokenwor
dsar
enotonl
yconv
eyi
ngmeani
ngs,butal
so
i
nfl
uencepeopl
es’mi
nds.I
tmakest
hem al
ertwi
tht
heai
m ofbr
ingi
ngt
hechanges
i
nthesoci
etyf
ort
hebet
ter
mentoft
hepeopl
e.

i
i
i. Languagei
susedt
oar
ouseemot
ions.

I
tcanbef
orpl
easur
eandenj
oymentt
oconv
ince,per
suade,andar
ouseemot
ions
suchaspi
ty,
ter
rorandsor
row.Thr
oughl
anguage(
wor
ds)peopl
ecanenj
oyorbei
ng
sad.

i
v. Languagei
sapar
tofl
i
ter
atur
e.

Wecannothav
eli
ter
atur
ewi
thoutl
anguage.I
tist
her
efor
e,necessar
yforpeopl
ewho
composel
i
ter
arywor
kst
ousel
anguageoft
hesoci
etyt
oconv
eyt
hei
ntended
messaget
otheaudi
ence.Forexampl
e,i
fthear
ti
stwant
stocommuni
cat
ethe
messaget
oTanzani
a,t
heyar
efor
cedt
ouseKi
swahi
l
ithati
sunder
stoodbymaj
ori
ty.

v
. Li
ter
atur
eisusedt
odev
elopl
anguage.

Thi
sist
hroughr
eadi
ng,
li
steni
ng,
speaki
ngandwr
it
ing.

v
i. Languagemakesl
i
ter
atur
eawor
kofar
t.

Whenl
anguagei
susedar
ti
sti
cal
l
yiscal
l
edl
i
ter
atur
e.Thel
anguageofl
i
ter
atur
eis
cr
eat
ive,
imagi
nat
ive,
andsy
mbol
i
cinnat
ure.

11
 v
ii
. Li
ter
atur
eisbot
hst
oredi
nei
therwr
it
tenwor
dsandpr
esent
edi
nreadi
ng
whi
l
est
ored i
nhumanmemor
y.Al
so,pr
esent
ed t
hrought
hewor
d of
mout
h.Thr
oughal
anguage,
theaudi
enceunder
stood.

c)Di
ff
erencesbet
weenor
dinar
yandl
i
ter
aryl
anguage

i
. Or
dinar
ylanguagei
sthemostcommon,ev
erydayusageoft
hel
anguage
amongpeopl
e.I
tisusedondai
l
ybasi
samongt
hepeopl
ewhi
l
e;l
i
ter
ary
l
anguagei
sthef
igur
ati
vef
orm ofl
anguaget
hati
sof
tenusedi
nli
ter
atur
e.I
t
i
susedonl
yinl
i
ter
arycont
ext
s.

i
i
. Or
dinar
ylanguage f
oll
ows t
he nor
malwor
d or
der(
synt
ax)
.Iti
sfor
mal
st
andar
d sy
ntax whi
l
e;l
i
ter
aryl
anguage wor
d or
dermay be changed
accor
dingt
othewr
it
er’
sst
ylet
osui
tthel
i
ter
aryef
fect
.

i
i
i. Or
dinar
ylanguagemayormaynothav
efi
gur
esofspeechwhi
l
e;l
i
ter
ary
l
anguagei
sri
chi
nfi
gur
eofspeecht
hatmakei
tfi
gur
ati
ve.

i
v. Or
dinar
ylanguage i
s st
rai
ght
for
war
d and t
hus easy t
o under
stand t
he
meani
ngconv
eyedwhi
l
e;l
i
ter
aryl
anguagei
sdi
ff
icul
tfort
heor
dinar
yman
whodoesnotknow t
hel
i
ter
aryt
echni
quest
ounder
standt
hemeani
ng.I
t
mayhav
etwoormor
elay
ersofmeani
ng.

v
. Or
dinar
ylanguage,
itswor
dshav
ethei
ror
igi
nalmeani
ng.I
tsmeani
ngi
scl
ear
t
husnoambi
gui
tyi
sexper
iencedwhi
l
e;l
i
ter
aryl
anguage,i
tswor
dsacqui
re
newmeani
ngs.Al
i
ter
arywor
kcanber
eadundermul
ti
plei
nter
pret
ati
ons.

d)Fact
orsf
orusi
ngf
orei
gnl
anguagesi
nAf
ri
canl
i
ter
atur
e

i
. Under
dev
elopmentandun-
dev
elopmentofAf
ri
canl
anguages

Wr
it
erscannotwr
it
einl
anguagest
hathav
enotbeendev
elopedt
ohav
eawr
it
tenf
orm
orl
anguagest
hathav
enotbeendev
elopedt
othel
evelatwhi
cht
heycoul
dbeusedi
n
l
i
ter
atur
e.

i
i
. Absenceofgov
ernmentl
anguagepol
i
cies.

12
I
nAf
ri
ca,t
her
ear
enogov
ernmentpol
i
ciest
hatcoul
dencour
aget
heuseofAf
ri
can
l
anguagesi
nli
ter
atur
e.

i
i
i. Lackofpr
omot
ionofAf
ri
canl
anguagesi
nempl
oymentandeducat
ionsy
stem.

Ther
eisnoAf
ri
cancount
rywher
eacr
edi
tpassi
nanAf
ri
canl
anguagei
sacr
it
eri
onf
or
pr
omot
ioni
ntheci
vi
lser
vice,
admi
ssi
ont
ouni
ver
sit
yorempl
oyment
.

i
v. Thei
ssueofmul
ti
li
ngual
i
sm i
nAf
ri
ca.

I
tisest
imat
edt
hatt
her
ear
e2035Af
ri
canl
anguagesatpr
esent
.Thi
ssi
tuat
ioni
s
possi
blyr
esponsi
blef
ort
hel
ackofgov
ernmentpol
i
ciest
hatcoul
dencour
aget
heuse
ofAf
ri
canl
anguagesi
nli
ter
atur
e.

v
. Thecostofdev
elopi
ngAf
ri
canl
anguages

Todev
elopal
anguagei
scapi
tali
ntensi
ve.I
tist
her
efor
edi
ff
icul
ttodev
elopal
lthe
l
anguagesofAf
ri
cat
obeusedi
nli
ter
atur
e.

v
i. Lackofmar
ketf
orl
i
ter
arywor
kswr
it
teni
nAf
ri
canl
anguages.

I
not
herwor
ds,i
tishar
dtoputmostAf
ri
canl
anguagesi
nwr
it
tenf
orm.Thi
sisamaj
or
f
act
ort
hataf
fect
sthecommer
cial
val
uesoft
hel
i
ter
arywor
kswr
it
teni
nthel
anguages.

v
ii
. Thepr
obl
em ofpubl
i
cat
ion

Mostpubl
i
sher
sar
enotwi
l
li
ngt
opubl
i
shwor
kswr
it
teni
nAf
ri
canl
anguages.Publ
i
sher
s
ofl
i
ter
arywor
ksi
nAf
ri
canl
anguagesar
eabi
ggestchal
l
enge.Mostpubl
i
shi
nghouses
ar
erel
uct
antt
opubl
i
sht
hesewor
ksbecauset
heyhav
enoexper
tsi
nthesel
anguages.

e)I
mpor
tanceofl
anguagei
nli
ter
atur
e

Languagei
simpor
tanti
nli
ter
atur
eduet
othef
oll
owi
ngr
easons;

i
. Languagei
sthemedi
um ofl
i
ter
atur
e.I
tist
her
oad,car
ri
erorv
ehi
cle
t
hroughwhi
chl
i
ter
atur
eisconv
eyedei
therasor
alorwr
it
tenone.

i
i
. Li
ter
atur
eiscr
eat
edbyl
anguage.Thi
smeanst
her
ewoul
dbenol
i
ter
atur
e

13
 i
fther
ewasnol
anguage.Whent
het
extusesl
anguagei
nanar
ti
sti
cor
pecul
i
arway
,iti
scal
l
edl
i
ter
atur
eorl
i
ter
aryt
ext
.

i
i
i. Li
ter
atur
etr
ansf
ormsandi
ntensi
fi
esor
dinar
ylanguagei
ntocr
eat
iveone.
I
ndoi
ngso,l
i
ter
atur
edev
iat
essy
stemat
ical
l
yfr
om ev
ery
dayspeecht
o
f
igur
ati
vel
anguage.

i
v. Languagei
simpr
ovedwhenr
eadi
ngl
i
ter
atur
e.So,r
eadi
ngi
sanai
dfor
l
anguagedev
elopment
.Wer
eaddi
ff
erentl
i
ter
aryt
extt
oimpr
ovel
anguage.

v
. Languagehel
psst
udent
sto dev
elop t
ext
ualanal
ysi
sski
l
lsofv
ari
ous
l
i
ter
arywor
ks.

v
i. Languagei
nli
ter
atur
ehel
pst
oexposest
udent
stosampl
esofr
eal
-l
if
e
set
ti
ngi
nvar
iousl
i
ter
arywor
ks.

08. LI
TERARYDEVI
CES

Al
i
ter
arydev
icer
efer
stoar
ti
sti
clanguagest
ruct
uresusedbywr
it
erst
ogi
veadeeper
meani
ngandf
lav
ort
othei
rli
ter
arywor
ks.Theyi
ncl
udef
igur
esofspeechandmusi
cal
or
soundt
echni
quesl
i
ker
hymi
ngscheme,
all
i
ter
ati
onet
c.

Af
igur
eofspeechi
sanexpr
essi
onoft
hingst
hatdev
iat
edf
rom or
dinar
ylanguage.
Fi
gur
esofspeechmakel
i
ter
arywor
ksappearcol
orf
ulandat
tr
act
ivet
oread.

Rol
esofl
i
ter
arydev
icesi
nli
ter
atur
e

i
. Theysakef
orcompar
ison.Exampl
e,met
aphorandsi
mil
e.

i
i
. Theysakef
oremphasi
s.Exampl
e,r
eit
erat
ionorr
epet
it
ion.

i
i
i. Theysakef
orcl
ari
ty

i
v. Theysakef
orf
reshness

v
. Theydi
ff
erent
iat
eli
ter
arywor
ksf
rom ot
herwor
ks

v
i. Theysakef
orbeaut
y

14
Themostcommonl
i
ter
arydev
icesusedi
nli
ter
atur
e

a)Met
aphor

I
tisaf
igur
eofspeecht
hatmakesadi
rectcompar
isonbet
weent
wounl
i
ket
hings
wi
thoutusi
ngt ds“
hewor li
keoras”
.Itsuggest
sthatonet
hingi
sanot
hert
hingori
s
equal
toanot
hert
hing.Exampl
e;

i
. Hewasal
i
on

i
i
. Thel
ordi
smyshepher
d

b)Si
mil
e

I
tisaf
igur
eofspeecht
hatmakesacompar
isonbet
weent
wounl
i
ket
hingsbyusi
ngt
he
wor
ds“
li
ke”
,“as”
,“t
han”or“
resembl
es”
.Exampl
e;

i
. Aswhi
teassnow

i
i
. Li
fei
sjustl
i
kei
ce-
cream,
enj
oyi
tbef
orei
tmel
ts

c)I
rony

I
stheuseofwor
dsi
nsuchawayt
hatt
hei
ntendedmeani
ngi
scompl
etel
yopposi
tet
o
t
hei
rli
ter
almeani
ng.I
tcanhappenorusedi
ntent
ional
l
yoruni
ntent
ional
l
ytomaket
he
audi
encet
hinkaboutwhathasj
ustbeensai
dort
oemphasi
zeacer
tai
nidea.Exampl
e;

i
. Br
eadi
ssof
tasast
one

i
i
. Abankl
endsy
oumoneypr
ovi
dedy
oushowt
hati
tisnotneeded.

Ty
pesofi
rony

Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofi
roni
es;

i
. Ver
bal
irony

I
sthet
ypeofi
ronyi
nwhi
chwor
dsar
eusedt
osuggestt
heopposi
teoft
hei
rusual

15
meani
ng.I
toccur
swhent
hei
ntendedmeani
ngoft
hest
atementorwor
ksi
sdi
ff
erent
(
oft
ent
heopposi
teof
)whatt
hest
atementorwor
kli
ter
arysay
s.Forexampl
e,I
bsen’
s
AnEnemyoft
hePeopl
eisi
roni
cal
l
yusedsi
nceDr
.St
ockmanwhoi
sthedecl
aredan
enemy
,isi
nreal
l
ysenseandi
saf
ri
endoft
hepeopl
e.Exampl t
e;‘hebr
eadi
ssof
tasa
st
one’
.

i
i
. Dr
amat
ici
rony

I
saf
ail
ureofachar
act
ert
oseeorunder
standwhati
sobv
ioust
otheaudi
ence.Al
so,
r
efer
stoacont
radi
cti
oni
napl
aybet
weenwhatachar
act
ert
hinksandwhatt
her
eader
oraudi
enceknowst
obet
rue.Dr
amat
ici
ronyi
sthemomentwhent
henar
rat
orandt
he
audi
enceshar
etheknowl
edgeorexper
iencet
hatachar
act
eri
signor
antofi
t.Exampl
e,
‘
i
nOedi
pust
heKi
ngbySophocl
eswher
eOedi
pusf
ail
stor
eal
i
zewhatt
heaudi
ence
knowst
hathemar
ri
eshi
smot
her
’.

i
i
i. Si
tuat
ioni
rony

I
toccur
swhenwhathappensi
scont
rar
ytowhati
sexpect
ed;
ort
heact
ual
out
comeofa
si
tuat
ioni
stheopposi
teofwhati
sexpect
ed.Exampl
e;

 Thesonoft
heEngl
i
sht
eacherf
ail
sEngl
i
shexam.

 Thedaught
erofar
ichmer
chanti
sexpel
l
edf
rom schoolf
orl
ackofschoolf
ees
of20,
000shs

d)Sat
ir
e

I
sal
i
ter
aryt
echni
quewhi
chpr
inci
pal
l
yri
dicul
esi
tssubj
ectwhi
chi
ncl
udesi
ndi
vi
dual
s,
or
gani
zat
ion,
orst
atesof
tenasani
ntendedmeansofpr
ovoki
ngorpr
event
ingchanges.
I
tisapi
eceofwr
it
ingt
hatusesdev
icessuchasi
rony
.

e)Sar
casm

I
sabi
tt
ercut
ti
ngspeechi
ntendedt
owoundsomeone’
sfeel
i
ngs.I
tisi
ntendedbya
speakert
ogi
vepai
ntoaper
sonaddr
essed.Exampl
e,

16
STUDENT:Idon’
tunder
stand
TEACHER:Wel
lIwoul
dn’
texpecty
out
oo
f
) Per
soni
fi
cat
ion

I
sther
epr
esent
ati
onofi
nani
mat
eobj
ect
sorabst
racti
deasasl
i
vingbei
ngs.I
tconnect
s
r
eader
swi
tht
heobj
ectt
hati
sper
soni
fed.Exampl
i e;Themount
ainscr
ied,t
hev
all
eys
wept
,andhi
l
lswai
tedal
lmour
ningt
hedeat
hofNy
erer
e.

g)Apost
rophe

I
sadi
rectaddr
esst
othedeadorani
nani
mat
eobj
ectcr
eat
inganemot
ionalsur
ge.
Exampl
e;

 Ny
erer
e,onl
yify
ouwer
eal
i
ve

 Ohear
tofman-
madeGod

h)Rhet
ori
cal
quest
ion

I
stheactofaski
ngquest
ionsnott
ogai
ninf
ormat
ionbutj
ustf
oremphasi
s.Noanswer
i
nfacti
sexpect
edbyt
hespeaker
.Exampl
e;

 Di
dyouhel
pmewhenIneededhel
p?
 Di
dyouonceof
fert
oint
ercedei
nmybehal
f?
 Di
dyoudoany
thi
ngt
oli
stenmyl
ord?
i
) Hy
per
bol
e/ov
erst
atement

I
saf
igur
eofspeechi
nwhi
cht
het
rut
hisexagger
atedf
oremphasi
sorf
orhumor
ous
ef
fect
.Exampl
e;
 Iam sohungr
ythatIcaneatawhol
ecow.

17
  Sheweptandweptunt
ilt
her
ewasaseaoft
ear
s.
j
) Li
tot
es/
under
stat
ement
I
stheuseofanegat
iveorweakst
atementt
oemphasi
zeaposi
ti
vemeani
ng.Ori
sa
f
igur
eofspeecht
hatusesanunder
stat
edst
atementofanaf
fi
rmat
ivebyusi
nga
negat
ivedescr
ipt
ion.Exampl
e;

 Iwasnotf
eel
i
ngunhappy–Iwashappy

 Iam notunmi
ndf
ul–Imi
nd

k)Euphemi
sm

I
saf
igur
eofspeechwhi
chav
oidst
heuseoft
abooorunpl
easantwor
ds.Exampl
e;

 Restr
oom f
ort
oil
et

 Passawayf
ordi
e

 Hol
eforv
irgi
n

 1,
200f
orpeni
s

l
) Met
ony
my

I
sthesubst
it
uti
onofawor
dwi
thanot
herwor
dthati
scl
oser
elat
edt
oit
.Iti
saf
igur
eof
speecht
hatassoci
atest
henameofonet
hingwi
tht
hatofsomet
hingwi
tht
hatof
somet
hingel
se.Exampl
e;

 Cr
ownf
orki
ng/
gov
ernmentr
uledbyaki
ng

 Wewai
tedhopel
essl
yfort
wosunset
s.Sunset
simpl
i
est
woday
s

 Hehasgoodname.Namer
efer
stor
eput
ati
on

m)Sy
necdoche

I
saf
igur
eofspeechi
nwhi
cht
hewhol
eisr
epr
esent
edbyapar
torapar
tbyt
hewhol
e.
Exampl
e;

18
  Hehassev
eralmout
hst
ofeed.Mout
hsr
epr
esentpeopl
e

 Thebestbr
ainsi
nthecount
ry.Br
ainsr
epr
esenti
ntel
l
ect
ual
l
ybr
il
li
antper
sons

 50headofcat
tl
e.Headr
epr
esent
swhol
eani
mal

n)Onomat
opoei
a

I
stheuseofwor
dswhi
chi
mit
atet
henat
ural
soundsofobj
ect
sort
hings.Exampl
e;

 Thehummi
ngbee

 Thecackl
i
nghen

 Thewhi
zzi
ngar
row

 Thebuzzi
ngsaw

 Thehi
ssi
ngsnake

 Thespl
ashi
ngwat
er

 Thebangofadoor

o)Cl
i
max

I
sthe ar
rangementofi
deasi
n an i
ncr
easi
ng or
deroft
hei
rimpor
tance.I
tist
he
ar
rangementofwor
ds,
clausesorsent
encesi
ntheor
deroft
hei
rimpor
tance.Exampl
e;

 Hecame,
hesaw,
heconquer
edherv
il
lage,
herst
ate,
hernat
ionwer
eherpr
ide

 Eat
,dr
inkandsl
eep

p)I
mager
y

I
saf
igur
eofspeechwhi
chcr
eat
esment
alpi
ctur
est
hatappealt
oreader
s’f
ivesenses.
Wr
it
ersusesensor
ydet
ail
stomaker
eader
simagi
nehowt
hingsl
ook/
feel
/smel
l
/sound
andt
est
.

Ty
pesofi
mager
y

19
 i
. Vi
sual
image:
thi
smeansani
mageofsi
ght
.Exampl
e,

 gr
eat
ert
hant
her
if
t-
val
l
ey

i
i
. Or
gani
cimage:
thi
sisani
mageoff
eel
i
ng.Exampl
e,

 Mor
epai
nfult
hant
hey
ell
.

i
i
i. Audi
tor
yimage:
thi
sisani
mageofsound.Exampl
e,

 Ipl
eadt
hecr
yoft
henat
ion.

 Thescr
eam ofaman.

i
v. Ki
nest
het
ici
mage.Thi
sisani
mageofmot
ion.Exampl
e,

 I
tisf
ast
ert
hancamer
afi
l
m.

v
. Tact
il
eimage:
thi
sisani
mageoft
ouch.Exampl
e,

 St
andi
nghar
dandr
eady

v
i. Ol
fact
oryi
mage:
thi
sisani
mageofsmel
l
.Exampl
e,

 Ast
inki
ngr
oom.

v
ii
. Gust
ator
yimage:
thi
sisani
mageoft
ast
e.Exampl
e,

 I
nsear
chofsweet
ness.

q)Anadi
plosi
s

I
sther
epet
it
ioni
nwhi
cht
hel
astexpr
essi
onofonest
atementbecomest
hef
ir
st
expr
essi
oni
nthef
oll
owi
ngst
atement
.Exampl
e,asi
nthepoem “
AFRI
CA”byDav
idDi
op,

Thebl
oodofy
oursweat
,

Thesweatofy
ourwor
k,

Thewor
kofy
oursl
aver
y,

20
 Thesl
aver
yofy
ourchi
l
dren.

r
) Sy
mbol
i
sm

I
sal
i
ter
arydev
icet
hatusesoneobj
ectt
o st
andf
orsomet
hingel
seort
o mean
somet
hingel
se.Exampl
e;

 Washi
nghands;
toi
ndi
cat
enon-
env
ironment

 Cr
own;
tomeansuper
ior
it
y

 Sunr
ise;
tosy
mbol
i
zet
hebegi
nni
ngoft
hest
ruggl
e

s)Pun

I
tisahumor
ouspl
ayont
woormor
emeani
ngoft
hesamewor
doront
wodi
ff
erent
wor
dswi
tht
hesamesound.Exampl
e;

“
Whenmyl
oveswear
sthatshei
smadeoft
rut
h”.Hesay
s;t
her
efor
e,Il
i
ewi
thher
andshewi
thme”

t
) Al
l
egor
y

I
saf
orm ofext
endedmet
aphori
nwhi
chobj
ect
s,per
sonsandact
ionsi
nanar
rat
ivear
e
equat
edwi
tht
hemeani
ngst
hatl
i
eout
sidet
henar
rat
ivei
tsel
f.Thus,anal
l
egor
yisa
st
orywi
tht
wol
evel
sofmeani
ngs;
ali
ter
almeani
ngandasy
mbol
i
cmeani
ng.Exampl
e,

Geor
geOr
wel
l
’sANI
MALFARM whi
chont
hesur
facel
eveli
saboutagr
oupof
ani
mal
swhi
cht
akeov
ert
hei
rfar
m butont
hedeeperl
eveli
sanal
l
egor
yoft
he
Russi
anr
evol
uti
onandt
heshor
tcomi
ngsoft
hecommuni
sms.

u)Anast
rophe/
inv
ersi
on

I
sasent
enceorapoet
icexpr
essi
onwhi
chr
ever
sesorchangest
heor
derofwor
dsf
or
gr
eat
eremphasi
s.Exampl
e,

 Tent
housandsawIatagl
ance–Isawt
ent
housandatagl
ance.

21
  Andawayt
heygo–andt
heygoaway
.

v
)Anaphor
a

Thi
sist
her
epet
it
ionoft
hewor
datt
hebegi
nni
ngofconsecut
ivel
i
nes,v
ersesor
sent
ences.Exampl
e,

 Thewor
d“Af
ri
ca”i
nthef
ir
stt
hreel
i
nesoft
hepoem AFRI
CAbyDav
idDi
op;

Af
ri
camyAf
ri
ca

Af
ri
caofpr
oudwar
ri
orsi
nancest
ralsav
annahs

Af
ri
caofwhom mygr
andmot
hersi
ngs.

w)Oxy
mor
on

I
saf
igur
eofspeechwhi
chi
ncl
udeswor
ds/
phr
ases/
ideasopposi
tei
nmeani
ngpl
aced
one af
tert
he ot
her
.These ar
e wor
ds whi
ch cont
radi
cti
tsel
f.I
tcombi
nes t
wo
cont
radi
ctor
ywor
ds.Exampl
e,

 Tr
uel
i
e

 Si
l
entnoi
se

 Li
ghtdar
kness

x)Par
adox

I
saf
igur
eofspeechwhi
chi
ncl
udesast
atementorsent
encewhi
chcont
radi
cti
tsel
f.
Exampl
e,

22
  Theyhav
ebeenbur
ninguswi
thacol
dfi
re

 Lookatt
hosewal
ki
ngcor
pses

y
)Suspense

I
sal
ackofcer
tai
ntyont
hepar
tofaconcer
nedr
eader
/audi
enceaboutwhati
sgoi
ngt
o
happent
ochar
act
erwi
thwhi
cht
her
eaderhasest
abl
i
shedabondofsy
mpat
hy.I
tisa
f
eel
i
ngofwor
ryorexci
tementt
haty
ouhav
ewheny
ouf
eelt
hatsomet
hingi
sgoi
ngt
o
happen.

z)Taboowor
ds

Thesear
ewor
dswhi
chhav
epr
ohi
bit
edt
obeusedi
nnor
malorpubl
i
cspeech.I
tisal
so
knownasdy
sphemi
sm.Exampl
e,

 Unci
rcumci
sedbaboon

 Peni
s/v
agi
na

 Rot
tenpeni
s

aa)
All
usi
on

I
sar
efer
encemadebyawr
it
eri
nal
i
ter
arywor
ktoaper
son,pl
aceorbookwi
thout
expl
i
citi
dent
if
icat
ion.Exampl
e,

 Ref
erencef
rom hol
ybooks

Ty
pesofal
l
usi
on

 Hi
stor
ical
all
usi
on

 Bi
bli
cal
all
usi
on

ab)
Ant
it
hesi
s

I
sal
i
ter
aryt
echni
quei
nwhi
cht
heopposi
teorcont
rast
ingst
atement
sar
ebal
ancedf
or
emphasi
s.Exampl
e;

23
  Manpr
oposes,
Goddi
sposes

 Speechi
ssi
l
ver
,butsi
l
encei
sgol
den

09. ELEMENTSOFLI
TERATURE

Anyl
i
ter
arywor
kismadeoft
woel
ement
snamel
y;

a)For
m

b)Cont
ent

A)FORM

For
mref
erst
othesuper
str
uct
ureofal
i
ter
arywor
k.I
tist
hepr
inci
plet
hatdet
ermi
nes
how al
i
ter
arywor
kisar
rangedandor
gani
zed.For
m consi
stsoff
iveel
ement
sor
subpar
tswhi
char
e;

a)Pl
ot

b)St
yle(
techni
que)

c)Set
ti
ng

d)Char
act
erandchar
act
eri
zat
ion

e)Di
cti
on(
languageuse)

f
) Poi
ntofv
iew

a)Pl
ot

Pl
oti
sthear
rangementofev
ent
sinal
i
ter
arywor
kint
ermsofcauseand
ef
fect
.Ist
hewayev
ent
sandact
ionsi
nal
i
ter
arywor
khasbeenr
ender
ed
andor
der
edt
owar
dachi
evi
ngpar
ti
cul
arar
ti
sti
candemot
ional
eff
ect
s.

Ty
pesofpl
ot

24
  Chr
onol
ogi
calpl
ot:t
hisi
sast
rai
ghtf
orwar
dpl
oti
nwhi
chev
ent
s
mov
efr
om t
hebegi
nni
ngt
otheend.

 Non-
chr
onol
ogi
cal
/fl
ashbackpl
ot:t
hisi
sapl
oti
nwhi
chev
ent
sar
e
notsequent
ial
l
yar
ranged.Ev
ent
smayst
artatend,mi
ddl
eandt
hen
f
ini
shwi
tht
hebegi
nni
ng.

Par
ts(
element
s)ofpl
ot

 Exposi
ti
on:i
tist
he f
oundat
ion oft
he st
oryi
n whi
ch set
ti
ngs,
char
act
ersandbasi
csi
tuat
ionsar
eint
roduced.

 Ri
singact
ion:i
tist
hesecondpar
toft
hepl
otwher
esuspensegr
ows
amongt
hechar
act
ersast
hecompl
i
cat
ionsoft
heconf
li
ctst
art
s.

 Cl
i
max:i
tist
hehi
ghestpoi
nti
nwhi
cht
heconf
li
ctr
eachesi
tspeak.I
t
i
sthepar
twhi
chcr
eat
esi
nter
estorsuspenset
other
eader
sor
audi
ence.I
tist
hemomentofgr
eat
estdangerordeci
si
onmaki
ngf
or
t
hepr
otagoni
st.I
not ds,cl
herwor i
maxi
sthemostexci
ti
ngmoment
i
nthest
ory
.

 Fal
l
ingact
ion:i
tisapar
tofpl
otwhi
chshowswhathappenst
othe
char
act
eraf
tert
he cl
i
max.Nor
mal
l
y one si
de among t
he t
wo
conf
li
cti
ngpar
tsl
osespowerandhencet
ensi
onsdecr
eases.

 Resol
uti
on(
denouement
):i
tist
hef
inalpar
toft
hest
oryasconf
li
cts
ar
eresol
vedandsomemy
ster
iesar
eunr
avel
ed.

25
 Fr
eyt
agpy
rami
dofpl
ot

Par
tsofpl
otcanbesummar
izedusi
ngFr
eyt
agpy
rami
dasf
oll
ows;

CLI
MAX

RI
SINGACTI
ON FALLI
NGACTI
ON

PLOT
EXPOSI
TION RESOLUTI
ON

b)St
yle(
techni
que)

St
yle/
techni
quer
efer
stot
hequal
i
tyt
hatdi
sti
ngui
shesanaut
hor
’swor
k
f
rom t
he wor
k ofanot
heraut
hor
.Iti
ncl
udes t
he wr
it
er’
s choi
ce and
empl
oymentoff
igur
esofspeechi
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.

I
n ot
herwor
ds,t
echni
quer
efer
stot
hewaya l
i
ter
arywor
khasbeen
const
ruct
edandbr
oughtt
other
eader
.Inmostcases,l
i
ter
arywor
ksar
e
pr
esent
edi
n;

26
  Di
alogueor

 Monol
ogue(
sol
i
loquy
)

Ther
ear
eav
ari
etyofst
ylesusedbydi
ff
erentar
ti
stsi
nli
ter
atur
e,butt
he
mosti
mpor
tantt
echni
quei
snar
rat
ivet
echni
que.

Ty
pesofnar
rat
ivet
echni
ques

i
. Or
alt
radi
ti
onalnar
rat
ivet
echni
que:i
tisast
ylewhi
chr
efer
stot
he
r
etel
l
ingofast
oryt
hatr
esembl
est
het
radi
ti
onalwayoft
ell
i
ngt
hat
hav
ebegi
nni
ngst
ylesl
i
keonceuponat
ime…,al
ongt
imeago…,
manyy
ear
sago…et
c.

i
i
. St
rai
ghtf
orwar
dnar
rat
ivest
yle:i
tisanar
rat
ionofast
oryt
hat
r
elat
est
owhati
staki
ngpl
acei
nthest
oryf
rom t
hebegi
nni
ngt
o
t
heendofst
ory
.Iti
scommoni
nmanynov
els.

i
i
i. Fl
ashback:i
tisanar
rat
ivest
ylei
nwhi
cht
heendormi
ddl
eoft
he
st
oryi
sfoundatt
hebegi
nni
ngandv
icev
ersa.

i
v. For
eshadowi
ng:i
tisanar
rat
ivest
ylei
nwhi
chacer
tai
nchar
act
er
makest
hepr
edi
cti
onsoft
het
hingst
hatr
eal
l
yhappenl
ateri
nthe
book’
sev
ent
.

c)Set
ti
ng

Set
ti
ngr
efer
stot
het
imeandpl
acewher
eandwhenev
ent
stake
pl
acei
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.Basi
cal
l
y,set
ti
ngi
sthel
ocal
e,hi
stor
icalt
ime
andsoci
alci
rcumst
ancesi
nwhi
cht
heact
ionsoft
hewor
kofar
t
occur
.Exampl
e,one can wr
it
ethe set
tng as “
i in Tanzani
a af
ter
i
ndependence”

27
 Ty
pesofset
ti
ng

i
)Realset
ti
ng:i
stheset
ti
ngoft
hel
i
ter
arywor
ktoar
eal
placeknownt
o
peopl
e.I
tmakesal
i
ter
arywor
kmor
ereal
i
sti e,“
c.Exampl TheLi
on
andt
heJeweli
sseti
nNi
ger
ia.

i
i
) I
magi
nar
yset
ti
ng:i
tisaset
ti
ngoft
hel
i
ter
arywor
ktounr
eal
pl
aceswhi
char
eunknownt
opeopl
e.

El
ement
sofset
ti
ng

i
. Geogr
aphi
calset
ti
ng:t
hisi
sthepl
aceset
ti
ng.Exampl
e,Tanzani
a,
Ni
ger
ia,
Keny
a,et
c.

i
i
. Tempor
alset
ti
ng:t
hisi
sthe t
ime set
ti
ng.I
t can be pr
e-
i
ndependence,
dur
ingcol
oni
ali
sm,
oraf
teri
ndependence.

i
i
i. Soci
alset
ti
ng:t
hisi
sasi
tuat
ionalorenv
ironment
alset
ti
ng.I
t
deal
s wi
th conf
li
cts.Exampl
e,expl
oit
ati
ve env
ironment
,the
conf
li
ctbet
weent
hepoorandt
her
ich,
educat
edandeducat
ed.

NOTE:t
heel
ement
sofset
ti
ngcanbeal
sot
ypesofset
ti
ngwher
e
geogr
aphi
calset
ti
ngi
sdi
vi
dedi
ntor
ealandi
magi
nar
yset
ti
ng.

d)Char
act
erandchar
act
eri
zat
ion

Char
act
eri
sanypar
ti
cipanti
ntheact
ionofal
i
ter
arywor
k.I
tcanbehuman
bei
ngori
nani
mat
e.

Ty
pesofchar
act
ers

i
. Mai
n/maj
or/
cent
ralchar
act
ers:t
hesear
echar
act
erst
hatpl
ayan
28
 i
mpor
tantr
olei
nast
ory
.Theyar
ethedr
iver
soft
hest
oryi
nwhi
ch
t
hepl
otandr
esol
uti
onofconf
li
ctsr
esol
vear
oundt
hem.

i
i
. Mi
norchar
act
ers:t
hese ar
e char
act
erst
hatdo notpl
ay an
i
mpor
tantr
olei
nast
ory
.Thesear
echar
act
erst
hatt
akesmal
lpar
t
buthel
pthemai
nchar
act
erst
odev
elopev
ent
s.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofchar
act
ers

a)Pr
otagoni
st:i
sthecent
ralchar
act
eri
nast
oryandi
sof
tenr
efer
redt
o
ast
hest
ory
’smai
nchar
act
er.He/
shei
sfacedwi
thaconf
li
ctt
hat
mustber
esol
ved.I
sachar
act
erwi
thposi
ti
vet
rai
tsandt
heaudi
ence
l
ovedhi
m/her
.

b)Ant
agoni
st:i
sachar
act
erwhoopposest
hepr
otagoni
st.He/
shei
s
t
he one who makes t
he st
oryt
o mov
e on.I
n ot
herwor
ds,t
he
ant
agoni
sti
sanobst
acl
ethatt
hepr
otagoni
stmustov
ercomeatt
he
f
inal
stageoft
hest
ory
.

c)Dy
nami
c/dev
elopi
ngchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
ert
hatchangesov
ert
ime,
usual
l
yasar
esul
tofr
esol
vi
ngacent
ral
conf
li
ctormaj
orcr
isi
s.

d)St
ati
cchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
ert
hatdoesnotchangeov
ert
ime.
Hi
s/herper
sonal
i
tydoesnott
ransf
orm orev
olv
eorchange.Ther
eis
notmucht
olear
nfr
om aboutsuchchar
act
er.

e)Roundchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
ert
hathascompl
exper
sonal
i
ty.He/
she
i
sof
tenpor
tray
edasaconf
li
ctedandcont
radi
ctor
yper
son.

f
)Foi
lchar
act
er:i
s a char
act
erusual
l
ythe ant
agoni
stt
hatshows
cont
rastagai
nstt
hepr
otagoni
st.He/
shei
susual
l
yami
norchar
act
er

29
 t
hathast
rai
tsi
onav
ersi
ont
othemai
nchar
act
erandf
rust
rat
est
he
mai
nchar
act
er.

g)Fl
atchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
erwhoseper
sonal
i
tiesar
enotcompl
ex.
He/
shei
spr
esent
edonl
yinanout
li
newi
thoutmuchi
ndi
vi
dual
i
zed
det
ail
s.

h)St
ock/
ster
eot
ypechar
act
er:i
sachar
act
ert
hatoccur
srepeat
edl
yina
par
ti
cul
arl
i
ter
arygenr
e,andsoar
erecogni
zabl
easpar
toft
hef
orm.
I
not
herwor
ds,st
ockchar
act
eri
sachar
act
erbor
rowedf
rom ot
her
l
i
ter
arywor
ksr
ecogni
zedbyr
eader
s.

i
)Exposi
tor
ychar
act
er:i
sachar
act
ert
hati
sdescr
ibedordi
scussed
ei
therbyt
heaut
hororbyanot
herchar
act
er.

j
)Dr
amat
icchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
eri
nact
ion.Fr
om hi
s/herspeechand
r
ecor
dedsounds,wemakededi
cat
ionsabouthi
sorherper
sonal
i
ty,
at
ti
tudeandr
elat
ionshi
pwi
thot
herchar
act
ers.

k)Sy
mbol
i
cchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
erwhosepr
esencei
nthewor
kofar
t
st
andsf
orani
deasuchascor
rupt
ion,di
ctat
orshi
p,gr
eedet
c.i
nthe
soci
ety
.

l
)Real
i
sti
cchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
ert
hatf
eat
urest
ruehumant
rai
ts.
Theyar
eimagi
nar
ychar
act
ersbutt
heyr
esembl
etr
uehumanbei
ngs
i
nthei
rbehav
ior
s.Usi
ngt
hesechar
act
ersmakeawor
kofar
tto
r
efl
ectr
eal
i
ty.

Non-
m) real
i
sti
cchar
act
er:i
sachar
act
ert
hatdoesnotf
eat
uret
rue
humant
rai
ts.

30
Char
act
eri
zat
ion:i
sthepr
ocessofdescr
ibi
ngachar
act
eri
nawor
kofar
t.I
t
i
nvol
vest
hepr
ocessofassi
gni
ngacer
tai
ndut
ytochar
act
eri
nor
dert
o
achi
eveapar
ti
cul
arpur
posebyawr
it
erornar
rat
or.

Ty
pesofchar
act
eri
zat
ion

 Di
rectchar
act
eri
zat
ion:her
eawr
it
ert
ell
sthechar
act
er’
str
ait
sli
ke
br
ave,
cor
rupt
,weaket
c.

I
ndi
rectchar
act
eri
zat
ion:her
ea wr
it
erdependsont
her
eadert
o
dr
awconcl
usi
onorj
udgment
saboutt
hechar
act
er’
str
ait
susi
ngt
he
ev
idencet
hewr
it
ergi
vest
hroughdi
ff
erentmet Asexpl
hods.( aini
n
t
hef
oll
owi
ngsubt
opi
c).

Met
hodsofdescr
ibi
ngori
dent
if
yingachar
act
er

I
nli
ter
arywor
k,achar
act
ercanbei
dent
if
iedi
nthef
oll
owi
ngway
s;

 Thr
oughwhatt
heyt
hink

 Thr
oughwhatt
heysay

 Thr
oughwhatt
heydo

 Thewayt
heybehav
etowar
dsot
her
s

 Thr
oughwhatot
herchar
act
erssayaboutt
hem

 Thr
oughwhatt
heaut
horsay
saboutt
hem

e)Di
cti
on(
languageuse)

31
Di
cti
onr
efer
stot
hechoi
ceandar
rangementofwor
dsi
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.I
t
i
sthechoi
ceanduseofwor
dsf
orar
ti
sti
cef
fecti
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.I
tal
so,
r
efer
stohow l
anguagehasbeenused/
empl
oyedi
nawor
kofar
t.I
nany
l
i
ter
arywor
k,l
anguagei
scomment
edassi
mpl
ethoughi
not
herwayi
tcan
becompl
ex.

f
)Poi
ntofv
iew

Ref
erst
oanangl
eorposi
ti
onf
rom whi
chal
i
ter
arywor
kisnar
rat
ed.I
tis
al
sor
efer
stowhot
ell
sthest
ory
.Ther
efor
e,i
tist
hespeaker
,voi
ce,
nar
rat
or
orper
sonaofawor
kofar
tfr
om wher
ewegett
hest
ory
.

Ty
pesofpoi
ntofv
iews

 Fi
rstper
sonpoi
ntofv
iew:i
sat
ypeofpoi
ntofv
iew i
nwhi
cht
he
nar
rat
ori
soneoft
hechar
act
ersi
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.Thepr
onoun“
I”i
s
empl
oyedi
nnar
rat
ingt
hest
ory
.Thi
snar
rat
ort
ell
sushi
sorher
ex
per
iences. Ther
efor
e,t
he r
eader sees ev
ery
thi
ng f
rom t
hat
char
act
er’
sey
esandex
per
iences.

 Secondper
sonpoi
ntofv
iew:i
sat
ypeofpoi
ntofv
iew i
nwhi
cht
he
pr
onoun“
you”i
sempl
oyedi
nnar
rat
ingt
hest
ory
.Iti
srar
elyusedi
n
wor
ksofl
i
ter
atur
e.

 Thi
rdper
sonpoi
ntofv
iew:i
sthet
ypeofpoi
ntofv
iew i
nwhi
cht
he
nar
rat
ori
sout
sidet
hest
ory
.Thi
sisv
erycommonpoi
ntofv
iew.The
nar
rat
orusest
hepr
onounssuchashe,
sheort
hey
.Thus,
thenar
rat
or
i
snotachar
act
eri
nthest
ory
,butanout
sideobser
ver
.Iti
sgr
ouped
i
ntot
wogr
oups,
namel
y;

 Thi
rdper
sonl
i
mit
edpoi
ntofv
iew:i
tisapoi
ntofv
iewi
nwhi
ch

32
 t
henar
rat
ort
ell
sast
orybyusi
ngonl
yonechar
act
eri
nthe
whol
ewor
kofar
t.

 Thi
rdper
sonomni
sci
entpoi
ntofv
iew:i
tisapoi
ntofv
iew i
n
whi
cht
henar
rat
orr
epor
tsonwhatsev
eralormanychar
act
ers
ar
ethi
nki
ngandf
eel
i
ng.Thenar
rat
orseemst
oknowev
ery
thi
ng
aboutt
hechar
act
ersoft
hest
ory
.Thi
sty
pei
sal
soknownas
ALL KNOWI
NG POI
NT OF VI
EW and t
he nar
rat
ori
san al
l
-
knowi
ngbei
ng.

I
mpor
tanceofpoi
ntofv
iew

 Theyar
ecr
uci
alf
oundat
ionf
oranypi
eceofwr
it
ing.

 Theypr
ovi
det
hecont
extandback-
stor
yyouneedf
ort
heaudi
encet
o
under
standt
hescene.

 Theyhel
ptheaudi
encebestseet
hewr
it
er’
schar
act
ersandi
nter
pret
t
hemat
eri
ali
nthewayt
hewr
it
eri
ntends.

 Fi
rstper
sonpoi
ntofv
iew br
ingsi
nspi
rat
ionf
orcr
eat
ingdr
amaand
emot
ion.

B)CONTENT

Cont
entr
efer
stowhati
sbei
ngsai
dorconv
eyedi
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.I
tal
so
r
efer
stowhati
sbei
ngdescr
ibedi
nthel
i
ter
arywor
k.I
nli
ter
atur
e,cont
ent
i
ncl
udest
hef
oll
owi
ngel
ement
s;

a)Theme

At
hemei
sacent
ralordomi
nanti
deaorpur
posei
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.I
tis
usual
l
yst
atedi
nast
atementf
orm.I
tist
heabst
ractconceptt
hati
smade
33
concr
etet
hroughi
tsr
epr
esent
ati
oni
naper
son,act
ionandi
magei
nthe
wor
kofar
t.Thecommont
hemesi
nAf
ri
canl
i
ter
atur
eincl
udebet
ray
al,
Af
ri
can t
radi
ti
ons,col
oni
ali
sm,posi
ti
on ofwomen,cor
rupt
ion,cl
asses,
r
aci
alsegr
egat
ion,
prot
est
,neo-
col
oni
ali
sm et
c.

Themesar
ecat
egor
izedi
ntot
wot
ypeswhi
char
e;

 Themai
normaj
ort
hemes

 Themi
nort
hemes

Anyl
i
ter
arywor
khasonl
yonemai
nthemewhi
chi
sbui
l
tbyt
hemi
norones.
Ther
efor
e,mi
nort
hemesar
ethebui
l
der
soft
hemai
nthemes.

b)Message

Amessager
efer
stowhati
slear
ntf
rom al
i
ter
arywor
k.Amessageweget
f
rom l
i
ter
arywor
kisaboutourexper
iencei
nli
fe.Thewr
it
ert
ypi
cal
l
ywr
it
es
t
oaccompl
i
shoneormor
eoft
hef
oll
owi
ng;

 Toper
suade

 Tocr
it
ici
ze

 Toi
nfor
m

 Toexpl
ain

 Toent
ert
ain

 Todescr
ibe

 Tot
ell
ast
oryet
c.

34
 c)Conf
li
ct

A conf
li
cti
sthe st
ruggl
e,quar
rel
,ormi
sunder
standi
ng bet
ween t
he
char
act
ersi
nawor
kofar
t.Conf
li
ctsbui
l
dupacer
tai
namountofsuspense
t
hatmakest
her
eadert
odesi
ret
heknowi
ngofwhatandhow t
henext
ev
entwi
l
lhappen.

Ty
pesofconf
li
cts

 Economi
cconf
li
ct:i
tat
ypeofconf
li
ctf
rom whi
chchar
act
ersar
e
por
tray
eddi
ff
eri
ngi
nint
erest
s,opi
nions,
bel
i
efsandi
deasbecauseof
hav
ingsomeambi
ti
onsov
eracer
tai
neconomi
cweal
th.Forexampl
e,
l
andorpr
oper
tyowner
shi
pconf
li
ct.

 Phi
l
osophi
calconf
li
ct:i
tisat
ypeofconf
li
ctusedi
nli
ter
atur
etomean
t
heaut
hor
’sbel
i
efont
hewor
khe/
shehaswr
it
tent
otheaudi
ence.
Ther
efor
e,i
tist
heconf
li
ctbet
weent
heaut
horandt
heaudi
ence.

 Pol
i
ticalconf
li
ct:i
tist
het
ypeofconf
li
ctf
rom whi
chchar
act
ersar
e
showni
ndi
sagr
eementwhi
chi
sresul
tedf
rom ambi
ti
onofpower
,
mi
suseofpowerordi
ctat
orshi
p.Fori
nst
ance,
ther
uli
ngpar
tyv
ersus
t
heopposi
ngpar
tyorci
ti
zensv
ersust
hei
rgov
ernment
.

 Soci
alconf
li
ct:i
tist
het
ypeofconf
li
cti
nwhi
chchar
act
ersf
rom a
cer
tai
ncl
asscanbeshownopposi
ngt
heot
hercl
ass.Forexampl
e,
t
heeducat
edv
ersust
heuneducat
ed,
thepoorv
ersust
her
ichet
c.

 Fami
l
yconf
li
ct:i
tist
het
ypeofconf
li
cti
nwhi
chchar
act
erswhoar
e
f
ami
l
ymember
sar
eshowndi
ff
eri
ngi
nideas,i
nter
est
s,opi
nionsas
wel
last
hought
s.Forexampl
e,par
ent
sver
suschi
l
dren,onef
ami
l
y
v
ersusanot
herf
ami
l
yet
c.

35
  Per
sonalori
ntr
a-per
sonalconf
li
ct:i
tthet
ypeofconf
li
cti
nwhi
cha
char
act
eri
s por
tray
ed r
egr
ett
ing upon hi
s orheract
,choi
ce or
deci
sion.Per
sonalconf
li
ctcanbeeasi
l
yident
if
iedast
hechar
act
eri
s
i
ndi
l
emmaov
ersomemat
ter
s.

d)Cl
i
max

Cl
i
maxi
sthet
erm usedt
oref
ert
hepar
toft
hest
oryoranyl
i
ter
arywor
k
wher
ethet
ensi
onoract
ionr
eachesi
tshi
ghestpoi
nt.

e)Mor
all
esson

Ref
erst
othet
eachi
ngsar
eaderget
sfr
om al
i
ter
arywor
k.I
tusual
l
ymor
al
t
eachi
ngt
hatt
hel
i
ter
aryconv
eyst
othei
ntendedr
eaderoraudi
ence.

f
) Phi
l
osophy

I
tist
hebel
i
eforst
anceofawr
it
erwhi
chi
sresul
tedf
rom ci
ti
ngsome
r
eal
i
sti
cbel
i
efsi
nhumanex
per
ience.Forexampl
e,awr
it
ermayhav
ethe
phi
l
osophyt
hati
nli
fe,
tobepr
osper
ousweneedpeaceandl
ove.

g)Cr
isi
s

I
tist
hedar
kestordi
ff
icul
tti
mewhenadi
sast
er’
stoughdeci
si
onneedst
o
bemadeorgi
vent
orescueasi
tuat
ion.Cl
i
maxi
sther
esul
tofcr
isi
s.

QUI
ZZES
Qui
z1:“
Wri
ti
ngl
i
ter
atur
einl
ocall
anguagei
stheonl
ywayt
omakesur
e
t
hati
t
r
eachesev
eryi
ndi
vi
duali
nthesoci
ety
.Ar
guef
ororagai
nstt
his
st
atement
.Gi
veei
ght(
8)poi
nts.
36
Qui
z2:Thesubj
ectofl
i
ter
atur
eisdi
ff
erentf
rom ot
hersubj
ectt
aughtat
school
.
Whatar
ethedi
ff
erencesbet
weenl
i
ter
atur
eandot
hersubj
ect
sin
t
he
secondar
yschoolcur
ri
cul
um?
Qui
z3:Suppor
tthev
iew t
hatt
hesoci
etymakesl
i
ter
atur
eandl
i
ter
atur
e
hol
ds
Soci
ety
.
Qui
z4:Showhowl
i
ter
atur
eist
her
efl
ect
ionofl
i
fe.Gi
vesi
x(6)poi
nts.
Qui
z5:Di
scussonf
ive(
5)r
olesofchar
act
ersi
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.
######################################################END######################################################
BYSI
R;
DASTANMWESI
GECLEMENCEBI
KACHWEKA,
CHRI
STTHEKI
NGNYANTAKUBWAGI
RLSSECONDARYSCHOOL,
P.
O.BOX04,
SENGEREMA.
MWANZA-
TANZANI
A.
(
LITERATUREDEPARTMENT)

TOPI
C2:
ORALLI
TERATURE
01. MEANI
NGOFORALLI
TERATURE

Or
all
i
ter
atur
eisat
ypeofl
i
ter
atur
ethati
shandeddownorpr
esent
edor
all
y
t
hrought
hewor
dsofmout
hfr
om onegener
ati
ont
oanot
her
.

Hi
stor
ical
l
y,or
all
i
ter
atur
ewaspr
act
iced muchbef
oret
hei
nvent
ionof
wr
it
ings.Unt
ilt
odayor
all
i
ter
atur
eisst
il
ldomi
nanti
nvar
ioussoci
eti
es.
Somet
imes,
inl
i
ter
atur
e,or
all
i
ter
atur
ei edf
scal
l olkl
orebecauset
hef
ormer
hasmor
eandi
ncl
usi
vemeani
ngt
hant
hel
aterone.

Fol
kl
ore;
bydef
ini
ti
onr
efer
stot
hecol
l
ect
ionoft
radi
ti
onal
stor
ies,
cust
oms,
bel
i
efsandcul
tur
eofapar
ti
cul
arsoci
etyorcount
ry.I
tisanyoft
hebel
i
efs,
cust
omsandt
radi
ti
onst
hatpeopl
epassonf
rom onegener
ati
ont
othe

37
nex
t.

02. FORMSOFORALLI
TERATURE

Or
all
i
ter
atur
eisst
il
ldomi
nanti
nvar
ioussoci
eti
esduet
otheexi
stenceof
di
ff
erentf
ormsort
ypesoff
olkl
oresi
nthesoci
eti
esasf
oll
ows;

a)Fol
ktal
es

Thesear
ethet
radi
ti
onalst
ori
esaboutani
mal
sorhumanbei
ngst
hatar
e
usual
l
ypasseddownf
rom onegener
ati
ont
oanot
heri
napar
ti
cul
arsoci
ety
.
Mostoft
heset
alesar
enotseti
nanypar
ti
cul
art
imeorpl
aceandt
hey
begi
nandendi
nacer
tai
nway
.

Forexampl
e,t
heybegi
nwi
thexpr
essi
onsl
i
ke“
onceuponat
ime…”andend
wi
th“
theyl
i
vehappi
l
yev
eraf
ter
”.Thest
oryofSI
NDERELLAi
soneoft
he
exampl
esoff
olkl
ores.

b)Fabl
es

Thesear
eani
malst
ori
est
hatt
ryt
oteachpeopl
ehowt
obehav
e.Theyar
ea
par
ti
cul
art
ypeofnar
rat
ivei
nwhi
chani
mal
s,pl
ant
sorsi
mil
archar
act
ers
ar
eant
hropomor
phi
zedormadet
oseem asi
ftheywer
ehuman.Fabl
esar
e
somet
i edbeastst
mescal
l ori
es.

Fabl
esof
tendel
i
veramor
all
essonwhi
chmayormaynotbeexpl
i
cit
ly
st
atedatt
heend.Thebestknowncol
l
ect
ionoff
abl sAesop’
esi sfabl
es.
Exampl
esoff
abl
esar
e“TheHar
eandt
heTor
toi
se”
,“TheLi
onandt
he
Mouse andot
her
s.

c)Fai
ryt
ales

These ar
efi
cti
onalst
ori
es t
hatusual
l
yinv
olv
e magi
c and my
thi
cal
38
cr
eat
uressuchaswi
tchesandf
air
ieswhi
chpossessuper
nat
uralpower
s.
Fai
ryi
tsel
fisani
magi
nar
ycr
eat
ure.

Fai
ryt
aleshav
emagi
cpower
stoper
for
m goodandbaddeedsandar
eset
i
nimagi
nar
yland,
longt
imeagoandf
araway
.Theyal
socont
aini
magi
nar
y
cr
eat
uresl
i
keev
il
s,gobl
i
nsandt
rol
l
.Theyal
sof
eat
uref
ant
ast
icalel
ement
s
andt
heyhav
eahappi
l
yev
eraf
terendi
ng.

The f
amous f
air
ytal
es ar
e CI
NDERELLA,SNOW WHI
TE,THE SEVEN
DWARVESandSLEEPI
NGBEAUTY.Fai
ryt
alesar
emeantf
orent
ert
ainment
.

d)Tr
ickst
ert
ales

Thesear
efol
ktal
esi
nwhi
chat
ri
ckst
eri
saher
o.Mostt
ri
ckst
ersar
e
ani
mal
swhi
chactl
i
kehumanbei
ngbypl
ayi
ngt
ri
ckst
oot
herani
mal
sand
human bei
ngs as wel
l
.Tr
ickst
ert
ales ar
e ones oft
he mostpopul
ar
f
olkt
alesbecauset
heyar
efoundi
nev
erycul
tur
e.Ev
erycul
tur
ehasi
tsown
t
ri
ckst
erher
oorchar
act
er.I
nAf
ri
ca,t
ri
ckst
ersi
ncl
udet
ort
oise,t
hehar
e,
andAnansi
thespi
der
.

I
neastAf
ri
cat
hehar
e(kal
ului
nKi
swahi
l
i)i
sthemostf
amoust
ri
ckst
er
her
o.The book “
Kal
ulut
he Har
e”byFr
ank Wor
thi
ngt
on has a l
otof
wonder
ful
stor
iesaboutt
hecl
everandcunni
nghar
e.

e)Par
abl
es

Thesear
erel
i
giousst
ori
est
hatt
eachabasi
ctr
uth,amor
all
essonor
r
eli
giouspr
inci
ple.Theyusual
l
yinv
olv
eor
dinar
ypeopl
ewhoar
efacedwi
th
amor
aldi
l
emmaorwhomakeamor
aldeci
si
onandt
hendealwi
tht
he
ef
fect
soft
hatdeci
sion.Exampl
esofpar
abl
esi
ncl
ude“
TheManandHi
s
TwoWi
vesandal
lbi
bli
cal
stor
ies.

39
 f
)Legends

These ar
e ol
d and wel
l
-known st
ori
es t
hatt
ellaboutbr
ave peopl
e,
adv
ent
ureormagi
calev
ent
s.Legendsar
etol
dfr
om onegener
ati
ont
o
anot
herast
hought
heywer
etr
ue.Theyar
eseti
nar
ealwor
ldandi
n
r
elat
ivel
yrecentt
imes.

Manyl
egendst
ellabouthumanbei
ngshow meetsuper
nat
uralcr
eat
ures
suchasf
air
ies,ghost
s,v
ampi
resandwi
tches.Theyar
eal
soassoci
ated
wi
tht
hef
amouspeopl
ewhohav
edi
ed.

Exampl
esofl
egendsi
ncl
ude;

 PaulBuny
anwhoasachi
l
d,hecoul
dcl
aphandsandbr
eakst
he
wi
ndowsi
nhi
shouse.

 Dav
yCr
ocket
twhoi
ssai
dthathewast
hef
ront
ier
smanandheki
l
led
hi
sfi
rstbearwhenhewasj
ustt
hreey
ear
sol
d.

g)My
ths

Thesear
etr
adi
ti
onalst
ori
esusual
l
yrel
i
giousst
ori
est
hatexpl
ainhow t
he
wor
ldandhumani
tydev
elopedi
ntot
hepr
esentf
orm.Manymy
thsdescr
ibe
t
hecr
eat
ionoft
heear
thandt
heyar
edi
ff
erentf
rom ot
hert
ypesoff
olk
st
ori
esbecauset
heyar
econsi
der
edt
obet
rueamongt
hepeopl
ewho
dev
elopt
hem.

My
thi
tsel
fbydef
ini
ti
oni
sani
deaorst
oryt
hatmanypeopl
ebel
i
evebut
whi
chi
snott
rue.Anumberofmy
thsdescr
ibet
hecr
eat
ionofhumanr
ace
andt
heor
igi
nofdeat
h.Ev
erysoci
etyhasi
tsownmy
th.Exampl
esofmy
ths
ar
e“Af
ri
canmy
thsaboutAnansi
theSpi
der
”byAbbeyBaker
.

40
 h)Anecdot
es

Thesear
eshor
t,amusi
ngandi
nter
est
ingst
ori
esaboutr
eali
nci
dent
sor
peopl
e’
sli
fe.I
tisusedt
oil
l
ust
rat
eapoi
nt.Anecdot
esar
eshor
tst
ori
est
hat
ar
etol
dbutt
hatar
enotal
way
spubl
i
shedorgi
venout
.

Forexampl
e,par
abl
esf
rom t
hebi
blel
i
keTHEGODSAMARI
TANcoul
dbe
cal
l
edananecdot
ebecausei
tispr
esent
edandbasedonar
eali
nci
dent
i
nvol
vi
ng act
ualper
sons whet
herf
amous ornotbutusual
l
yin an
i
dent
if
iabl
epl
ace.

Li
kepar
abl
es,anecdot
esar
eof
tenusedbyphi
l
osopher
sandt
eacher
sof
school
sandr
eli
gionst
opoi
ntoutt
rut
hsaboutr
eall
i
fe.Fori
nst
ance,
int
he
dai
l
yli
fey
oumayt
ellot
her
sabouty
our
sel
fbuty
oucangi
vet
hem an
anecdot
ewheny
ouwer
esuddenl
ycaughtbyy
ourmot
herst
eal
i
ngapi
ece
ofbr
ead.

i
)Epi
cs

Thesear
elongnar
rat
ivepoems,
books,
orf
il
mst
hatt
ellal
ongst
oryabout
br
aveact
ionsandexci
ti
ngev
ent
sdonebyt
heher
o. Theepi
cher
ois
usual
l
yamanofhi
ghsoci
alst
atusandwhohav
eagr
eathi
stor
icaland
l
egendar
yimpor
tance.Epi
csof
teni
nvol
vesuper
nat
uralev
ent
s,l
ongt
ime
j
our
ney
s,di
stantj
our
ney
sandl
i
feanddeat
hst
ruggl
ebet
weengoodand
ev
il
s.

41
I
nAf
ri
ca,t
hemostcommonepi
cist
hatofSUNDI
ATE(
anAf
ri
canepi
c
aboutanol
dMal
iEmpi
re)
.

j
)Tal
ltal
es

At
allt
alei
sfol
kl
oreaboutal
arger
-t
han-
li
feher
owhosol
vesanov
er-
the-
t
oppr
obl
em i
nahumor
ousorout
rageousway
.Tal
ltal
esar
ety
pical
l
y
f
eat
urehi
ghl
yexagger
ated,
impr
obabl
edet
ail
sandwer
ecr
eat
edbysev
eral
cul
tur
eincl
udi
ngt
heanci
entGr
eeks,
RomansandCel
ts.

Amer
icanf
olkher
oesl
i
kePaulBuny
an,Dav
yCr
ocket
t,PecosBi
l
landJohn
Henr
yar
eal
sor
egar
dedast
all
tal
eher
oes.

k)Bal
l
ads

Thesear
eshor
tst
ori
esi
nfor
m ofpoemsorsongsi
nwhi
cht
her
ear
etwo
ormor
epeopl
espeaki
ngi
ntur
n.I
tisadr
amat
ict
ypeofpoem asi
t
pr
esent
edl
i
kedr
ama.Thepur
poseofabal
l
adi
stot
ellast
ory
,soal
l
el
ement
sofast
oryar
eincl
udedt
hati
spl
ot,char
act
er,nar
rat
or,di
alogue,
set
ti
ng,dr
amaandsoon.Exampl
esofbal
l
adsi
ncl
udeBALLADOFTHE
LANDLORDbyLangst
onHughesandBALLADOFJOHNHENRY.

l
)Ri
ddl
es

Thesear
epuzzl
i
ngquest
ions;st
atement
sespeci
all
yonesi
ntendedt
otest
t
he cl
ever
ness oft
hose who wi
shi
ng t
o sol
vet
hem.They ar
ever
y
conf
usi
ngandhav
ehumor
ousorcl
evert
est
ingi
ngenui
tyi
ndi
vi
ningi
ts
answerormeani
ngandev
erycul
tur
ehasi
tsr
iddl
eswhi
chwer
epassed
downor
all
yfr
om onegener
ati
ont
oanot
her
.A successf
ulr
iddl
eof
ten

42
f
anci
ful
l
ydescr
ibesani
nani
mat
eobj
ectasi
fitwer
eal
i
vingt
hing.

Exampl
esofr
iddl
esandt
hei
ranswer
s

 Ihav
ethr
eehands,
butj
ustonef
ace.Iwi
l
lli
nkar
mswi
thy
ouasIr
un
myr
ace…THEWRI
STWATCH

 Iwearmyj
acketal
lthet
ime.Ist
andwi
thmybackt
oyou,
showi
ngmy
spi
ne…ABOOK.

 Iam al
lov
ert
hepl
ace,butIknow wher
eIam at
.Myl
i
fegoesi
n
ci
rcl
es,
butInev
erf
eel
flat
…thati
sGLOBE

 Ihav
ethev
oiceofadogandt
hepagesofabook.Ihav
ethechestof
anel
ephantandy
ouwi
l
lfi
ndmei
fyoul
ook…t
hati
sATREE.

 Iwi
l
ltakey
out
othet
op;Iwi
l
lwearmyhai
rinpl
aint
s.Buti
fyou
cannotst
opIwi
l
lbur
nyouandaf
ter
,leav
eyouf
lat
…thati
sCLI
MBI
NG
ROPE.

 Whathast
obebr
okenbef
orey
oucanusei
t.
..
?ANEGG

I
tgoesupbutnev
ercomesdown…AGE

I
tget
swetwhi
l
edr
ying…TOWEL

 Ishav
eev
eryday
,butmybear
dst
ayst
hesame…ABARBER

 Ihav
ebr
anchesbutnof
rui
ts,
trunkorl
eav
es…ABANK

I
tcannott
alkbutwi
l
lrepl
ywhenspokent
o…ANECHO

 Themor
eoft
hist
her
eis,
thel
essy
ousee…DARKNESS

 Dav
id’
spar
ent
shav
ethr
eesons;Snap,
Crackl
eandwhati
sthename

43
 oft
het
hir
dson?…DAVI
D

 If
oll
ow y
oual
lthet
imeandcopyy
ourev
erymov
e,buty
oucannot
t
ouchmeorcat
chme.WhatIam?…SHADOW

 Whathasmanykey
sbutcannotopenasi
ngl
elock?…PI
ANO

 Whati
s bl
ack when i
tis cl
ean and whi
te when i
tis di
rt
y? …
CHALKBOARD

I
tget
sbi
ggerwhenmor
eist
akenaway
…AHOLE

 Iam l
i
ghtasaf
ather
,yett
hest
rongestper
soncannothol
dmef
or
f
ivemi
nut
es.WhatIam?…IAM ABREATH

I
fyouhav
egotme,y
ouwantt
oshar
eme;i
fyoushar
eme,y
ouhav
e
notkeptme.WhatIam?…IAM ASECRET

 Whathasoneey
ebutcannotsee?…ANEEDLE

 Whathasl
otsofey
esbutcannotsee…APOTATO

 Whathashandsbutcannotcl
ap?…ACLOCK

 Whathasmanyneedl
esbutdoesnotsew?…CHRI
STMASTREE

 Whathasl
egsbutdoesnotwal
k?…ATABLE

 Whathasonehead,
onef
oot
,andf
ourl
egs?…ABED

 Whatki
ndofbandnev
erpl
aysmusi
c?…ARUBBERBAND

 Whathasmanyt
eet
hbutcannotbi
te?…ACOMB

 Whathasaheadandat
ail
butnobody
?…ACOI
N

44
  Whathast
humbandf
ourf
inger
sbuthasnotahand?…AGLOVE

I
tst
alkst
hecount
rysi
dewi
thear
sthatcannother
e…CORN

m)
Say
ings

These ar
e wel
l
-known shor
tst
atement
sthatexpr
ess i
deas t
hatmost
peopl
ebel
i
evear
etr
ueandwi
se.I
not
herwor
ds,say
ingsi
ncl
udepr
over
bs
andi
dioms.

n)Pr
over
bs

These ar
e phr
ases whi
ch cont
ain abov
e al
lwi
sdoms,t
rut
h,mor
als,
exper
ience,
lessonsandadv
iceconcer
ningl
i
feandwhi
chhasbeenhanded
downf
rom gener
ati
ont
ogener
ati
on.

Pr
over
bsar
eal
sodef
inedasshor
twel
l
-knownsay
ingst
hatst
ateagener
al
t
rut
horgi
veadv
iceandt
heycanbeor
all
ytr
ansmi
tt
edorputi
nwr
it
ten
f
orms.Theycanhel
pyouper
fecty
ourconv
ersat
ionalEngl
i
shski
l
lsand
deepeny
ourunder
standi
ngast
heyof
tencomeupi
nconv
ersat
ion.

Somecommonexampl
esofpr
over
bs

 Youcannotj
udgeabookbyi
tscov
er

 Donotr
unbef
orey
oucanwal
k

 Donott
eachanol
ddogaknewt
ri
ck

 Asy
ousaw,
soy
oushal
lreap

 Beggar
scannotbechooser
s

 Ashor
tcuti
sof
tenawr
ongcut

45
  Romewasnotbui
l
tinoneday

 Keepy
ourmout
hshutandear
sopen

o)I
dioms

Ani
diom i
sdef
inedasagr
oupofwor
dst
hathasaspeci
almeani
ngt
hati
s
di
ff
erentf
rom t
heor
dinar
ymeani
ngofeachsepar
atewor
d.

I
tisal
so def
ined asaphr
aseorsent
encet
hati
snotcl
earf
rom t
he
meani
ngofi
tsi
ndi
vi
dualwor
dsandwhi
chmustbel
ear
ntbyhear
tasa
whol
euni
t.Ther
efor
e,t
hemeani
ngofawhol
euni
tofi
diom i
snotcl
ear
,that
i
sit
sexpr
essi
onhasameani
ngot
hert
hani
tsl
i
ter
almeani
ng.

Somecommonexampl
esofi
dioms

 Ki
ckt
hebucket
:DI
E

 Undert
heweat
her
:BEI
NGI
LL/
HEALTHUNFI
T

 Ont
hef
ence:
UNDECI
DED/
DILEMMA

 Hol
dyourhor
ses:
BEPERTI
ENT

 Gi
vet
hecol
dshoul
der
:IGNOREONE’
SPRESENCE

 Bi
tey
ourt
ongue:
AVOI
DTALKI
NG

 Bl
uemoon:
ARAREEVENT

 Donotl
i
keaf
ish:
DRI
NKHEAVI
LY

 Ti
etheknot
:GETMARRI
ED

 Ti
l
lthecowscomehome:
ALONGTI
ME

46
 p)Tonguet
wist
er

These ar
e wor
ds,phr
ase orsent
ences t
hatar
e di
ff
icul
tto ar
ti
cul
ate
becauseofasuccessi
onofsi
mil
arconsonant
alsounds.Theyar
egr
eat
wayt
opr
act
iceandi
mpr
ovepr
onunci
ati
onandf
luencyt
ochi
l
dren.

Someexampl
esoft
onguet
wist
ers

 Pet
erPi
perpi
ckedapeckofpi
ckl
edpepper
s

 Bet
tyBot
herboughtsomebi
tt
er

 How muchwoodwoul
dawoodl
uckchucki
fawoodchuckcoul
d
chuckwood?

 Shesel
l
sseashel
l
sbyt
heseashor
e

 Howcanacl
am cr
am i
nacl
eancr
eam can?

 Iscr
eam,
youscr
eam,
weal
lscr
eam f
ori
cecr
eam

 IsawSusi
esi
tt
ingi
nashoeshi
neshop

I
fadogchewsshoes,
whoseshoesdoeshechoose

03. FEATURESOFORALLI
TERATURE

 Or
all
i
ter
atur
eispassedt
hroughawor
dofmout
h.

I
tinv
olv
esl
i
feper
for
mancesuchasdanci
ng,cl
appi
nghandsand
si
ngi
ng.

I
tinv
olv
esbot
htheper
for
merandaudi
enceasbot
hthenar
rat
orand
l
i
stenercomet
oget
herdur
ingpr
esent
ati
on.

47
 I
ttakespl
acei
nanact
ualset
ti
ngf
ori
nst
ancedur
ingev
eni
ng,t
he
f
olkt
alescanbehandedathomeaf
terwor
k.

I
tisownedbyt
hewhol
esoci
etyasal
lsoci
etymember
s(l
i
ter
ateand
i
l
li
ter
ate)i
ndi
vi
dual
hav
echancet
oaccessi
t.

I
tisdy
nami
csucht
hati
tadopt
schangesdependi
ngont
imeand
pl
ace.

04. ADVANTAGESOFORALLI
TERATURE

 Or
all
i
ter
atur
eent
ert
ainspeopl
ethr
oughmusi
c(sacr
ed/
fol
ksongs)
,
r
iddl
esandpr
over
bs.

I
tpr
omot
escul
tur
ali
dent
it
yint
hesoci
ety
.

I
tident
if
iest
hesoci
etyi
tdwel
l
sin.

I
tbr
oadenspeopl
e’
sthi
nki
ngi
nthesoci
ety
.

I
tpr
eser
vesandt
ransmi
tspeopl
es’
cul
tur
e.

I
teducat
espeopl
ethr
oughi
tsdy
nami
sm.

I
tcr
eat
esempl
oymentt
opeopl
e.

05. THENEGATI
VEI
MPACTSOFSCI
ENCEANDTECHNOLOGYON
ORALLI
TERATURE.

Or
all
i
ter
atur
e has encount
ered many chal
l
enges i
nthe cour
se of
dev
elopmentf
rom t
imei
timmer
ged.Someoft
hechal
l
engesi
ncl
udet
he

48
f
oll
owi
ng;

I
tbecomes expensi
vei
fpr
eser
ved orst
ored i
n moder
n st
orage
dev
icesl
i
keDVD,
tapesr
ecor
der
s,comput
erset
c.

 Ther
eisno f
ace t
oface i
nter
act
ion bet
ween t
he ar
ti
stand t
he
audi
encesi
ncei
tpr
eser
vedi
nmoder
ndev
ices.

 Ther
eisadel
ayi
nfeedback.I
tisv
erydi
ff
icul
tfort
hear
ti
stt
oget
f
eedbackf
rom t
heaudi
ence.

I
tchangest
hemedi
um ofpr
esent
ati
onbecauset
her
eist
heabsence
ofper
for
manceef
fectandact
ionsar
enothear
d.

 Due t
o copy
righti
ssues,i
tis no l
ongerbel
ongi
ng t
othe whol
e
communi
ty.

I
tdoesnoti
nvol
vet
heal
lmember
soft
hecommuni
tyduet
osci
ence
andt
echnol
ogy
.

 Thev
ulner
abi
l
ityofst
oragedev
icesl
i
keCD,DVD,and VCD may
under
goser
iousdamageendanger
ingt
hei
ntact
nessofor
all
i
ter
atur
e.

QUI
ZZES
Qui
z1:Doesor
all
i
ter
atur
est
il
lexi
sti
ntheTanzani
asoci
etyt
oday
?Di
scuss
Yourar
gument
sbasi
ngonnat
ureandt
ransmi
ssi
on.
Qui
z2:whatar
etheposi
ti
vei
mpact
sofsci
enceandt
echnol
ogyonor
al
Li
ter
atur
e?Gi
veatl
eastf
ive(
5)poi
nts.
######################################################END######################################################
BYSI
R;
DASTANMWESI
GECLEMENCE,
CHRI
STTHEKI
NGNYANTAKUBWAGI
RLSSECONDARYSCHOOL,
P.
O.BOX04,
SENGEREMA.
MWANZA-
TANZANI
A.
(
LITERATUREDEPARTMENT)

49
 TOPI
C3:
WRI
TTENLI
TERATURE
01. I
NTRODUCTI
ON
Wr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
eist
hef
orm ofhumanexpr
essi
ont
hroughwr
it
ing.Thati
s
t
osay
,iti
sal
i
ter
atur
ewhi
chi
sexpr
essedorconv
eyedt
hroughwr
it
ten
f
orm.Thi
ski
ndofl
i
ter
atur
ebeganwi
tht
hei
nvent
ionofwr
it
ing.

02. THECONCEPTSOFFI
CTI
ONANDNONFI
CTI
ON.
Si
ncel
i
ter
atur
eisgener
all
ydef
inedasany
thi
ngwr
it
ten,
theconcept
sof
f
ict
ionandnon-
fi
cti
onar
eal
soany
thi
ngwr
it
ten.Themaj
ordi
ff
erence
bet
weent
hem i
sthatf
ict
ioni
sawor
kofar
twhi
chdeal
swi
tht
hecr
eat
ion
ofi
magi
nedmat
eri
alsorev
ent
swhi
l
enon-
fi
cti
oni
sawor
kofar
twhi
ch
deal
swi
thr
eal
mat
eri
alsorev
ent
s.

a)Fi
cti
on
Thewor
d“f
ict
ion”comesf
rom t
heLat
inwor
d“f
ict
io”whi
chmeans“
a
maki
ngorf
ashi
oni
ng”
.Gener
all
y,f
ict
ioni
sast
oryorwr
it
ingt
hati
scr
eat
ed
f
rom anaut
hor
’si
magi
nat
ion.Thus,
iti
sanar
rat
ivebasedupont
he
i
magi
nat
ionoft
heaut
hor
.Itdeal
swi
thnon-
fact
ual
mat
eri
als/
event
s.A
wr
it
ermayi
ncl
udef
act
saboutr
eal
peopl
eorev
ent
s,butcancombi
nes
t
hesef
act
swi
thi
magi
nar
yset
ti
ngandsi
tuat
ions.Exampl
esoff
ict
ion

50
wor
ksi
ncl
udes;
 Nov
elsandshor
tst
ori
es
 Pl
ays
 Poems
 Al
lfor
msofor
all
i
ter
atur
e

b)Non-
fi
cti
on
I
tisaf
orm ofl
i
ter
atur
ethatdeal
swi
thf
act
ual
mat
eri
alsorev
ent
s.I
tist
he
f
act
ual
wri
ti
ngwhi
chi
swr
it
tenbyt
hewr
it
erwhousesf
act
sinhi
sorher
wor
k.Pur
posef
ull
y,nonf
ict
ional
li
ter
atur
edesi
gnat
eswr
it
ingsi
ntendedt
o
i
nst
ruct
,toi
mpar
tknowl
edge,
wisdom orf
ait
h,andespeci
all
ytopl
ease.

For
msofnonf
ict
ionl
i
ter
atur
e
 Let
ter
sandj
our
nal
s
 Bi
ogr
aphi
es:t
hesear
ewr
it
ingst
hatt
ell
thel
i
feofsomeonewr
it
ten
byanot
herper
son.Abi
ogr
aphyi
sthest
oryofaper
son’
sli
fewr
it
ten
bysomeoneel
se.
 Aut
obi
ogr
aphi
es:t
hesear
ethewr
it
er’
saccountofhi
s/herownl
i
fe.
Anaut
obi
ogr
aphyi
sthenar
rat
ivei
nwhi
cht
heaut
hort
ell
sthest
ory
ofhi
sorherownl
i
fe.Thewor
d“aut
obi
ogr
aphy
”comesf
rom Gr
eek
wor
ds;
‘aut
o’meani
ng‘
sel
f’
,‘
bios’
meani
ng‘
l
ife’
and‘
graphei
n’whi
ch
means‘
towr
it
e’t
husmeani
ngt
owr
it
eone’
sownl
i
fe.
 Memoi
rs;
thesear
eper
son’
srecor
dofexper
iencesf
rom hi
s/herown
l
i
fe.
 Medi
aaccount
sli
kenewspaper
s,magazi
nes,
tel
evi
si
on,
orr
adi
o.
 Essay
s
51
 Ar
ti
cles
 Hi
stor
y
 Di
ary

THEDI
FFERENCESBETWEENFI
CTI
ONANDNON-
FICTI
ON

FI
CTI
ON NON-
FICTI
ON

a)I
ttal
ksabouti
magi
nar
y I
ttal
ksaboutr
eal
peopl
e,pl
aces,
peopl
e,pl
aces,
ideas,
and i
deas,
andexper
ience.
ex
per
ience.

b)Somecommonf
ormsof Somecommonf
ormsofnon-
fi
cti
on
f
ict
ionar
enov
els,
play
s, ar
elet
ter
s,bi
ogr
aphi
es,
poems,
andf
olkt
ales. aut
obi
ogr
aphi
eset
c.

c)Audi
encesoff
ict
ionar
e Audi
encesofnon-
fi
cti
onar
ethe
peopl
ewhol
ookf
ornon- peopl
ewhol
ookf
orf
act
ual
f
act
ual
inf
ormat
ionbutt
hat i
nfor
mat
ion(
fact
s).
gi
vet
hem knowl
edgeand
pl
easur
e.

d)Thepur
poseoff
ict
ioni
sto Thepur
poseofnon-
fi
cti
oni
sto
del
i
vert
hemessageoft
he expl
ain,
inf
orm,
per
suade,
and

52
 wr
it
ert
hatcani
nst
ructand ent
ert
aint
her
eader
s.
ent
ert
aint
her
eader
s.

e)Mostf
ict
ionwr
it
ingsar
e Mostnon-
fi
cti
onwr
it
ingsar
e
nar
rat
ive,
per
suasi
veand ar
gument
ati
ve,
nar
rat
ive,
and
ent
ert
aini
ngwr
it
ings. i
nfor
mat
ional
/expl
anat
orywr
it
ings.

03. MAJORGENRESOFWRI
TTENLI
TERATURE
Bydef
ini
ti
on,
genr
eisdef
inedast
heki
ndorst
yleofsomet
hingespeci
all
y
ofar
torl
i
ter
atur
e.Thet
hree(
3)mai
ngenr
esofwr
it
tenl
i
ter
atur
ear
e:
a)Pr
ose(
nov
els,
nov
ell
a,nov
elet
teandshor
tst
ori
es)
b)Dr
ama(
play
)
c)Poet
ry

A)PROSE(
NOVELSANDSHORTSTORI
ES)
Apr
osei
sanext
endedwr
it
ingt
hati
scont
inuouswr
it
teni
npar
agr
aphs.I
n
ot
herwor
ds,
apr
osei
sanyki
ndofwr
it
ingt
hati
snotpoet
ryort
hati
snot
pr
esent
edi
nver
seorst
anzaf
orm.

SHORTSTORI
ES
Ashor
tst
oryi
sabr
iefwor
koff
ict
iont
hatcanber
eadi
noneset
ti
ng.I
tisa
st
oryusual
l
yabouti
magi
nat
ivechar
act
ersandev
ent
sthati
sshor
tenough
t
ober
eadf
rom t
hebegi
ntot
heendwi
thoutst
oppi
ng.
I
tisusual
l
yfocusesononeort
womai
nchar
act
erst
hatf
aceasi
ngl
e
pr
obl
em orconf
li
ct.Exampl
esofshor
tst
ori
esi
ncl
udeMABALATHE
FARMERbyRi
char
dS.Mabal
aandTHEVOTERbyChi
nuaAchebe.
Ashor
tst
oryhast
hreemai
nel
ement
swhi
char
e:

53
  Pl
ot
 Char
act
ers
 Theme
Ot
hermi
norel
ement
sincl
ude;
 Conf
li
ct
 Poi
ntofv
iew
 Sy
mbol
i
sm
 Fl
ashback
 Fi
cti
onsqual
i
ty

NOVELLA
I
sashor
tpr
osef
ict
ionshor
tert
hananov
elbutl
ongert
hanashor
tst
ory
.
Forexampl
e,Al
exLaGuma’
sAWALKI
NTHENI
GHT.

NOVELETTE
I
sashor
tnov
elt
hati
sof
tenaboutr
omant
icr
elat
ionshi
psandi
susual
l
ynot
v
eryser
ious.Anov
elet
tei
slongert
hanashor
tst
orybutshor
tert
hana
nov
ell
a.I
thas7,
500t
o19,
000wor
ds.

NOVEL
Anov
eli
saf
ict
ionwor
kthati
slongerandmor
ecompl
ext
hanashor
tst
ory
.Iti
sa
f
ict
ional
proseusual
l
yconsi
sti
ngofmor
ethanf
if
tyt
housandwor
ds.
Gener
all
y,anov
eli
sal
ongnar
rat
ivest
orywhi
chi
swr
it
tenorar
rangedi
nchapt
ers.
I
nnov
els;
set
ti
ng,
plot
,char
act
ersandt
hemesar
eful
l
ydev
elopedi
ngr
eatdet
ail
s.Li
ke
shor
tst
ori
es,
anov
elhasf
ourmai
nel
ement
swhi
char
eset
ti
ng,
plot
,char
act
ersand
t
hemes.Aper
sonwhowr
it
esnov
elsi
scal
l
ednov
eli
st.

54
Exampl
esofsel
ect
ednov
els
 AWal
kint
heNi
ght-Al
exLaGuma
 Houseboy–Fer
dinandOy
ono
 TheOl
dmanandt
heMedal-Fer
dinandOy
ono
 TheConcubi
ne–El
echAmadi

Char
act
eri
sti
csofagoodnov
el
 I
tispr
esent
edi
nnar
rat
ivef
orm.I
tusesnar
rat
ioni
nrepr
esent
ingast
oryi
.e.t
hey
ar
enoact
ions.
 I
tisdi
vi
dedi
ntochapt
ers.Themai
ndi
vi
sionsoft
hest
oryi
nthenov
elar
ecal
l
ed
chapt
ers.
 I
templ
oysav
erycompl
expl
ot.I
tisv
eryl
ongwi
thmanychar
act
erseachcar
rya
cer
tai
nmessagehencei
tisdi
ff
icul
ttoj
udget
hebegi
nni
ng,
ther
isi
ngact
ion
(
conf
li
ct)
,thecl
i
maxandt
her
esol
uti
on.
 I
thasspeci
fi
cpoi
ntofv
iewnor
mal
l
yusest
hir
dper
sonomni
sci
entpoi
ntofv
iew.
 I
tisv
eryl
ongenought
ofi
l
lacompl
etebook.I
trangesf
rom 70pagesandabov
e.

Ty
pesofnov
els
a)Soci
alnov
el
I
tisat
ypeofnov
elt
hatf
ocusesonbehav
iorofchar
act
ers.I
tshowshow
char
act
ers’
act
ionsar
eref
lect
edi
nal
i
ter
arywor
k.I
tal
so,
focuseson
v
aluesofsoci
etyi
.e.soci
ali
ssuesl
i
kenor
ms,
cul
tur
e,t
radi
ti
onset
c.
b)Psy
chol
ogi
cal
nov
el
I
tisat
ypeofnov
elt
hatf
ocusesonpsy
chol
ogi
cal
probl
ems/
eff
ect
sand
i
ntendst
oobser
vet
hei
nnersel
fofachar
act
er.Mai
nly
,iti
susedt
otal
k
onper
sonal
conf
li
ct.

55
 c)Educat
ionnov
el
I
tisat
ypeofnov
elt
hatdescr
ibesst
agesi
nthel
i
feoft
hemai
nchar
act
ers
andi
tsmai
npur
posei
stoeducat
eort
olear
nsomet
hingf
rom t
hegr
owt
h
ordev
elopmentofchar
act
erf
rom ear
lyt
omat
uri
ty.

d)Phi
l
osophi
cal
nov
el
I
tisat
ypeofnov
elt
hati
ntendst
oat
temptphi
l
osophi
cal
probl
em.I
t
nor
mal
l
ymai
ntai
nst
hedoct
ri
neofacer
tai
ncl
assofpeopl
e.I
tquest
ionon
f
reedom andt
hev
alueofhumanef
for
tandwi
sdom t
hati
sacent
ral
toa
cer
tai
nsoci
ety
.
e)Popul
arnov
el
I
tisat
ypeofnov
elt
hatmeantf
orent
ert
ainmenti
.e.what
everhasbeen
wr
it
teni
sforent
ert
ainment
.Itt
alksonf
ant
asyaswel
lasr
omant
ic
mi
nist
rat
ions.
f
)Hi
stor
ical
nov
el
I
tisat
ypeofnov
elt
hatgi
vest
hehi
stor
yofacer
tai
nsoci
ety
.Ital
so,
document
sonpasti
ssuest
hatar
ememor
abl
etoacer
tai
nsoci
ety
.
g)Romant
icnov
el
I
tisat
ypeofnov
elt
hati
slov
eor
ient
ed.

Cat
egor
izat
ionnov
elsaccor
dingt
owor
dcount
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion Wor
dcount

Nov
el Ov
er40,
000

Nov
ell
a 17,
500

Nov
elet
te 7,
500–17,
500

56
 Shor
tst
ory Under7,
500

B)DRAMA(
PLAY)
Adr
amai
sapi
eceofwr
it
ingt
hati
sdesi
gnedi
nthewayt
hati
tcanbeact
ed
ont
hest
agebef
oret
heaudi
ence.I
tisapi
eceofwr
it
ingt
hati
sint
endedt
o
beact
edi
nat
heat
re.I
tisal
i
ter
arycomposi
ti
onofanyl
engt
h,or
dinar
il
y
wr
it
tent
obeper
for
medbyact
orswhoi
mper
sonat
ethechar
act
ers,speak
i
nthedi
alogueandenactt
heappr
opr
iat
eact
ions.
Apl
ayi
sapi
eceofwr
it
ingt
hati
sdesi
gnedi
nthewayt
hati
tcanber
eadby
t
her
eader
s.Ther
efor
e,apl
ayi
sawr
it
tenscr
iptofdr
ama.

ORI
GINOFDRAMA
d“
Thewor dr
ama”comesf
rom Gr d“
eekwor dr
an”whi
chmeanst
odoort
o
act
.Itr
efer
stot
hest
oryt
oldi
nawayt
hati
tcanbeact
edbyt
hecast
s
bef
oreaudi
ence.I
tisaki
ndofcommuni
cat
ionbet
weent
hepl
aywr
ightand
t
heaudi
encet
hroughcast
sofchar
act
ers.

ELEMENTSOFDRAMA
i
. Thecastofchar
act
ers(
act
ors/
act
ress)
:thesear
epeopl
epr
esent
ed
i
nthepl
ayi
nor
dert
oper
uset
hepl
ot.Ev
erychar
act
erwhoi
sinv
olv
ed
i
napl
aycanhav
ehi
s/herowndi
sti
nctper
sonal
i
ty,age,appear
ance,
bel
i
efs, soci
o-economi
c backgr
ound and l
anguage. Ther
efor
e,
t
hrought
hewaychar
act
ersar
einv
olv
edi
napl
ayi
swher
ear
eader
canr
efuseoracceptt
hem basi
ngont
hewayandwhatt
heyr
epr
esent
.

57
 i
i
. Theaudi
ence:t
hesear
epeopl
ewhopayat
tent
ionorl
i
stenorwat
ch
t
owhati
sact
edont
hest
age/
theat
rebyt
heact
ors.
i
i
i. Act
ion(
plot
):r
efer
stot
heser
iesofev
ent
sinapl
ayi
nter
msofcause
andef
fect
.Iti
sthewayi
nwhi
chanar
ti
stor
gani
zest
heev
ent
sinhi
s
pl
ayordr
ama.
i
v. Set
ti
ng:i
sthet
imeandpl
acewher
ethepl
ayev
ent
sar
etaken.I
tcan
beanameofanypl
acesuchasTanzani
a,Keny
aet
c.
v
. Themes:t
hesear
ewhatt
hepl
ayordr
amameans.At
hemecanbe
cl
ear
lyst
atedi
nthet
it
leorsomet
imesi
tcanbest
atedt
hrough
di
aloguebyact
orsast
hepl
aywr
ight
’sv
oice.Ont
heot
herhand,a
t
hememay
bei
dent
if
iedaf
tersomest
udyort
hought
.Thus,t
hemes
ar
eabst
ractorunder
lyi
ngmeani
ng,
issuesandf
eel
i
ngst
hatgr
owout
oft
hedr
amat
icact
ion.
v
i. Di
cti
on/
language:r
efer
stot
he choi
ce ofwor
ds made by t
he
pl
aywr
ightandt
hecommuni
cat
ionoft
heact
orsoft
hel
anguage.
v
ii
. Spect
acl
e:r
efer
stoal
loft
heaspect
sofscener
y,cost
umesand
speci
alef
fect
sinapr
oduct
ion.Theyi
ncl
udev
isualel
ement
soft
he
pl
aycr
eat
edf
ort
heat
ri
cal
event
.
v
ii
i. Di
alogue:i
stheconv
ersat
ionofmor
ethanonedr
amat
icchar
act
eri
n
adr
amaorpl
ay.I
tisusef
uli
ndev
elopi
ngt
hepl
otofadr
amat
icst
ory
.
i
x. Mi
me:r
efer
stodr
amat
icact
ionwi
thoutwor
ds.I
tthepr
ocessof
act
ingwi
thoutspeaki
ng.
x. Cost
umes:r
efer
sto speci
alki
nds ofat
ti
res orcl
othes wor
n by
char
act
erspur
posel
yfordr
amat
icper
for
mance.
xi
. Pr
ops:r
efer
stohandt
ool
sori
nst
rument
susedt
oaccompanyt
he
per
for
manceont
hest
age.I
tindi
cat
esr
eal
i
sm i
nthest
ory
.Exampl
e
ofpr
opsi
ncl
udesst
icks,
whi
stl
es,
stones,
etc.
58
 xi
i
. Makeup:t
hese ar
e ki
nd of decor
ati
ons t
hat ar
e pr
epar
ed t
o
accompany t
he per
for
mance dur
ing dr
amat
izat
ion.They i
ncl
ude
col
ors,
powder
,li
pst
ickset
c.
xi
i
i. Enact
ment
s:i
sthesi
tuat
ionofi
mit
ati
ngaccor
dingt
othedemandof
ast
ory
.
xi
v. Spect
ator
:ref
erst
ovi
sualel
ement
sofapl
ayt
hati
sver
yel
ement
s
t
hati
sindi
vi
dual
sees.
xv
. St
age di
rect
ions:i
tis a dr
amat
ict
echni
que whi
ch gi
ves t
he
act
ors/
act
ressandt
hedi
rect
orst
hei
nst
ruct
ionsonhow t
oper
for
m
t
hepl
ay.I
tmustt
ellt
heact
orswher
etomov
eorhowt
ospeaki
na
cer
tai
n ev
ent
.Al
so,i
tmi
ghtdescr
ibe t
he set
ti
ng and t
he sound
ef
fect
s.I
thast
hef
oll
owi
ngf
unct
ions;
I
tshowsphy
sical
locat
ionorset
ti
ng.
I
tindi
cat
est
heact
iondonebyt
heact
ors/
act
ress.
I
tshowst
imet
odescr
ibet
hest
agev
oice.
I
tshowst
heent
ranceandexi
stenceofchar
act
ers.
I
tshowsphy
sical
appear
anceofchar
act
ers.
xv
i. Cat
ast
rophe:r
efer
stot
hef
inalev
enti
nadr
ama.I
tcanbedeat
hor
mar
ri
ageofachar
act
er.
xv
ii
. Comi
crel
i
ef:r
efer
stoabi
tofhumani
naser
iouspl
ayi
nor
dert
o
i
ndi
cat
eorbr
ingr
eli
ef.
xv
ii
i. Nemesi
s:i
sanagentofr
etr
ibut
ion/
aper
sonwhoi
sthi
nki
ng/
awayof
l
ett
ingaudi
enceknowt
hechar
act
er’
smi
nd.
xi
x. Sol
i
loquy
:ref
erst
oani
ntensi
vet
hinki
ngofacer
tai
nchar
act
er.I
tis
whenacer
tai
nchar
act
erspeaksal
onei
nthest
age.
xx. Al
l
usi
on:i
sthesi
tuat
ionwher
ebysomet
hingt
hati
ssai
dorwr
it
ten
r
efer
stoorment
ionanot
herper
sonorsubj
ectonani
ndi
rectway
.It
59
 cat
egor
izedi
ntot
wot
ypesnamel
y;
 Hi
stor
ical
all
usi
on
 Bi
bli
cal
all
usi
on
xxi
. I
ll
usi
on:i
sal
i
ter
aryt
echni
quet
hatmeanssomet
hingmanypeopl
e
bel
i
evet
hati
sfal
se.
xxi
i
. Li
ghtandcur
tai
n:r
efer
stodr
amat
ict
echni
quet
hati
sempl
oyedi
na
pl
ayi
nor
dert
oshowt
heendofoneepi
sode.
xxi
i
i. Cur
tai
n:i
stheheav
ymat
eri
alt
hatscr
eens/
blockst
hest
agef
rom t
he
audi
ence.I
tissomet
imesdef
inedasapi
eceoft
hick,
heav
ycl
otht
hat
hangsi
nfr
ontoft
hest
agei
nthet
heat
re.
xxi
v. Dr
amat
ici
rony
:ref
erst
oadr
amat
ict
echni
quet
hatoccur
swhenan
audi
enceknowssomet
hingwhi
cht
hechar
act
eront
hest
agei
snot
awar
e.
xxv
. Musi
c(soundef
fect
):r
efer
stot
hev
oiceofact
orsast
heyspeak.
Musi
cindr
amahast
hef
oll
owi
ngf
unct
ions;
I
thel
pst
heaudi
encet
oconcent
rat
etot
hest
age
I
taccompani
est
heact
ions
I
tisusedt
oshowwhet
hert
heact
ioni
ssadorhappy
I
tisusedt
oat
tr
actt
heaudi
enceandpayat
tent
ion
I
tisusedt
oent
ert
aint
hebegi
nni
ngandendofact
ion
I
tisusedt
oent
ert
aint
heaudi
ence
I
tisusedt
oident
if
ythecul
tur
e
I
tincr
easest
hemoodofact
orsoract
ress
xxv
i. Season:r
efer
stot
hephasei
nthecy
cleofl
i
feofhumanbei
ng.I
tcan
bedeat
h,ol
dage,
pai
n,l
onel
i
ness,
despai
roranend.
xxv
ii
. Anepi
sode:r
efer
stoanar
rat
iveuni
twi
thi
nal
argedr
amat
icwor
kor
document
arypr
oduct
ionsuchasser
iesi
ntendedf
orr
adi
o,t
elev
isi
on
60
 oron-
li
neconsumpt
ion.
xxv
ii
i. Fi
l
m:i
sast
oryorev
entr
ecor
dedbyacamer
aasaser
iesofmov
ing
i
magesandshowni
naci
nemaoront
elev
isi
on.
xxi
x. Act
:ref
erst
othemaj
ordi
vi
sionofapl
ayordr
ama.
xxx. Scene:i
sasubdi
vi
sionofanactofapl
ayi
nwhi
cht
het
imei
s
cont
inuousandt
heset
ti
ngi
sfi
xed.Shor
tl
y,ascenei
soneoft
he
par
tsi
ntowhi
chapl
ayoraf
il
m may
bedi
vi
ded.Eachscenehasi
ts
ownbegi
nni
ng,mi
ddl
eandendandhaskeyel
ement
sli
keconf
li
ct,
r
esol
uti
on,
char
act
ers,
set
ti
ng,
dial
ogueandact
ion.
xxxi
. Scr
ipt
:thi
sisawr
it
tent
extofapl
ay,f
il
m/mov
ie,t
hatgui
dest
he
act
orshowt
oactt
hedr
ama.

FEATURESOFDRAMA/
PLAY
a)Apl
ay/
dramahasst
rongv
isualel
ement
sort
hest
oryandi
mageof
humannat
urer
epr
oduci
ngt
hepassi
onsandhumanhumour
.Ont
he
st
age,weseepi
ctur
esandi
mageswhi
chhol
dourat
tent
ionand
i
ncr
easei
nter
estand ent
ert
ainmentt
othemessageoft
hepl
ay.
Ev
ent
sinapl
aycannotbeeasi
l
yfor
got
ten.
b)I
texposest
otheaudi
encest
hei
mmedi
ateandexi
sti
ngexper
iencei
n
t
hesoci
ety
.
c)I
tiseasi
l
yunder
stoodsi
ncei
timi
tat
eswhatr
eal
l
yhappensi
nthe
soci
etyandpeopl
ehav
esomeexper
iencei
nit
.
d)I
ndr
ama,t
hedev
elopmentoft
hemes,pl
ot,char
act
erset
c.t
akes
pl
aceswi
ft
lyf
rom t
hebegi
nni
ngt
otheendoft
hepl
ay.
e)Dr
ama i
sful
lofact
ions unl
i
ke ot
hergenr
es.I
tis easy t
o be
r
epr
oducedorcopi
edbyt
heaudi
ence.
f
)Dr
amat
endst
obr
ingt
hewhol
ewor
ldonst
ageandhencehel
psust
o
61
 l
ear
nwhatot
herpeopl
edoorev
enmakecompar
isonandl
ateref
fect
somechangesi
nthesoci
ety
.

TYPESOFDRAMA/
PLAY
Ther
ear
eaboutsev
ent
ypesofpl
aysnamel
y;

a)Tr
agedy
:
I
sat
ypeofdr
amawhi
chshowsser
iousact
ionsandal
way
sapr
otagoni
st
endanger
shi
sorherl
i
fe.I
tisadr
amat
icr
epr
esent
ati
onofser
iousact
ions
whi
chev
ent
uat
einadi
sast
rousconcl
usi
onf
ort
hepr
otagoni
st(
thechi
ef
char
act
er)
. He/
she become f
aced by deat
h or i
sol
ati
on. Exampl
e,
“
Kinj
eket
it
e”byI
brahi
m Hussei
nand“
Oedi
pust
heKi
ng”bySophocl
es
b)Comedy
I
tisat
ypeofdr
amawhi
chi
sfunnyorhumor
ousbecausei
tal
way
smake
t
heaudi
encel
augh.Exampl
e,“
TheGov
ernmentI
nspect
or”byNi
col
aiGogol
.
c)Tr
agi
c-comedy
Thi
sisaki
ndofdr
amawhi
chcombi
nest
heel
ement
sofbot
htr
agedyand
comedy
.Int
hist
ypeofdr
ama/
playaher
oinedoesnotendangerhi
s/herl
i
fe.
I
.e.doesnotendi
ncat
ast
rophe(
deat
hordanger
).
d)Hi
stor
ical
drama
Thi
sist
het
ypeofdr
amawhi
chexpr
essest
hehi
stor
yofacer
tai
nsoci
ety
.
Al
soi
nthi
sty
peofdr
ama,t
her
eaderwi
l
lfi
ndt
heel
ement
soft
ragedyand
comedy
.Exampl
e,“
Kinj
eket
it
e”byI
brahi
m Hussei
n
e)Mel
o-dr
ama
Thi
sisat
ype ofdr
ama pr
oduced wi
th musi
calaccompani
mentf
or
ent
ert
ainment
.Iti
sadr
amawi
thsongsaccompany
ingt
heact
ions.
62
 f
)Tel
epl
ay
Thi
sist
hepl
ayt
obeshowni
ntel
evi
sionswher
eact
sandscenesmay
changequi
ckl
yanddr
amat
ical
l
y.

g)Dumbpl
ay
Thi
sist
het
ypeofpl
ayi
nwhi
chonl
ygest
uresar
eusedt
o conv
eya
messagewi
thoutspeech.I
tisj
ustapi
eceofact
iongi
veni
nmi
mesandt
he
act
orsdonotspeak.
EXAPLESOFSELECTEDPLAY
a)TheLi
onandt
heJewel–Soy
inka,
W
b)TheTr
ial
sofBr
otherJer
o-Soy
inka,
W
c)TheDi
l
emmaofaGhost–Ai
doo,
A.A
d)TheGov
ernmentI
nspect
or–Gogol
,N

C)POETRY
Poet
ryi
saf
orm ofl
i
ter
atur
ethatusesaest
het
icand
r
hyt
hmi
cqual
i
tiesofl
anguaget
oev
oket
hemeani
ng
i
npor
tray
ingt
hehumansoci
alr
eal
i
ties.I
tinv
olv
es
di
ff
erentpoemswhi
char
ewr
it
teni
nfor
m ofv
erses
andst
anzas.
Poem i
sapi
eceofwr
it
ingi
nver
sesf
orm especi
all
y
expr
essi
ngdeepf
eel
i
ngsi
nanar
ti
sti
clanguage.
63
NOTE:
Poet
ryi
sthear
tofcomposi
ngorcol
l
ect
ingpoems
whi
l
e apoem i
sapi
eceofwr
it
ing i
nver
seand
st
anz
afor
m especi
all
yexpr
essi
ngdeepf
eel
i
ngsi
n
anar
ti
sti
clanguage.

FEATURESOFPOETRY(
POEM)
a)
Poet
ryi
sri
chi
nfi
gur
esofspeech
b)I
tev
okesemot
ions
c)
Iti
smadeupofv
ersesandst
anzas
d)I
tismadeupi
nrhy
meandr
hyt
hms
e)
Itmeantt
obesung
f
)Itgi
vesmor
all
essons

TYPESOFPOETRY(
POEM)
Poems can be cat
egor
ized basi
ng on t
he t
wo
el
ement
sofl
i
ter
atur
enamel
y;
a)
For
m
b)Cont
ent
64
 a)
Basi
ngonf
orm
Basi
ng on f
orm,one can di
vi
de poemsi
ntot
wo
t
ypes;
Tr
adi
ti
onal
(cl
osedpoems)
Moder
n(openpoems)

Tr
adi
ti
onal
(cl
osed)poems
Thi
sref
erst
othosepoemswhi
chadher
est
ri
ctl
yto
t
he t
radi
ti
onalr
ules of composi
ng poems l
i
ke
r
hymi
ng schemes,r
hyt
hmi
c pat
ter
n,and equal
numberofsy
ll
abl
e,v
ersesandst
anza.
Moder
n(open)poems
Thi
sref
erst
othose poems whi
ch i
gnor
es t
he
st
ruct
uralpat
ter
ns ofcomposi
ng poems.These
poemsar
eal
socal
l
edt
hef
reev
ersepoems.

b)Basi
ngoncont
ent
Undert
hecont
ent
,thedi
vi
si
onofpoet
rybaseson
whatapar
ti
cul
arpoem addr
essest
otheaudi
ence.
65
Someofsuchcat
egor
iesar
e;
i
. Nar
rat
ivepoem:
isapoem t
hatt
ell
sast
ory
.
i
i
. Descr
ipt
ivepoem:i
spoem whi
cht
ell
sonwhat
someoneorsomet
hingi
sli
ke.
i
i
i. Ly
ric poem:t
hisi
s a poem whi
ch expr
esses
per
sonal
deept
houghtandf
eel
i
ngs.
i
v. El
egypoem:t
hisi
samour
nfulorpl
aint
ivepoem
especi
all
yal
amentf
ort
hedeadoraf
uner
al
song.Theyar
esadandsor
rowf
ulpoemswhi
ch
ar
esungmai
nlyf
orr
emember
ingsomeonewho
hasdead.
v
. Sonnetpoem:t
hisi
sapoem whi
chi
smadeof
f
our
teenl
i
neswi
thapar
ti
cul
arpat
ter
nofr
hyme.
v
i. Odepoem:t
hisi
sapoem whi
chexpr
essest
he
wr
it
er’
sthought
sandf
eel
i
ngaboutaper
sonora
cer
tai
nsubj
ect
.Itaser
ioussongofsi
ngl
etheme.
Odei
sser
iousexpr
essi
onofasi
ngl
etheme.
v
ii
. Song:
isapoem sett
omusi
c.
v
ii
i. Dr
amat
icpoem:t
hisi
spoem i
nwhi
chaper
son
66
 i
stal
ki
ngt
oanot
herper
sonorot
herper
sons.
i
x. Bal
l
adpoem:t
hisi
sanar
rat
ivepoem i
nwhi
ch
t
her
ear
etwoormor
epeopl
espeaki
ngi
ntur
n.
x. Epi
cpoem:t
hisi
sal
ongpoem t
hatdeal
swi
th
act
ionsofgr
eatmenandwomenorhi
stor
yof
nat
ions.Theyt
ell
ast
oryofher
oicdeeds.
xi
. Di
dact
icpoem:t
hisi
sapoem desi
gnedt
ogi
ve
i
nst
ruct
ions t
oreader
s.They ar
e mai
nlyf
or
pol
i
ticaland soci e,y
almessages.Exampl our
pai
nbyAr
mandoGuebuza.
xi
i
. Hai
ku poem:i
s a Japanese f
orm ofpoet
ry
consi
sti
ngoft
hreeunr
hymedl
i
nesoff
ive,
sev
en
andf
ivesy
ll
abl
es.
xi
i
i. Di
amond poem:t
hisi
s a poem aboutt
wo
opposi
tet
opi
cs.Exampl
eapoem whoset
opi
cA
i
sbi
rt
hwhi
l
etopi
cBi
sdeat
h.
xi
v. Li
mer
ick poem:t
hisi
saf
unnyorhumor
ous
poem consi
sti
ngoff
ivel
i
nes.I
thast
her
hymi
ng
pat
t nof“
er aabba”
.
67
 I
MPORTANT TERMSUSED I
N THESTUDY OF
POETRY
a)
Ver
se:i
sasi
ngl
eli
nei
napoem whi
chf
ormsa
st
anzaorapar
tofast
anza.
b)St
anza:i
sthe combi
nat
ion orcol
l
ect
ion of
v
erseswhi
chf
orm apoem orapar
tofapoem.
St
anzasar
ecommonl
ynamedaccor
dingt
othe
numberofv
erses/
li
nesasf
oll
ows;
Monost
ich;
iti
sonev
ersest
anza
Coupl
et;
iti
stwov
ersesst
anza
Ter
cet
;iti
sthr
eev
ersesst
anza
Quat
rai
n;i
tisf
ourv
ersesst
anza
Ci
nquai
n;i
tisf
ivev
ersesst
anza
Sest
et;
iti
ssi
xver
sesst
anza
Hept
ast
ich;
iti
ssev
env
ersesst
anza
Oct
ave;
iti
sei
ghtv
ersesst
anza
c)
Poet
:isamanwhocomposespoems.
d)Poet
ess:
isawomanwhocomposespoems.
68
e)
Per
sona:i
saper
sonwhospeaksi
napoem.
He/
shei
sal eddr
socal
l amat
ist
.
f
)Rhy
me:i
sther
epet
it
ionofsi
mil
arsoundsatt
he
endofwor
dsi
nast
anza.
Ty
pesofr
hyme
Per
fect
/exactr
hyme:i
toccur
swhent
hesounds
mat
chexact
lymost
lyatt
heend.E.
g.cameand
f
ame.
Par
ti
al/
imper
fect
/appr
oxi
mat
e/sl
ant
/nearr
hyme:
i
toccur
swhent
hesoundsdonotmat
chexact
ly.
E.
g.hungerandpl
umber
.
Ey
erhy
me;i
toccur
swhenwor
dsseem t
orhy
me
butt
heyar
enot
.E.
g.enoughandt
hrough.
I
nter
nalr
hyme;i
toccur
swi
thi
nori
nthemi
ddl
e
ofal
i
ne.E.
g.‘
theywer
esi
ngi
ng,br
ingi
ngt
he
r
ing’
,‘
Ineedmyki
dtobed’
Endr
hyme;
itoccur
satt
heendoft
hel
i
nes.
g)Rhy
me scheme:i
sthe r
egul
ar pat
ter
n of
r
hymi
ngwor
dsi
napoem.Rhy
meschemecan
69
 ber
epr
esent
edbydi
ff
erentl
ett
erst
oshoweach
r
hymi
ngsound.Forexampl
e,i
nCl
audi
eMckay
’s
I
FWEMUSTDI
E,t
her
hymeschemegoesABAB,
CDCD,
EFEF,
andGG.

Ty
pesofr
hymescheme
Regul
arr
hymi
ngscheme;i
tisaki
ndofr
hyme
scheme t
hatf
oll
ows a par
ti
cul
arconsi
stent
or
deri
napoem.Eg,“
IfweMustDi
e”byCl
aud
Mckay
.
I
rr
egul
arr
hymi
ngscheme:i
tisar
hymescheme
t
hatdoesnotf
oll
owapar
ti
cul
arconsi
stentor
der
i
napoem.Eg,
ADy
ingChi
l
dbyPi
terLwamba.
h)Rhy
thm:t
hesear
eregul
armov
ement
sofbeat
s
occur
ri
ngi
nthepoem ast
her
esul
toft
her
isi
ng
andf
all
i
ngofsounds.
i
)Ref
rai
n:t
hisi
sther
epeat
edl
i
newhi
chappear
s
att
heendofeachst
anzai
nthepoem.
j
)Tone:i
sthe at
ti
tude oft
he poetorper
sona
70
 t
owar
dst
hesubj
ectmat
terbei
ngaddr
essedi
na
poem.I
tcanexpr
essl
ove,hat
red,pi
ty,sar
casm,
sad,
angr
y,r
omant
ic,
humor
ous,
nost
algi
c,et
c.
k)
Mood:i
sthef
eel
i
ngt
her
eaderget
sthr
ought
he
pr
evai
l
ingt
one.Moodi
swhatt
her
eaderf
eel
s
af
terr
eadi
ngapoem.I
.e.t
hef
eel
i
ngsoft
he
r
eaderaf
terr
eadi
ngt
hepoem.I
nthel
ongr
un,
t
her
eadercanbehappy
,sad,
angr
y,sy
mpat
het
ic,
i
roni
cal
,et
c.
l
)Met
er:t
hisr
efer
stot
hegener
alr
egul
arpat
ter
ns
ofst
ressedandunst
ressedsy
ll
abl
einpoet
ry.I
t
i
sther
esul
tofr
isi
ngandf
all
i
ngofsoundswhi
ch
madeaper
sonat
ost
resst
hewor
dsdi
ff
erent
ly.
m)
Foot
;isagr
oupoft
woort
hreesy
ll
abl
eswhi
ch
f
ormt
hebasi
cuni
tofpoet
icr
hyt
hm.
n)Al
l
iter
ati
on:i
sthe r
epet
it
ion of t
he i
nit
ial
consonantsoundsoft
woormor
ewor
dswhi
ch
ar
e near
byi
nal
i
ne ofa poem.E.
g.‘
dar
li
ng
Der
ri
ckdeaddear
ly’
,‘
feel
freef
ri
endl
yFr
eddy
’
71
 o)Consonance:t
hisi
sther
epet
it
ionofconsonant
soundsatt
heendofwor
dsi
nst
ressedsy
ll
abl
es.
E.
g.‘
Ineedmyki
dtobed’
,‘
youhur
tmyhear
t’
.
p)Assonance:i
sther
epet
it
ionofsi
mil
arv
owel
soundswi
thi
nwor
dscl
oset
ooneanot
herwi
th
di
ff
erentconsonantsounds.E.
g.‘
theysel
lthe
weddi
ngbel
l
s,baseandf
ade’
q)Rei
ter
ati
on:i
sther
epet
it
ionoft
hesamewor
d
f
oremphasi
s.
r
)Ti
tl
e:i
sthenameofapoem.
s)
Poet
icl
i
cense:i
sthef
reedom t
hatpoet
sand
poet
ess has i
n v
iol
ati
ng some f
act
s and
gr
ammat
ical
rul
eswhencomposi
ngpoems.
t
)Poet
ic di
cti
on:r
efer
stot
he way wor
ds ar
e
chosenandar
rangedaest
het
ical
l
yinapoem t
o
por
trayhumanr
eal
i
ties.

POETI
CDEVI
CES
Poet
ic dev
ices r
efert
othe f
eat
ures t
hatdef
ine
72
poet
ry(
poem)
.OR,ar
edev
icesusedt
oshow how
t
hepoem i
sconst
ruct
edorcomposed.Ther
ear
e
t
hreecl
assi
fi
cat
ionsofpoet
icdev
ices,
namel
y;
a)
Sensedev
ices
b)St
ruct
ural
dev
ices
c)
Sounddev
ices
a)
Sensedev
ices
Thesear
epoet
icdev
icest
hatbr
ingani
maget
othe
mi
ndoft
her
eaderoft
hepoem.Theyi
ncl
udeal
l
f
igur
ati
ve or i
magi
nar
ylanguage l
i
ke hy
per
bol
e,
under
stat
ement
,al
l
usi
on,i
rony
,imager
y,si
mil
e,
anal
ogyet
c.
Not
e:
Anal ;i
ogy sacompar
isonbet
weent
woobj
ect
sthat
ar
e essent
ial
l
y di
ff
erentbuthav
e atl
eastone
commonqual
i
ty.
b)St
ruct
ural
dev
ices
These ar
e poet
ic dev
ices t
hat det
ermi
ne t
he
st
ruct
ureofapoem andshow how t
hepoem i
s
73
f
ormedorst
ruct
ured.Theyi
ncl
ude;
Pol
ysy
ndet
on;i
stheuseofsev
eralconj
unct
ions
i
nacl
osesuccessi
onespeci
all
ywher
esome
mi
ghtbeomi
tt
ed.E.
g.her
unsandj
umpedand
l
aughedf
orj
oy.
Asy
ndet
on;i
sthe omi
ssi
on of conj
unct
ions
wher
etheywoul
dnor
mal
l
ybeused.E.
g.her
un
j
umpedl
aughedf
orj
oy.
Repet
it
ion
St
anza
Ver
ses
Punct
uat
ionmar
kset
c.
c)
Sounddev
ices
Thesear
edev
icest
hatdet
ectsoundsi
nthepoem.
Theymakeapoem/
songt
obesung.Theyi
ncl
ude
al
l
iter
ati
on, assonance, consonance, i
diophones,
onomat
opoei
a,r
hymes,
andr
hyt
hm.

PROCEDURESOFI
NTERPRETI
NGAPOEM
74
a)
Lookandobser
veatt
hepoem car
eful
l
y.Thi
s
hel
psi
nident
if
ying;
Numberofst
anzasandv
ersesi
nawhol
e
poem.
Ty
peofst
anza
Rhy
meandr
hymi
ngpat
ter
ns/
scheme.
b) Readt
hewhol
epoem car
eful
l
y.
c)
Re-
readt
hepoem car
eful
l
ywhi
l
eident
if
yingt
he
di
ff
icul
tywor
dsusedi
nit
.
d) Fi
ndt
hemeani
ngofdi
ff
icul
tywor
dsusedi
n
t
hepoem.
e)
Re-
readt
hepoem car
eful
l
yrel
ati
ngt
hemeani
ng
ofdi
ff
icul
tywor
dst
othecont
extoft
hepoem.
f
)Asky
our
sel
fonwhatt
hepoem i
sal
labout
.
g) I
dent
if
ythet
hemespor
tray
edi
nthepoem.
h) Commenton t
he mood and t
one oft
he
per
sona.
i
)Ident
if
ythemessagef
oundi
nthepoem.
j
)Comment on t
he poet
ic di
cti
on (
dev
ices)
75
 empl
oyedi
nthepoem.
k)
Rel
atet
he poem r
ead t
oyourper
sonaland
nat
ional
li
feexper
ience.

THE DI
FFERENCE BETWEEN POETRY AND A
POEM
a)
Poet
ryi
sthe l
i
ter
ary wor
kin whi
ch t
he
expr
essi
on off
eel
i
ngs and i
deas ar
e gi
ven
i
ntensi
tybyt
heuseofdi
sti
nct
ivest
yleand
r
hyt
hm;setpoem col
l
ect
ivel
yasagenr
eof
l
i
ter
atur
e,WHI
LEpoem i
sapi
eceofwr
it
ingi
n
whi
cht
heexpr
essi
onoff
eel
i
ngsandi
deasar
e
gi
ven i
ntensi
ty by par
ti
cul
ar at
tent
ion t
o
di
cti
oni
.e.r
hyt
hm andi
mager
y.
b) Poet
ryi
sal
i
ter
aryf
ormt
hatcov
ersawi
de
r
ange,WHI
LE apoem i
sawr
it
tenpi
eceof
l
i
ter
arywor
k.
c)
Poet
ryi
san ar
tfor
m,WHI
LE a poem i
sa
composedl
i
ter
arywor
k.
76
 d) Poet
ryi
smadeofpoems,WHI
LEapoem i
s
af
undament
aluni
tofpoet
ry.
e)
Poet
ryi
sacol
l
ect
ivet
erm usedt
oindi
cat
e
manypi
ecesofi
ndi
vi
dualpoems,WHI
LE a
poem i
sacol
l
ect
ivev
erseusedi
nthesenseof
ani
ndi
vi
dual
pieceofwor
k.
f
)Poet
ryi
s an ar
ti
sti
c abi
l
ity ofcomposi
ng
poems,WHI
LEapoem i
sawor
kthatr
esul
t
f
rom t
heexer
ciseofpoet
ry.

I
MPORTANTI
TERMSTO BECONSI
DEREDI
N
THECRI
TICI
M OFAPOEM.
I
nthecr
it
ici
sm ofanyl
i
ter
arywor
k,wehav
eto
consi
dert
wo(
2)el
ement
sofl
i
ter
atur
ethatar
e;
a)
For
m and
b) Cont
ent
Undert
heseel
ement
swehav
etoanal
yzet
hesub-
el
ement
sofbot
hel
ement
s.
a)
For
m
77
I
nfor
m,wehav
etoanal
yzet
hei
temsl
i
ke
Thet
it
leoft
hepoem
Thest
ruct
ure(
for
m)oft
hepoem
Thel
anguageused(
fi
gur
esofspeech)
Thet
oneoft
hepoet
/poet
ess
Themoodoft
hepoet
/poet
ess
Ther
elev
anceoft
hepoem
b) Cont
ent
I
nthecont
ent
,wehav
etoanal
yzet
hei
temsl
i
ke;
Messageand
Themes

EXAMPLESOFSELECTED BOOKSOFPOETRY
USED
Sel
ect
edPoems-Tanzani
aInst
it
uteofEducat
ion.
Gr
owi
ngUpwi
thPoet
ry–Dav
idRubadi
ri
.
######################################################END######################################################
BYSI
R;
DASTANMWESI
GECLEMENCE,
CHRI
STTHEKI
NGNYANTAKUBWAGI
RLSSECONDARYSCHOOL,
P.
O.BOX04,
SENGEREMA.
MWANZA-
TANZANI
A.
(
LITERATUREDEPARTMENT)

78