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org/journal/acsodf Article

BiFeO3‑Black TiO2 Composite as a Visible Light Active Photocatalyst

for the Degradation of Methylene Blue
Pravallika Banoth, Chinna Kandula, Praveen Kumar Lavudya, Saidulu Akaram,
Luis De Los Santos Valladares,* RajaniKanth Ammanabrolu, Ghanashyam Krishna Mamidipudi,
and Pratap Kollu*

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ABSTRACT: The application of a novel BiFeO3 (BFO)-black TiO2

Downloaded via 49.205.243.112 on June 18, 2023 at 10:52:21 (UTC).

(BTO) composite (called BFOT) as a photocatalyst for the degradation

of methylene blue is reported. The p−n heterojunction photocatalyst
was synthesized for the first time through microwave-assisted co-
precipitation synthesis to change the molar ratio of BTO in BiFeO3 to
increase the photocatalytic efficiency of the BiFeO3 photocatalyst. The
UV−visible properties of p−n heterostructures showed excellent
absorption of visible light and reduced electron−hole recombination
properties compared to the pure-phase BFO. Photocatalytic studies on
BFOT10, BFOT20, and BFOT30 have shown that they decompose
methylene blue (MB) in sunlight better than pure-phase BFO in 70 min.
The BFOT30 photocatalyst was the most effective at reducing MB when
exposed to visible light (97%). Magnetic studies have shown that BTO is
diamagnetic, and the BFOT10 photocatalyst exhibits a very weak antiferromagnetic behavior, whereas BFOT20 and BFO30 show
diamagnetic behavior. This study confirms that the catalyst has poor stability and weak magnetic recovery properties due to the non-
magnetic phase BTO in the BFO.

1. INTRODUCTION In recent years, black TiO2 functioned better as a

A promising strategy to address environmental problems and
the energy shortage is the use of catalysts for the remediation
of organic pollutants.1−6 Photocatalysts are widely employed to
break down contaminants using ultraviolet or visible light
sources. Perovskite-based photocatalysts are a significant class
of semiconductors that both UV and visible light can activate.
Combining the photocatalysts is one method for improving
their photoactivity because the efficiency of pure photo-
catalysts is frequently low.
A stable, non-toxic, and multiferroic visible light active
photocatalyst has recently been explored to exist in the form of
BiFeO3 (BFO). BFO has a band gap from 2.2 to 2.7 eV, which
indicates that it strongly absorbs light in the visible range from
200 to 800 nm.7,8 Excellent characteristics of BFO have been
seen in the degradation of pollutants. However, the main
problem with the significant photogenerated electron−hole
pairs recombination rate is still restricting the use of BFO for
photocatalysis. To tackle this issue, BFO has received much
attention when coupled with other visible active semi-
conductors, which prevents the high recombination of
photogenerated electron−hole pairs and enhances photo-
catalytic activity.9−13
© 2023 The Authors. Published by
American Chemical Society
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photocatalyst than pure white TiO2 because it could better
separate photogenerated electron−hole pairs. The higher solar
light absorption of black TiO2 was caused by Ti3+ and the
oxygen vacancies that resulted in refs 14−16. Black TiO2
(BTO) photocatalysts have recently received a lot of interest
due to their exceptional light-absorbing properties, which even
make the NIR region of the solar spectrum practical. Due to
the low band gap value, they showed light absorption even in
the near-infrared range (1.54 eV).17 Since then, numerous
successful photocatalysis and other photoelectrochemical
applications have drawn significant research attention to
BTO.6 Two usually mentioned benefits are increased photo-
catalytic efficiency and reduced recombination of photo-
generated charge carriers. The heterostructure of multiferroic
BFO and BTO nanoparticles is expected to be a superior
Received: January 27, 2023
Accepted: April 28, 2023
Published: May 15, 2023
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photocatalyst with increased photocatalytic activity compared
to pure-phase BFO.18−21
Furthermore, the shorter band gap of the heterostructure
interfaces may result in more electrons and holes and exhibit
higher photocatalytic efficiency.22,23 It is well known from the
literature that recent studies on the BFO-based heterostructure
have shown improved photocatalytic activity in organic dye
degradation under visible light exposure. Therefore, creating
strong photocatalytic activity based on black TiO2 seems to
have potential.
To the present author’s knowledge, there are no reports on
the composite of black TiO2 with BFO for organic dye
degradation under visible-light exposure. In the current work,
for the first time, BFO-BTO (black TiO2) heterostructures
were synthesized through the microwave-co-precipitation
method by mixing different molar ratios of BFO and the
black TiO2 in the as-prepared condition by following
microwave heating technique. The developed BFO-BTO
composite (referred to by the acronym BFOT in the rest of
the paper) photocatalysts with a narrow band gap have shown
outstanding photocatalytic activity for methylene blue
elimination under sunlight irradiation.
The novelty of this study is that it uses black TiO2 and
multiferroic BiFeO3 to develop a bismuth-based composite for
decomposing an organic dye in the visible range. For the
photocatalysis application, there are no reports on this
composite material. In previous works, bismuth-based
composites made with white TiO2 had a low photodegradation
percentage and took a long time to break down the dye
completely. In our current study, however, bismuth-based
composites made with black TiO2 showed a high photo-
degradation percentage in just 70 min of sunlight exposure.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
2.1. Materials Used for BFOT Heterostructures. For
this procedure, ethanol, double-distilled water (DDW), pure
potassium hydroxide (KOH, 98%), pure ferric chloride (FeCl3·
6H2O, 98%), pure bismuth chloride (BiCl3, 98%), and
commercial white TiO2 are all used.
2.1.1. Preparation of BiFeO3 Micro Flowers. The pure-
phase BFO microwave flowers are synthesized in 3 min at 800
W by microwave-assisted-solvothermal (MWAST) method in
a domestic solo-microwave oven. The complete experimental
procedure can be found in our previous work.7
2.1.2. Preparation of Black TiO2 Nanoparticles. White
TiO2 pellets were made utilizing simple but meticulous
techniques. Ethylene glycol (EG) was added to the ultrafine
TiO2 powder, which was then crushed for 60 min. EG was
employed as a binder, and then, a pellet with the shape of a
circular disc was formed by pressing a powder mixture with a
hydraulic press at a pressure of 15 tonnes for roughly 2 min.
The pellet is then sintered for 2−6 h at 800−1000 °C.
Afterward, the white TiO2 pellets were irradiated by an
electron beam for 40−60 min to get the black TiO2 [BTO]
powder.
2.1.3. Synthesis of (1 − x) BFO-TiO2 (x = 0.10, 0.20, and
0.30) Heterostructures. BFO-TiO2 heterostructures are
prepared by a simple microwave-assisted-coprecipitation
method following microwave heating at 360 W for 3 min.
We dissolved a stoichiometric ratio of BFO and BTO powders
in 100 mL of ethanol and sonicated it for 8 h at 80 °C to
evaporate the solvent and obtain the gel. Finally, the gel was
heated at 360 W for 3 min in a domestic microwave oven.
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Following the above procedure, we have synthesized three
different heterostructures by loading different ratios of TiO2
onto the BFO. The prepared heterostructures (1 − x) BFO-
xBTO, where x = 0.10, 0.20, and 0.30, are named BFOT10,
BFOT20, and BFOT30, respectively.
2.2. Characterizations. UV−visible spectroscopy (Jasco
V-670 UV−visible double beam spectrophotometer) was used
to characterize the BFO, BTO, and BFOT heterostructures
following synthesis, with ethanol serving as a blank. Wave-
lengths ranging from 200 to 800 nm were used to record the
absorption spectra. Analysis of the X-ray diffraction (XRD)
data (PANalytical, X’Pert Powder Diffractometer) has shown
that the pure phases of BFO and BTO have been formed, as
well as the creation of BFOT heterostructures. At a scan rate of
4 °/min and with a step size of 0.02°, the scanning range in this
diffractogram was 20θ to 80θ [2θ value]. Field emission
scanning electron microscopy (FESEM: Carl Zeiss Smart Sem)
and transmission electron microscopy were used to study the
morphology of synthesized samples. A vibrating sample
magnetometer measured the magnetic properties of synthe-
sized heterostructured samples at room temperature (VSM,
Model: LakeShore).
2.3. Photocatalysis. Samples were tested for their
photocatalytic ability to degrade methylene blue, an example
of a pollution dye. A lot of sunlight was present during the
photodegradation process. A total of 40 mg of each
photocatalyst powder was initially added to a 100 mL MB
solution at a concentration of 10 mg/L at a neutral pH. After
the magnetic churning, the slurry was exposed to heavy
sunlight. We used UV−visible spectroscopy to keep track of
the dye solution’s decolorization.
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1. X-ray Diffraction Analysis of BFOT Heterostruc-
tures. In this study, BFOT heterostructure powders were
Figure 1. XRD patterns of pure BFO, BTO, BFOT10, BFOT20, and
BFOT30.
synthesized through a microwave-assisted-chemical coprecipi-
tation method and with BTO content levels of 10%
(BFOT10), 20% (BFOT20), and 30% (BFOT30). The XRD
patterns of BFO, BTO, and BFOT heterostructures are
displayed in Figure 1.
The BFO displayed a Rhombohedral perovskite crystalline
phase with the R3c space group, which perfectly matched the
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Figure 2. FE-SEM images of (a) pure BFO, (b) BTO, (c) BFOT10, (d) BFOT20, and (e) BFOT30 and EDAX spectra of (f) BFOT10, (g)
BFOT20, and (h) BFOT30.
prior crystallographic data (ICSD 98-019-1940) and showed
no impurity phases within the detection range of the technique
according to XRD examination. Tetragonal symmetry was
found in the BTO XRD pattern, where anatase and rutile
phases were present. The XRD patterns revealed all peaks
belonging to pure-phase BFO with a low intense trace of the
significant BTO peaks after adding 10% BTO (BFOT10).
More intense BTO peaks began to form as the loading ratio of
BTO reached 20% (BFOT20). After loading 30% BTO, the
heterostructure sample BFOT30 finally displays all the high-
intensity peaks from BTO and the diffraction pattern for pure
BFO. The enhanced intensity of all the prominent BTO peaks
besides the BFO peaks, increasing the BTO molar ratio up to
30%, confirms the higher BTO concentration.
3.2. FE-SEM Analysis of BFOT Heterostructures. The
various microstructures of the samples were examined using an
FE-SEM, as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2a shows that the pure-
phase BFO powder comprised many BFO micro flowers with
hundreds of BFO nano petals packed tightly onto them.24 A
considerable number of BTO nanoparticles of different sizes
and shapes were formed, as demonstrated by the micro-
structures of pure-phase BTO in Figure 2b. Following the
loading of BFO with various molar ratios of BTO particles, as
shown in Figure 2c−e, the microstructure of the BFOT
heterostructure is significantly changed. It is noteworthy to
note that it is believed that BFO micro flowers were damaged
after heating the BFOT heterostructures with high microwave
energy. The BFOT10 heterostructure can be shown in Figure
2c to be made up of several grains of various sizes and fewer
grain boundaries, which supports the hypothesis that the BFO
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and BTO phases are not as tightly coupled. According to
Figure 2d, the contact between the two phases grows as the
amount of BTO does, and the distribution of the grains is
uniform with a uniform distribution of particle size. The
microstructure of BFOT30 is finally formed of a large number
of uniformly dispersed grains with an enormous number of
grain boundaries, as seen in Figure 2e; this is because 30%
BTO was added to the BFO. We can observe a stronger and
more consistent coupling by comparing the BFO and BTO
heterostructures to BFOT20 and BFT30 heterostructures. It is
established from the EDAX spectra of BFOT10, BFOT20, and
BFOT30 in Figure 2f−h that the Bi, Fe, O, and Ti components
are the source of the signal peaks, demonstrating that BTO was
successfully loaded onto the BFO.
3.3. Optical Properties of BFOT Heterostructures. The
UV−vis absorption spectrum of all the prepared samples is
shown in Figure 3a−h. Each sample demonstrated excellent
visible light absorption. Figure 3a,b and the inset inside Figure
3a depict the light absorption and energy band gap of the pure
phases of BFO and BTO. A pure-phase BFO exhibits light
absorption at 550 nm with a band gap of 2.25 eV (Figure 3a
and inset, respectively). In contrast, a pure-phase BTO exhibits
light absorption at 690 nm with a band gap of 1.68 eV (Figure
3a and inset, respectively). The UV−vis absorption spectrum
of all three BFO-BTO heterostructures is shown in Figure 3c−
e. From these light absorption properties, we can see that
BFOT10 is absorbing light at the 552 nm range (Figure 3c),
BFOT20 is absorbing light at the 560 nm range (Figure 3d),
and BFOT30 is showing strong absorption in the higher
wavelength side, i.e., at 650 nm (Figure 3e). It is essential to
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Figure 3. UV−vis absorption spectroscopy of (a) BFO (band gap in the inset), (b) BTO, (c) BFOT10, (d) BFOT20, (e) BFOT30, and energy
band gap of (f) BFOT10, (g) BFOT20, and (h) BFOT30.

Table 1. Optical Energy Band Gaps Obtained from UV−Vis in the light absorption properties leads the production of
Absorption Studies higher no of electrons and holes in the composite
materials.25−30 Therefore, from this UV−vis spectral studies,
s. no sample the band gap (eV)
all the heterostructures BFOT10, BFOT20, and BFOT30 have
1 BFO (Figure 4)15 2.25 shown excellent optical absorption in the visible range,
2 BTO 1.68 confirming the capability of these heterostructures for the
3 BFOT10 2.24 photodegradation of organic dyes in the visible range.
4 BFOT20 2.21 The following formula determines the band gap of the
5 BFOT30 2.1 heterostructures.

discuss that with the increase in the BTO content in the BFO,
the light absorption properties of the composite materials in
the visible range have increased, i.e., BFOT10 showing
absorption at 552 nm, BFOT20 at 560 nm, and BFOT30 at
650 nm, therefore shifting of the band absorption toward the
higher wavelength side indicates the increase in the light
absorption property in the visible range, so this enhancement
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( h ) = A( h Eg )n
α is the absorption coefficient, Eg represents the energy band
gap, A is constant and depending on transition, we have to
consider n values, direct permitted transitions, n = 1/2, direct
forbidden transitions, n = 3/2. Permitted indirect transitions, n
= 2. Indirect prohibited transitions, n = 3.
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Figure 4. Nitrogen absorption/desorption isotherms of (a) BFOT10, (b) BFOT20, and (c) BFOT30.

Figure 5. Time-dependant UV−vis spectral changes of MB in the presence of (a) BFO, (b) BTO, (c) BFOT10, (d) BFOT20, and (e) BFOT30.

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Figure 6. Effect of photocatalyst dosage on the photodegradation efficiency of heterostructures (a) BFOT10, (b) BFOT20, and (c) BFOT30.

Table 2. Influence of Catalyst Dosage (mg) on The obtained band energies of these heterostructures
Photodegradation (%) BFOT10 (552 nm), BFOT20 (560 nm), and BFOT30 (650
nm) are shown in Figure 3f−h, and the obtained band gap
dye catalyst catalyst dosage time degradation
Name name (mg) (min) (%) values were 2.24 (Figure 3f), 2.21 (Figure 3g), and 1.91 eV
(Figure 3h). The obtained band gap studies show a reduction
MB BFOT10 10 70 49
in the energy band gap of these heterostructures compared to
20 70 51
30 70 59
the pure-phase BFO, which could be due to the combination
40 70 65
of two different energy band gaps at the interface between two
MB BFOT20 10 70 52
semiconductors.31 As a result, BFOT30 was the most efficient
20 70 65
photocatalyst when absorbing visible-light photons among the
30 70 72
coupled photocatalysts. Optical energy band gaps obtained
40 70 86
from UV−vis absorption studies are shown in Table 1.
MB BFOT30 10 70 62
3.4. Brunauer−Emmett−Teller Analysis of BFOT
20 70 75 Heterostructures. Nitrogen adsorption−desorption iso-
30 70 80 therms were used to study the specific surface areas of the
40 70 97 BFOT samples made through microwave-assisted. Figure 4a−c
shows the Brunauer−Emmett−Teller (BET) surface area

Figure 7. Magnetic properties of (a) BFO, (b) BFOT heterostructure, (c) zoomed M−H loops for BTO, BFOT20, and BFOF30.

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Figure 8. Photodegradation efficiency of heterostructures (a) BFOT20 and (b) BFOT30 after four cycles.
Figure 9. Magnetic recovery test for (a) BFO and (b) BFOT30.
curves of the BFOT heterostructure nanoparticles made using
microwave-assisted co-precipitation. All of the BFOT samples
BFOT10, BFOT20, and BFOT30 that were made had a type
IV nitrogen isotherm with a hysteresis loop. The shape of the
hysteresis loops for the BFOT10, BFOT20, and BFOT30
samples was all H3 type.32 The obtained specific surface areas
of the samples BFOT10, BFOT20, and BFOT30 are 46.10,
48.98, and 54.77 m2/g, respectively. The higher specific surface
area sample BFOT30 can enhance the degradation efficiency.
3.5. Photocatalytic Activity of BFOT Heterostruc-
tures. Figure 5a−e shows the photocatalytic activity of pure-
Figure 10. XRD patterns of a BFOT30 heterostructure before and after the photocatalysis test.
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phase BFO, pure-phase BTO, and BFOT heterostructures. The
total degradation of MB for the BFO, BTO, and BFOT
heterostructures took 70 min to complete. As shown in Figure
5a, the pure-phase BFO is showing a poor photodegradation
efficiency of 33% and a pure-phase BTO is exhibiting 78%
degradation in MB (Figure 5b), which is higher photo-
degradation efficiency compared to the pure-phase BFO.
Figure 5c−e depicts the photocatalytic performance of BFO-
BTO heterostructures. After adding 10% BTO into the BFO
[BFOT10], we observed less degradation (65%) in the MB
solution in the presence of the BFOT10 catalyst (Figure 5c)
when compared to the other two heterostructures [BFOT20
and BFOT30]. From Figure 5d,e, we can see that the efficiency
of the catalysts was increased by increasing the BTO content
into the BFO, where the BFOT20 (86%) and BFOT30 (97%)
catalysts exhibited enhanced degradation in MB after 70 min of
sunlight illumination, as shown in Figure 5d,e, respectively.
The increased photocatalytic performance of the samples
BFOT20 and BFOT30 demonstrate how efficiency increased
for higher concentrations of BTO. The higher photo-
degradation efficiency (97%) of the BFOT30 heterostructure
is due to its microstructures and more significant specific
surface-to-volume ratio than the BFOT10 and BFOT20
heterostructures. The other reason for higher photodegrada-
tion efficiency is that BFOT30 has a narrower band gap than
the other two samples, making it easier for light to form more
electrons and holes at the surface of BFOT. As a result, its
efficiency is improved.33 This photodegradation test demon-
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Figure 11. FESEM image (a) and EDAX spectra (b) of a BFOT30 heterostructure after the photocatalysis test.
strates excellent results for the rapid photodegradation
efficiency of heterostructures compared to pure-phase BFO,
demonstrating these heterostructures’ abilities to degrade MB
in sunlight. Photocatalyst performance is determined by the
equation below. Both C0 and Ct represent MB’s initial and
time-corresponding concentrations, respectively.
C0 Ct
Efficiency = × 100
C0
3.6. Effect of Photocatalyst Concentration on Photo-
catalytic Efficiency. Different heterostructures with
BFOT10, BFOT20, and BFOT30 catalyst doses were used
to degrade the MB dye at a constant dosage of 10 mg/L (10,
20, 30, and 40 mg are shown in Figure 6a−c). From Figure 6a,
we can see that as increasing the catalyst BFOT10
concentration from 10 to 40 mg, the photodegradation
percentage increased from 49 to 65%, similarly for BFOT20,
photodegradation increased from 52 to 86% (Figure 6b), and
for BFOT30 increased from 62 to 97% (Figure 6c) (all the
obtained values are shown in Table 2), this analysis is showing
that the photodegradation efficiency is substantially dependent
on the catalyst concentration. The literature well established
that the microstructures of the catalysts and their micro-
dosing, starting dye dose, type, and pH value all significantly
impact the photodegradation efficiency.34−38
3.7. Room-Temperature Magnetic Properties. The
room-temperature magnetic properties of BTO and BFOT
heterostructures are shown in Figure 7. Figure 7a,b shows that
single-phase BFO has a high magnetization value of 1.25 emu/
g, while black TiO2 is diamagnetic when a magnetic field is
applied. The magnetic properties of BFOT have decreased
with an increase in the diamagnetic phase BTO loaded on
weak ferromagnetic phase BFO (Figure 7b). When 10%
diamagnetic BTO is added to BFO, the magnetization value is
reduced to 0.32 emu/g (BFOT10). After increasing the BTO
molar ratio to 20 and 30%, the heterostructures BFOT20 and
BFOT30 show linear M−H curves, indicating they are
diamagnetic [(Figure 7c) shows the close-ups of the M−H
loops for BTO, BFOT20, and BFOT30].
3.8. Stability and Reusability Test for BFOT Photo-
catalysts. The stability of catalysts was investigated by
recycling the most productive powders, BFOT20 and
BFOT30 catalysts, four times, as shown in Figure 8a,b.
According to Figure 8a, there is no difference in the
photodegradation efficiencies of the BFOT20 catalysts for
the first two cycles, but the catalysts’ poor stability is
demonstrated by a total 13% decline in BFOT20’s photo-
degradation efficiency after two cycles. Similarly, for BFOT30
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catalysts, there is no difference in the photodegradation
efficiencies for the first two cycles, but the catalysts’ poor
stability is demonstrated by a total 16% decline in BFOT20’s
photodegradation efficiency after two cycles (Figure 8b).
Figure 9a highlights how pure-phase BFO magnetic
responses fail to recover particles when applied to magnetic
fields after the photodegradation experiment. Therefore,
additional filtering or centrifugation is required to separate
the catalyst from the MB solution.25−30 To study the magnetic
recovery of the most effective photocatalyst, BFOT30, we
applied the magnetic field shown in Figure 9b. Figure 9b shows
that BFOT30 cannot be recovered when a magnetic field is
applied due to its diamagnetism, confirming its weak magnetic
recovery. The results of these stability and recovery studies
indicate that the stability and magnetic recovery properties of
BFO did not improve, even when black TiO2 was added. When
a magnetic field was applied to BFOT, the magnetic response
may have been reduced and exhibited diamagnetic properties
due to the non-magnetic TiO2 loaded on weak magnetic phase
BFO.
3.9. XRD and FESEM Analysis of the Most Active
BFOT30 Catalyst after the Photocatalytic Test. The
BFOF30 powder underwent XRD and FESEM analysis to see
if it could be appropriately recovered or not at the beginning
and end of the photocatalytic process and recovery test. The
XRD patterns for BFOF30 before and after MB degradation
are shown in Figure 10. We discovered no differences in the
XRD patterns or traces from MB for the BFOF30 catalyst used
in the photocatalysis experiment. Therefore, BFOF30 catalysts
that are centrifugally recovered retain their original structural
characteristics.
The FE-SEM image and EDAX of the BFOF30 catalyst after
four cycles are shown in Figure 11a,b. We can see from the
microstructural analysis of the BFOT30 sample that it was
composed of many grains and boundaries without any
agglomerations and other structures, confirming that no
microstructures correspond to MB Figure 11a. We have
observed that the BFOT30 catalyst’s microstructures are
similar before and after the photocatalysis and recovery test,
indicating the stability of this sample’s microstructural
characteristics even after four cycles. Figure 11b shows the
EDAX spectra of the BFOT30 catalyst after photocatalysis and
recovery test; from these EDAX spectra, it is observed that the
Bi, Fe, O, and Ti components are the source of the signal
peaks, and no other peaks corresponding to MB was found
demonstrating that BFOF30 catalysts that are centrifugally
recovered retain their original microstructural characteristics.
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4. CONCLUSIONS
The BFOT heterostructure was successfully processed by
coprecipitation with the help of microwave for MB
degradation. Microstructure analysis and UV−vis absorption
spectroscopy in visible light have shown that forming nano-
interfaces between the BFO and black TiO2 phases can change
the band gap and encourage changes in the work function at
the surface of the heterostructures, improving the creation of
electron−hole pairs and impeding its recombination. After 70
min in the sun, BFOT produces the best (97%) results, with
the highest deterioration in MB. The photocatalyst can only be
utilized for two cycles with a 16% reduction in efficiency,
according to the recycling test for the most effective BFOT30.
It also cannot be retrieved using a magnetic field. A
photocatalytic test showed that black TiO2 increased the
activity of pure-phase BFO when added to it. According to our
findings, a simultaneous electron drain process between BFO
and BTO and a direct Fenton-like mechanism contributed to
the BFOT heterostructure’s enhanced photocatalytic effi-
ciency.
■ AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Authors
Luis De Los Santos Valladares − Cavendish Laboratory,
Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge
CB3 0HE, U.K.; Laboratorio de Cerámicos y
Nanomateriales, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas, Universidad
Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima 14-0149, Peru;
orcid.org/0000-0001-5930-9916; Email: ld301@
cam.ac.uk
Pratap Kollu − School of Physics, University of Hyderabad,
Hyderabad, Telangana 500046, India; CASEST, School of
Physics, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana
500046, India; orcid.org/0000-0001-6250-9396;
Email: pratapk@uohyd.ac.in
Authors
Pravallika Banoth − School of Physics, University of
Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana 500046, India
Chinna Kandula − School of Physics, University of Hyderabad,
Hyderabad, Telangana 500046, India
Praveen Kumar Lavudya − School of Physics, University of
Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana 500046, India
Saidulu Akaram − CASEST, School of Physics, University of
Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana 500046, India
RajaniKanth Ammanabrolu − School of Physics, University of
Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana 500046, India
Ghanashyam Krishna Mamidipudi − School of Physics,
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, Telangana 500046,
India; CASEST, School of Physics, University of Hyderabad,
Hyderabad, Telangana 500046, India
Complete contact information is available at:
https://pubs.acs.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c00553
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.
■ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We acknowledge the facilities provided by the University
Grants Commission-Networking Resources (UGC-NRC) of
the School of Physics, University of Hyderabad, India. C.K.
thanks CSIR (CSIR file no. 09/414(2018)/2019-EMR-I) for
18661
Article
SRF. All major and significant developments and experiments
were done at the University of Hyderabad, India. Hence, the
authors acknowledge funding from the Institute of Eminence
project, UGC, UoH-IoE-RC2-21-017.
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18662 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c00553
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 18653−18662