Basic Electronics (BBEE103/BBEE203) - Operational Amplifiers and Applications (Module 3)

ANJUMAN
Institute of Technology
and Management
Bhatkal, Karnataka, India
BASIC
ELECTRONICS
(BBEE103/BBEE203)
Mr. Shrishail Bhat

Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
MODULE – 3
Operational Amplifiers
and Applications
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 2

What is an Op-Amp?

Introduction
• An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a direct coupled multistage
voltage amplifier with an extremely high gain.
• It usually consists of one or more differential amplifiers, usually followed by
a level translator and an output stage.
• The op-amp is a versatile device that can be used to amplify dc as well as ac
input signals.
• Op-amp was originally designed for performing mathematical operations
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, integration, etc.
• Modern day op-amp can be used for a variety of applications, such as ac
and dc signal amplification, active filters, oscillators, comparators,
regulators, etc.
Advantages
• Low cost
• Small size
• Versatility
• Flexibility
• Dependability

Applications
• Op-amps have become an integral part of almost every electronic circuit
which uses linear integrated circuits.
• In analog signal processing and analog filtering.
• To perform mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, integration, differentiation, etc.
• In the fields of process control, communications, computers, power and
signal sources, displays and measuring systems.
• In linear applications like voltage follower, differential amplifier, inverting
amplifier, non-inverting amplifier, etc. and non-linear applications like
precision rectifiers, comparators, clampers, Schmitt trigger circuit, etc.
Block Diagram Representation

• Since an op-amp is a multistage amplifier, it can be represented by a
block diagram as shown in figure.
• The input stage is the dual-input, balanced-output differential amplifier.
• This provides most of the voltage gain of the amplifier and also establishes
the input resistance of the op-amp.
• The intermediate stage is dual-input, balanced-output differential
amplifier.
• Since direct coupling is used, the dc voltage at the output of the
intermediate stage is well above ground potential.

• Hence, a level translator (shifter) circuit is used after the intermediate
stage to shift the dc level downward to zero volts with respect to ground.
• The final stage is a push-pull complementary amplifier output stage.
• This increases the output voltage swing and raises the current supplying
capability of the op-amp.
• It also provides low output resistance.

Schematic Symbol

Schematic Symbol
• The (+) input is the noninverting input.
• The ac signal or dc voltage applied to this input produces an in-phase or same
polarity signal at the output.
• The (-) input is the inverting input.
• The ac signal or dc voltage applied to this input produces a 180° out-of-phase or
opposite polarity signal at the output.
• 𝑣1 is the voltage at the noninverting input
• 𝑣2 is the voltage at the inverting input
• 𝑣𝑜 is the output
• 𝐴 is the large -signal voltage gain

Overlook

Overlook

Op-Amp IC 741
Pin diagram of IC 741 Typical Op-Amp Power Supply Connections

Op-Amp Parameters

Gain
• The op-amp amplifies the difference voltage between two input terminals.
• The voltage gain of the amplifier is defined as
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
• That is,
𝑉𝑜
𝐴=
𝑉𝑖𝑑
• This gain is also called large-signal voltage gain, open-loop voltage gain, or differential
gain
• Typical value of A for 741C is 200,000
𝑽𝒐
• Generally 𝐴 is expressed in decibel (dB) as 𝑨 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝒅𝑩.
𝑽𝒊𝒅

Gain

Input Voltage Range
• When the same voltage is applied to both input terminals, the voltage is called
a common-mode voltage, 𝑉𝑐𝑚 , and the op-amp is said to be in common-mode
configuration.
• For the 741C, the range of the input common-mode voltage is ±13 𝑉
maximum.

Common Mode Gain
• If we apply two input voltages which are equal i.e. if 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 , then ideally the
output must be zero.
• But practically, the output voltage not only depends on the difference voltage but
also depends on the average common level of the two inputs.
𝑽𝟏 +𝑽𝟐
• Such a common level is called common mode signal 𝑽𝒄 = .
𝟐
• The differential amplifier produces the output voltage proportional to common

mode signal and the output voltage is given as
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑨𝒄𝒎 𝑽𝒄
𝑽𝒐
where 𝐴𝑐𝑚 is the common mode gain given by 𝑨𝒄𝒎 = 𝑽𝒄

Common Mode Rejection Ratio
• Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is the ability of an op-amp to reject a common
mode signal.
• It is defined as the ratio of differential voltage gain 𝑨𝒅 to common mode gain 𝑨𝒄𝒎 .
𝑨𝒅
𝑪𝑴𝑹𝑹 =
𝑨𝒄𝒎
• The higher the CMRR, the better.
• CMRR is a large value and is often expressed in decibel as
𝑨𝒅
𝑪𝑴𝑹𝑹 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝒅𝑩
𝑨𝒄𝒎
• Typical value of CMRR 741C is 90 dB

Maximum Output Voltage Swing 𝑉𝑂(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
• When an input signal is applied, the ideal limits of the peak-to-peak
output signal are ±𝑉𝐶𝐶 .
• In practice, however, this ideal can be approached but never reached.
• 𝑉𝑂(𝑚𝑎𝑥) varies with the load connected to the op-amp and
increases directly with load resistance.
• 𝑉𝑂(𝑚𝑎𝑥) of the 741C is guaranteed to be between −13𝑉 and +13𝑉
giving a 26𝑉 peak-to-peak value.

Input Offset Voltage

Input Offset Voltage
• The ideal op-amp produces zero volts out for zero volts in.
• In a practical op-amp, a small dc voltage appears at the output
when no differential input voltage is applied.
• The input offset voltage, 𝑉𝑖𝑜 , is the differential dc voltage that must
be applied between the two input terminals to force the output to
zero volts.
• Typical value of input offset voltage for 741C is 6 𝑚𝑉.

Input Offset Current

Input Offset Current
• Ideally, the two input bias currents are equal, and thus their
difference is zero.
• In a practical op-amp, however, the bias currents are not exactly
equal.
• The input offset current, 𝐼𝑖𝑜 , is the difference between the currents
into the inverting and noninverting terminals.
𝑰𝒊𝒐 = 𝑰𝑩𝟏 − 𝑰𝑩𝟐
• Typical value of input offset current for 741C is 200 nA maximum.

Input Bias Current
• The input bias current, 𝐼𝐵 , is the average of the currents that flow
into the inverting and noninverting input terminals.
𝑰𝑩𝟏 + 𝑰𝑩𝟐
𝑰𝑩 =
𝟐
• Typical value of input bias current for 741C is 500 𝑛𝐴.

Input Resistance
• The differential input resistance, or input resistance 𝑅𝑖 , is the equivalent
resistance that can be measured at either the inverting or noninverting input
terminal, with the other terminal connected to ground.
• For the 741C, the input resistance is 2 𝑀Ω.

Output Resistance
• The output resistance, 𝑅𝑜 , is the equivalent resistance that can be
measured between the output terminal of the op-amp and the
ground.
• For the 741C, the input resistance is 75 Ω.

Slew Rate
• Slew rate (SR) is defined as the maximum rate of change of output
voltage per unit of time.
𝑑𝑉𝑜
𝑆𝑅 = ቤ 𝑉/𝜇𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Slew rate indicates how rapidly the output of an op-amp can
change in response to changes in the input.
• Typical value of slew rate of 741C is 0.5 𝑉/𝜇𝑠.

Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio
• Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio (SVRR) is the change in an op-amp’s
input offset voltage caused by variations in supply voltages.
• It is also known as Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) or Power
Supply Sensitivity (PSS).
• If ∆𝑉 is the change in supply voltage, and ∆𝑉𝑖𝑜 is the corresponding
change in input offset voltage, then SVRR is defined as
∆𝑉𝑖𝑜
𝑆𝑉𝑅𝑅 =
∆𝑉
• Typical value of SVRR for a 741C is 150 𝜇𝑉/𝑉.

Bandwidth
• Bandwidth is the frequency range of the input signal that can be
amplified without any attenuation.
• Typical value for 741C is 1 𝑀𝐻𝑧.

Gain-Bandwidth Product
• The gain-bandwidth product (GB) is the bandwidth of the op-amp
when the voltage gain is 1.
• It is also called closed-loop bandwidth, unity gain bandwidth or
small-signal bandwidth.
• Typical value for 741C is 1 𝑀𝐻𝑧.

The Ideal Op-Amp
An ideal op-amp would exhibit the following electrical characteristics:
• Infinite voltage gain (𝐴 = ∞)
• Infinite input resistance (𝑅𝑖 = ∞)
• Almost any signal source can drive it and there is no loading in the preceding stage.
• Zero output resistance (𝑅𝑜 = 0)
• The output can drive an infinite number of other devices
• Zero offset voltage (𝑉𝑖𝑜 = 0)
• Zero output voltage when the input voltage is zero.
• Infinite bandwidth (𝐵𝑊 = ∞)
• Any frequency signal from 0 to ∞ Hz can be amplified without attenuation.
• Infinite CMRR (𝐶𝑀𝑅𝑅 = ∞)
• Output common-mode noise voltage is zero.
• Infinite slew rate (𝑆𝑅 = ∞)
• Output voltage changes occur simultaneously with input voltage changes

Practical Op-Amp Characteristics
• Very high voltage gain
• Very high input resistance
• Very low output resistance
• Very low offset voltage
• Very large bandwidth
• Very high CMRR
• Very high slew rate

Equivalent Circuit of an Op-Amp

Equivalent Circuit of an Op-Amp
• The equivalent circuit is useful in analyzing the basic operating principles of the op-
amp and in observing the effects of feedback arrangements.
• For the equivalent circuit,
𝑣𝑜 = 𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑑 = 𝐴(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )
Where 𝐴 is the large-signal voltage gain
𝑣𝑖𝑑 is the difference input voltage
𝑣1 is the voltage at the noninverting input terminal w.r.t. ground
𝑣2 is the voltage at the inverting input terminal w.r.t. ground
• The equation shows that the op-amp amplifies the difference between the two input
voltages.

Open-Loop Op-Amp
Configurations

Open-Loop Op-Amp Configurations
• The term ‘Open-loop’ indicates that no connection exists between
the output and input terminals.
• The output is not fed back in any form as part of the input signal.
• When connected in the open-loop configuration, the op-amp
functions as a high-gain amplifier.
• There are three open-loop configurations:
1. Differential amplifier
2. Inverting amplifier
3. Noninverting amplifier

Differential Amplifier

Differential Amplifier
• The input signals 𝑣𝑖𝑛1 and 𝑣𝑖𝑛2 are applied to the positive and
negative input terminals respectively.
• The op-amp amplifies the difference between the two input signals,
hence it is called differential amplifier.
• The source resistances 𝑅𝑖𝑛1 and 𝑅𝑖𝑛2 are normally negligible
compared to the input resistance 𝑅𝑖 , and hence the voltage drop
across these resistors can be assumed to be zero.
• This implies 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛1 and 𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛2 .
• Hence output voltage
𝑣𝑜 = 𝐴(𝑣𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑣𝑖𝑛2 )
Inverting Amplifier

Inverting Amplifier
• In inverting amplifier, only one input is applied and that is to the
inverting input terminal.
• The noninverting input terminal is grounded.
• So 𝑣1 = 0 and 𝑣2 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛 .
𝑣𝑜 = −𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑛
• The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase
with respect to input by 180° or is of opposite polarity.

Noninverting Amplifier

Noninverting Amplifier
• In noninverting amplifier, only one input is applied and that is to
the noninverting input terminal.
• The inverting input terminal is grounded.
• So 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑖𝑛 and 𝑣2 = 0.
𝑣𝑜 = 𝐴𝑣𝑖𝑛
• This means that the output voltage is in phase with the input signal
or is of same polarity.

Assumptions
1. Zero Input Current
◦ Since the input resistance of an ideal op-amp is infinite, no current flows into an op-amp.
◦ This makes the input current zero.
2. Virtual Ground
◦ An ideal op-amp has an infinite gain.
𝑉𝑜
◦ We know that output voltage 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 . That makes 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 𝐴
.
◦ If gain 𝐴 is infinite, that means the difference 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 = 0, or 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 .
◦ This means that the input terminals of an op-amp are always at the same potential.
◦ Thus if one terminal is grounded, the other one can be treated to be virtually grounded.

Basic Op-Amp Circuits

Inverting Amplifier
• An amplifier which produces a phase shift of 180° between input and
output is called inverting amplifier.
𝑅𝑓
𝐼𝑓
𝑅1
𝐼1

Inverting Amplifier
From the circuit, the potential at node B, 𝑉𝐵 = 0.
From the concept of virtual ground, the two input terminals are at same
potential. Therefore, the potential at node A, 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 = 0.
From the circuit,
𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 0
𝐼1 = =
𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝑰𝟏 =
𝑹𝟏
And
𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝑜 0 − 𝑉𝑜
𝐼𝑓 = =
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑽𝒐
𝑰𝒇 = −
𝑹𝒇

Inverting Amplifier
Since op-amp input current is zero, 𝐼1 passes through 𝑅𝑓 as 𝐼𝑓 . That
is,
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑓
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜
=−
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑹𝒇
𝑽𝒐 = − 𝑽
𝑹𝟏 𝒊𝒏
𝑅𝑓
Here 𝑅 is called the gain of the amplifier and negative sign indicates that the output is inverted.
1

Inverting Amplifier
Waveforms of inverting amplifier

Non-Inverting Amplifier
• An amplifier which amplifies the input without producing any phase shift
between input and output is called non-inverting amplifier.
𝑅𝑓
𝐼𝑓
𝑅1
𝐼1

From the circuit, the potential at node B, 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 .
From the concept of virtual ground, the two input terminals are at same potential. Therefore,
the potential at node A, 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 .
From the circuit,
𝑉𝐴 − 0 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 0
𝐼1 = =
𝑅1 𝑅1
𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝑰𝟏 =
𝑹𝟏
And
𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑓 = =
𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑽𝒐 − 𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝑰𝒇 =
𝑹𝒇

Since op-amp input current is zero, 𝐼𝑓 passes through 𝑅1 as 𝐼1 . That is,
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑓
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛
=
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑖𝑛
= −
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛
= +
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜 1 1
= + 𝑉
𝑅𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅𝑓 𝑖𝑛
𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑅𝑓 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅1 𝑅𝑓

𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑓
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅1
𝑹𝒇
𝑽𝒐 = 𝟏 + 𝑽𝒊𝒏
𝑹𝟏
𝑅
Here 1 + 𝑅𝑓 is called the gain of the amplifier.
1

Waveforms of non-inverting amplifier

Op-Amp Applications

Voltage Follower
• A circuit in which the output voltage follows the input voltage is called
voltage follower.
• Voltage followers are generally used to isolate stages from each other.

Voltage Follower
From the circuit, the potential at node B, 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 .
From the concept of virtual ground, the two input terminals are at same
potential. Therefore, the potential at node A, 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 .
The node 𝐴 is directly connected to the output. Hence
Vo = VA
Now since 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ,
𝑽𝒐 = 𝑽𝒊𝒏

Voltage Follower
• In a voltage follower gain is unity (𝐴 = 1).
• A voltage follower is also called source follower, unity gain amplifier,
buffer amplifier or isolation amplifier.
Waveforms of voltage follower

Advantages of Voltage Follower
• Very large input resistance
• Very low output resistance
• Large bandwidth
• The output follows the input exactly without any phase shift

Inverting Configuration

Inverting Summing Amplifier
• Also called Summer or Adder
• Also called a summing
amplifier, scaling amplifier or
averaging amplifier

• The figure shows the inverting configuration with three inputs 𝑉𝑎 , 𝑉𝑏 and
𝑉𝑐 .
• It has three input resistors 𝑅𝑎 , 𝑅𝑏 and 𝑅𝑐 and a feedback resistor 𝑅𝐹 .
• From the circuit,
𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐹
• Since 𝑅𝑖 and 𝐴 are ideally infinity, 𝐼𝐵 = 0 𝐴 and 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 0 𝑉.

• Hence
𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑜
+ + =−
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝐹
• Or
𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹 𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐 (1)
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 𝑅𝑐

• If 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅, then the Eqn. (1) can be rewritten as
𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐 (2)
𝑅
• When the gain is 1, that is, if 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅𝑓 , then,
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐 (3)
• This means the output voltage is equal to the negative sum of all the
inputs.
• Hence this circuit is called a summing amplifier.

• If each input is amplified by a different factor, in other words, weighed
differently at the output, then the circuit is called a scaling or weighed
amplifier.
• This can be achieved when 𝑅𝑎 , 𝑅𝑏 and 𝑅𝑐 are different (𝑅𝑎 ≠ 𝑅𝑏 ≠ 𝑅𝑐 ).
• The output voltage of the scaling amplifier is the same as in Eqn. (1), that is
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐
where ≠ ≠

• The same circuit can be used as an averaging circuit, in which the output
voltage is equal to the average of all the input voltages.
• This is done by using all input resistors of equal value, i.e., 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅
𝑅𝐹 1
• The gain must be equal to the reciprocal of the number of inputs, i.e., =
𝑅 𝑛
where 𝑛 is the number of inputs.
• If there are 3 inputs, 𝑛 = 3 and then the output voltage is
𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐 (4)
𝑉𝑜 = −
3

Noninverting Configuration

Noninverting Summing Amplifier

• The input voltages are connected to the non inverting terminal.
• The input resistance 𝑅𝑖 is very large. Hence using superposition theorem,
the voltage 𝑉1 at the noninverting terminal is
𝑅/2 𝑅/2 𝑅/2
𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐
𝑅 + 𝑅/2 𝑅 + 𝑅/2 𝑅 + 𝑅/2
• Or
𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐
𝑉1 = + + =
3 3 3 3

• Hence the output voltage 𝑉𝑜 is
𝑅𝐹
𝑉0 = 1 + 𝑉
𝑅1 1
𝑅𝐹 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐
𝑉0 = 1 + (1)
𝑅1 3
• The Eqn. (1) shows that the output voltage is equal to the average of all input voltages
𝑅
multiplied by the gain 1 + 𝑅𝐹 . Hence the circuit can be called an averaging amplifier.
1
• If the gain is 1, then the output voltage will be equal to the average of all the input
voltages.

• If the gain is equal to the number of inputs, the output voltage becomes
equal to the sum of all input voltages.
𝑅𝐹
• If 1 + = 3, the Eqn. (1) becomes
𝑅1
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐 (2)
• Hence the circuit is called a noninverting summing amplifier.

Differential Configuration

Subtractor
• A basic differential amplifier can be used as a subtractor as shown in the
figure.

Subtractor
• The output voltage of the differential amplifier with a gain of 1 is
𝑅
𝑉𝑜 = − 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏
𝑅
• That is,
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎
• Thus the output is the subtraction of the two inputs and hence the circuit is
called a subtractor.
• By selecting appropriate values for external resistors, the input signals can be
scaled to the desired values. When this is done, the circuit can be called a
scaling amplifier.

Differential Summing Amplifier
• A four-input summing amplifier can be constructed using the basic
differential amplifier as shown in the figure.

• The output voltage can be obtained by using the
superposition theorem.
• For instance, to find the output due to 𝑉𝑎 alone,
reduce all other input voltages to zero as shown.
• This circuit is an inverting amplifier in which the
inverting input is at virtual ground (𝑉2 = 0𝑉).
• Therefor the output voltage due to 𝑉𝑎 alone is
𝑅
𝑉𝑜𝑎 = − 𝑉𝑎 = −𝑉𝑎
𝑅
• Similarly the output voltage due to 𝑉𝑏 alone is
𝑉𝑜𝑏 = −𝑉𝑏

• For instance, to find the output due to 𝑉𝑐 alone, reduce all other input voltages to
zero.
• The circuit then becomes a noninverting amplifier, in which voltage 𝑉1 at noninverting
input is
𝑅/2 𝑉𝑐
𝑉1 = 𝑉 =
𝑅 + 𝑅/2 𝑐 3
• This means the output voltage due to 𝑉𝑐 alone is
𝑅 𝑉𝑐
𝑉𝑜𝑐 = 1 + 𝑉1 = 3 = 𝑉𝑐
𝑅/2 3
• Similarly the output voltage due to 𝑉𝑑 alone is
𝑉𝑜𝑑 = 𝑉𝑑
• Thus by using the superposition theorem, the output voltage due to all
four input voltages is given by
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑜𝑎 + 𝑉𝑜𝑏 + 𝑉𝑜𝑐 + 𝑉𝑜𝑑
𝑉𝑜 = −𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐 + 𝑉𝑑
• Thus the output voltage is equal to the sum of the input voltages applied
to the noninverting input terminal plus the negative sum of the input
voltages applied to the inverting input terminal.

Integrator
• Integrator or integration amplifier
is the circuit in which the output
voltage waveform is the integral of
the input voltage waveform.
• An integrator can be obtained by
using a basic inverting amplifier
configuration if the feedback
resistor 𝑅𝐹 is replaced by a
capacitor 𝐶𝐹 .

Integrator
• Using Kirchoff’s current law at node 𝑣2 ,
𝑖1 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝑖𝐹
• Since 𝐼𝐵 is negligibly small,
𝑖1 ≅ 𝑖𝐹 (1)
𝑣𝑖𝑛 − 𝑣2
𝑖1 = (2)
𝑅1
• The current through capacitor is
𝑑
𝑖𝑐 = 𝐶𝐹 (𝑣2 − 𝑣0 ) (3)
𝑑𝑡

Integrator
• Using Eqn. (2) and (3) in (1),
𝑣𝑖𝑛 − 𝑣2 𝑑
= 𝐶𝐹 (𝑣2 − 𝑣0 ) (4)
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡
• However 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 ≅ 0 because 𝐴 is very large. Therefore,
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑑
= 𝐶𝐹 −𝑣0
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣0 𝑣𝑖𝑛 (5)
=−
𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝐶𝐹

Integrator
• Integrating both sides of Eqn. (5) wrt time t,
𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑣0 𝑣𝑖𝑛
න 𝑑𝑡 = න − 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝐶𝐹
0 𝑜
𝑡
1
𝑣0 = − න 𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 (6)
𝑅1 𝐶𝐹
𝑜
where 𝐶 is the integration constant and is proportional to the value of the
output voltage 𝑣0 at time 𝑡 = 0 seconds.
Integrator
Input and ideal integrator output Input and ideal integrator output
waveforms using a square wave waveforms using a sine wave

Differentiator
• Differentiator or differentiation
amplifier is the circuit in which the
output voltage waveform is the
derivative of the input voltage
waveform.
• A differentiator can be obtained
by using a basic inverting amplifier
configuration if the input resistor
𝑅1 is replaced by a capacitor 𝐶1 .

Differentiator
• Using Kirchoff’s current law at node 𝑣2 ,
𝑖𝐶 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝑖𝐹
• Since 𝐼𝐵 is negligibly small,
𝑖𝐶 ≅ 𝑖𝐹 (1)
𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑜
𝑖𝐹 = (2)
𝑅𝐹
• The current through capacitor is
𝑑
𝑖𝑐 = 𝐶1 (𝑣𝑖𝑛 − 𝑣2 ) (3)
𝑑𝑡

Differentiator
• Using Eqn. (2) and (3) in (1),
𝑑 𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑜
𝐶1 𝑣𝑖𝑛 − 𝑣2 = (4)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐹
However 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 ≅ 0 because 𝐴 is very large. Therefore,
𝑑 −𝑣𝑜
𝐶1 𝑣𝑖𝑛 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐹
Or
𝑑𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑣𝑜 = −𝑅𝐹 𝐶1 (5)
𝑑𝑡

Differentiator
Input and ideal differentiator output Input and ideal differentiator output
waveforms using a square wave waveforms using a sine wave

Op-Amp Circuits - Numerical Example 1
Find the gain of a non-inverting amplifier if R f = 10 kΩ and R1 = 1 kΩ.
Solution:

A non-inverting amplifier has closed loop gain of 25. If input voltage Vi = 10 mV,
R f = 10 kΩ, determine the value of R1 and output voltage Vo .
Solution:


Design an inverting and non-inverting operational amplifier to have a gain of 15.
Solution:




A non-inverting amplifier circuit has an input resistance of 10 kΩ and feedback
resistance 60 kΩ with load resistance of 47 kΩ. Draw the circuit. Calculate the
output voltage, voltage gain, load current when the input voltage is 1.5 V.
Solution:



For an op-amp circuit shown in the figure, find the output Vo1 and Vo2 . Also
write the function of each op-amp used.

Solution:


Calculate the output voltage of a three input inverting summing amplifier, given
R1 = 200 kΩ, R 2 = 250 kΩ, R 3 = 500 kΩ, R f = 1 MΩ, V1 = −2V, V2 = −1V
and V3 = +3V.
Solution:
𝑅1
𝑉1 𝑅𝑓
𝑅2 𝐼1 𝐼𝑓
𝑉2
𝑅3 𝐼2
𝑉3
𝐼3
Fig. 19 Inverting summing amplifier (adder) with three


Determine Vo for the circuit shown below.

Solution:


Design an adder circuit using op-amp to obtain an output voltage,
Vo = −[2V1 + 3V2 + 5V3 ]. Assume R f = 10 kΩ.
Solution:



Design an op-amp circuit that will produce an output equal to
−[4V1 + V2 + 0.1V3 ].
Solution:



Find the output of the following op-amp circuit.

Solution:


Find the output of the op-amp circuit shown in the figure below.

Solution:


Find the output of the following op-amp circuit.

Solution:

A sinusoidal signal with peak value 6 mV and 2 kHz frequency is applied to the
input of an ideal op-amp integrator with R1 = 100 kΩ and Cf = 1μF. Find the
output voltage.
Solution:


The input to the basic differentiator circuit is a sinusoidal voltage of peak value
of 10 mV and frequency 1.5 kHz. Find the output if R f = 100 kΩ and C1 = 1μF.
Solution:


Write expression for output voltage at points A, B, C, D and E as shown in figure.

Solution:




References
• Ramakanth A. Gayakwad, “Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits”,
Pearson Education, 4th Edition, 2002
• Thomas L. Floyd, "Electronic Devices", Pearson Education, 9th
Edition, 2012

Basic Electronics (BBEE103/BBEE203) - Operational Amplifiers and Applications (Module 3)

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ANJUMAN

Mr. Shrishail Bhat

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 2

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Pin diagram of IC 741 Typical Op-Amp Power Supply Connections

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• The differential amplifier produces the output voltage proportional to common

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Waveforms of inverting amplifier

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Waveforms of non-inverting amplifier

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Waveforms of voltage follower

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