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Computer architecture
Structure and data manipulation

Jimmy Åhlander
2023-09-04

jimmy.ahlander@miun.se 1
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Agenda

• Computer architecture.

– Processor (CPU).
- Memories.
– Prefixes and their meaning.

• Machine code.

• The machine cycle.

• Performance and bottlenecks.

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Computer architecture
von Neumann architecture

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The processor
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).
- Perform the work.

• Control unit (CU).

– Control the program
flow. •
Registers: – General.
– Registers for intermediate storage of data to and from the ALU.

- Specialized.
– Program counter (PC).
– Instruction register (IR).

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Memories
Minneshierarchy

• Primary memory.
– Working memory. Called casually RAM memory.
• Secondary mine.
– Hard drives, solid-state drive (SSD), flash memory. •
Cache memory.
– Temporary storage between memory and registers in the
CPU. • Registry.

• The processor only processes data in

registers.
– Data is copied to and from registers.

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Primary memory
Working memory

• Fast, but normally requires power to maintain

the memory.

• Organized into cells containing several pieces,

usually 1 byte (8 bits).
– 1 B = 1 byte –
1 b = 1 bit

• RAM – Random Access Memory.

• ROM – Read Only Memory.
– Maintains memory without power.

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The pieces in memory

High-order end 1001 1101 Low-order end

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Secondary mine
Storage memory
• Differences from primary
memory: – Slower.
– Retains memory without power.
- Stores more cheaper.

• Storage principles: –
Magnetism: hard drives, floppy disks.
– Optical: CD, DVD.
– Electrostatic: Flash, SSD.

• Reading and writing: –

Mechanics (not random access = not constant access time): hard disk, CD.
– Ej mekanik (random access): flash, ssd.

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Prefixes and their meanings

• Confusing representation of kilos:

– Kilo is often used incorrectly: 1 kilobyte = 1024 bytes?
• New system introduced by IEC since 1998 following SI standard,
with new units:
– Kilobinary (Ki), Megabinary (Mi), Gigabinary (Gi), osv.

• SI is followed in:
– data transfer (100 – = 108 ),

hard drives (1 = 1012 ), – academia,

– several operating systems, but notably not Microsoft Windows.

• Always pay attention!

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Prefixes and their meanings

Storage capacity

prefix SI (IEC) Older convention

kB 1 000 bytes (103 ) 1 024 bytes (2 10)

MB 1 000 000 bytes 1 048 576 bytes

KiB 1024 bytes

-

MiB 1 048 576 bytes

-

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Machine code

• Early computers separated code and data.

• Stored-program concept (von Neumann): –

Instructions and data are stored in the same memory.
– Machine instructions are coded.

• Machine code:
– Op-code Instruction
– Operand Data that the instruction operates on
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Machine code
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• Machine code:
– Op-code Instruction
– Operand Data that the instruction operates on

For example. store the contents of register 0x5 at memory address 0xA7.

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Machine code
Machine instructions

• Data transfer:
– LOAD, STORE.

• Arithmetic and logical:

– ADD, SUB, AND, OR, ROTATE, SHIFT.

• Flow control:
– JUMP, BRANCH.

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Machine code
Example: Add two numbers

Add two numbers located in primary memory and store

the result in primary memory.

Example:
1. Get the first number into a register.
2. Get the second number into another register.
3. Tell the ALU to add the registers to a third register.

4. Store the result in primary memory.

5. Stop.

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The machine cycle

The instruction cycle (one turn per instruction)

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The machine cycle

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The machine cycle

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The machine cycle

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The machine cycle

• The controller repeats the machine cycle: fetch,

decode, execute.

• The program counter always points to the next instruction.

• Read into the instruction register. •
Interpret the instruction.
• Perform requested activity.

• No difference between code and data. A program

can change its own code.

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Performance and bottlenecks

Peripheral devices

• Buses:
– Address, data, control.

• von Neumann
bottleneck.

• Enlarge?
• Cache
memories. • Branch prediction.

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Performance and bottlenecks

CPU

• Word length: 16, 32 or 64-bit CPU.

• Processor speed vs. "throughput".
– Pipelining: fetch, decode, execute can proceed simultaneously through
several channels (pipes) to the ALU.

• Multiple cores in CPU.

– Parallelization.
– Determinism and Amdahl's law.

• Several CPUs in the computer:

- General.
– Specialized (for e.g. Graphics).

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Performance and bottlenecks

Bottleneck

The bottleneck is the limiting factor for the overall

performance of the system. •
Can be different bottlenecks for different purposes.

• Processor, bus and memory speed. • Bus

width.
• Size of primary memory. •
Secondary memory (hard disk or SSD). •
Graphics card.

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Computer architecture
Summary
• The structure of the computer.
• The internal workings of the processor.

• Machine close programming. •

Performance and capacity. • We

don't agree on what kilo means.

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