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CRIMINOLOGY – 2 Theories of Crime Causation

WEEK 5

Lesson 5: The Fundamental School of Thought in Explaining the Causes of Crime

CONCEPTS

The Classical School

The classical school was developed in the 18 th century in an attempt to reform the legal system and to protect the
accused against harsh and arbitrary action on the part of the state. It is founded by Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) or
Cesare Marchese (pronounced as “Marquess”) Di Beccaria Bonesana, an Italian criminologist and economist (Alien,
2018)..

Along with Beccaria who pioneered the Classical School was Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), an English
philosopher, economist, and theoretical jurist in his principle of utilitarianism in which he said, “Mankind was governed
by two sovereign motives, pain and pleasure and the principle of utility recognized this state of affairs (Duignan, 2018).
Bentham’s Hedonistic calculus/Felicity involved weighing of pleasure versus pain. He admired Beccaria’s work and
believed that freewill allowed people to make calculated and deliberate decisions related to the pursuit of their won
happiness. The object of all legislation must be the “greatest happiness of the greatest number.

It theorized that punishment had a deterrent effect (Jeffery, 1959). Classical School’s main principle is the, “Let
the punishment fit the crime.”

The Neo-Classical School

Classical theory was difficult to apply in practice. It was modified in the early 1800s and became known as neo-
classical theory. The Neo-Classical School arose during the French revolution with the modification that children, lunatics
and others were not legally responsible for their actions. Since classical school generalized that people have freewill, neo-
classical school questioned that there are people who have the absence of freewill hence they must be exempted from
punishment because they did not know what they were doing; they do not know what they did was wrong or what they did
was the product of insanity. Its fundamental notion is that, “Let the children and lunatic criminals be exempted from
punishment.”

The Italian or Positivist School

The Italian or Positivist School developed in nineteenth century. This was basically made possible because of the
contribution of the three (3) respective experts in the persons of Cesare Lombroso, and his two students Raffaele Garofalo
and Enrico Ferri.

Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)

 Italian criminologist who founded the said school once explained that criminals commit crimes because they are
mentally-ill, sick and disturbed individuals; that is why they need to be treated instead of being punished.
 Lombroso Known as the Father of Criminology put his many years of medical research to use in his theory of
criminal atavism the idea that criminals manifest physical anomalies that make them biologically and
physiologically similar to our primitive ancestors, savage throwbacks to an earlier stage of human evolution.
 He’s also the “Founder of Criminal Anthropology.” He studied the remains of executed individuals who had
been convicted of crimes and came up with the theory of born criminal which stated that criminals are lower
form of life, nearer to their apelike ancestors than non-criminal in traits and disposition.

Raffaele Garofalo (1851-1934)

 an Italian criminologist and a student of Lombroso noted that the concept of a “criminal” presupposes the concept
of “crime.” However, Garofalo, like many of his contemporary criminologist, didn’t accept his teacher’s view
regarding physical traits (e.g. big forehead of large head); rather he linked criminal behavior not in the
individual’s physical features but to their psychological equivalents, which he called “moral anomalies.”
 Garofalo defined crime, not as a violation of a law, but a violation of nature. An act was a crime if it violated
human nature in either of two forms: probity, which is honesty and integrity, and pity, which is compassion for
other (Jeffery, 1959).

Enrico Ferri (1856-1929)

 a highly successful trial lawyer and perhaps Italy’s perhaps greatest contemporary forensic orator
 stated that “crime must be studied in the offender and said the “a person is legally or socially responsible for his
action by the fact that he is a member of society, not because he is capable or willing of an illegal act.”
  He went for a year to Turin to study with Lombroso and, as his student, visited prisons, not according to the
seriousness of the offense, but according to the factor or factors which motivated him to commit crimes due to
economic, social and political factors (moral responsibility). The defense of society was placed above the rights
of individuals and recommended penal colonies, indeterminate sentences, hospitals, scientifically trained judges,
and the abolition of juries (Jeffery, 1959). The Italian or Positivist School’s main notion is that, “ Let the
punishment fit the criminal”.

Lesson 6: Perspectives of Crime Causation

A. Classical Perspective

The classical perspective views crime as a product of situational forces; that crime is a function of freewill and
personal choice. It emphasized that the purpose of punishment is mainly to deter the occurrence of crime. The three
principles of punishment that become the trademark of Beccaria’s classical deterrence doctrine include Swift, Certain, and
Severe.

1. Swift pertains of punishment which must be swift to be affective. According to Merriem-Webster’s

Dictionary swift means occurring suddenly of within a very short time.
2. Certain refers to the idea that people must know they will be punished for their illegal behavior – that they
cannot evade the strong arms of the law, and that no one may take as substitute for the punishment of the one
who violated the law.
3. Severe, on the other hand, pertains to punishment that is severe enough to outweigh the reward of the illegal
action – severity and proportionality are sometimes at odds especially since each person is different in terms
of what constitutes a “severe” punishment. It also stressed out that crime problem could be traced not to bad
people but no laws (Adler et al, 2012).

B. Biological Perspective

The Biological perspective regarded crime as the product of internal forces. That crime is a function of chemical,
neurological, genetic, personality, intelligence or mental traits.

C. Process Perspective

The process perspective claimed that crime is a product of socialization or interaction of one person to another,
and that crime is a function of upbringing, learning, and control. Parents, teachers, environment, mass media, and peer
groups may influence behavior. This concerns on how a person becomes criminal.

D. Conflict Perspective

The conflict perspective stressed the cause of crime based on economic and political forces. According to crime
perspective, crime is a function of competition for limited resources and power. Law is a tool of the ruling class in order
to control the lower class. It is designed to protect the wealthy people. Crime is a politically defined concept.

E. Biosocial Perspective

The biosocial perspective sought to explain the onset of antisocial behavior such as aggression and violence by
focusing on the physical qualities of the offenders. It concentrated mainly on three areas of focus: biochemical (diet,
genetic, hormones, and environmental contaminants), neurological (brain damage), and genetic (inheritance) (Siegel,
2007).

F. Psychological Perspective

The psychological perspective expressed that criminal behavior, was the product of “unconscious” forces
operating within a person’s mind, and that conflicts occurring at various psychosexual stages of development might
impact an individual’s ability to operate normally as an adult. Hence, if the aggressive impulse is not controlled, or is
represented to an unusual degree, some aggression can “leak out” of the unconscious and a person can engage in random
acts of violence (Bartol, 2002).

KNOWLEDGE EVALUATION #5

ACTIVITY 5.1: Discussion

Explain the similarities and different of the Three Fundamental Schools of Thought in crime causation. Write
your answers on the space provided.

Schools of Classical Neo-Classical Italian or Positivist

Thoughts School School School

Similarities
Differences

ACTIVITY 5.2 APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

In your own words, state the explanation of crime from each of the pioneers of the schools of thought in crime
situation. After doing so, identify which pioneer you liked the most when it comes to treating criminals. Write your
answers on the space provide.

1. Cesare Beccaria

2. Jeremy Bentham

3. Cesare Lombroso

4. Raffaele Garofalo

5. Enrico Ferri

6. Which pioneer do you like the most when it comes to treating criminals?
ACTIVITY 5.3: Using the fishbone diagram, list the perspectives of crime causation and cite at least 4 of its key
concepts based on your own understanding. Write your answers on the space provided.

Fishbone Diagram

Cause Effect

Classical Biological Process

Crime

Conflict Biosocial Psychological

CHAPTER 3

EXPLORING THE BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

WEEK 6 - Lesson 1: Biosocial Theory

 Biosocial theory viewed that both thought and behavior have biological and social bases.
 Biosocial theorists believe that it is the interaction predisposition and environment that produces
criminality. Children born into a disadvantaged environment often do not have the social and familial
support they need to overcome their handicaps. Lacks of family support can long-term physical
consequences.
 Contemporary biosocial theorist seek to explain the onset of antisocial behaviors. Their research efforts
appear to be concentrated in three (3) distinct areas of study:
1. Biochemical factors 2. Neurological dysfunction, and 3. Genetic influences (Siegel et al., 2007).

1. Biochemical Factors

Biochemical factors stress on the relationship between antisocial behavior and biochemical makeup and that body
chemistry can govern behavior and personality, including levels of aggression and depression. For example, exposure
to lead in the environment and subsequent lead ingestion has been linked to antisocial behaviors (Siegel et al., 20017).

1.1 Hormonal Levels

 Another area of biochemical research emphasizes that antisocial behavior allegedly peaks in the teenage years
because hormonal activity is at its highest level during this period.

Research also suggests that increased levels of the male androgen and testosterone are responsible for excessive
levels of violence among teenage boys.

2. Neurological Dysfunction

Another concentration of biosocial theory is the neurological structure, or brain and nervous system of the
offenders. According to this position, the neuroendocrine system, which controls the brain chemistry, is the key to
understanding violence and aggression. Imbalance in the central nervous system’ chemical and hormonal activity has
been linked to antisocial behavior and drug abuse (Siegel et al., 2007). Neurotransmitters are chemical compounds
that influence brain activity. Research suggests that abnormal levels of neurotransmitters—including dopamine,
serotonin, and monoamine oxidase—are related to aggression and violence. For example, people with a history of
impulsive violence often have a reduction in the function of the serotonin system (Badaway, 2003).

2.1 Minimal Brain Dysfunction

Minimal brain dysfunction is defined as the damage to the brain itself that cause antisocial behavior injurious
to the individual’s lifestyle and social adjustment. Children who manifest behavior disturbances may have
identifiable deficits, such as damage to the hemispheres of the brain. One specific type of MBD is Learning
Disability, a term that has been defined by the National Advisory Committee on Handicapped Children.
Learning disability is a neurological dysfunction that prevents an individual from learning to his or her potential
(Siegel et al., 2007).

3. Genetic Influences
 Genetic influences focus on the idea that individuals who share the same genes are alike personality
regardless of how they are reared, while the rearing environment induces little or no personality resemblance.
 The Father of Criminology Cesare Lombroso often believed that antisocial behavior had a genetic basis based
on his theory that some people are “born Criminals”. Some biosocial theorists, for example, stated that certain
violent personality traits – including psychopathy – may be inherited (Carey and DiLalla, 1994).

3.1 Parent-Child Similarities

A number of studies found out that parental criminality and deviance do, in fact, powerfully influence
delinquent behavior. Donald J. West and David P. Farrington (1986) made a study and they found out that a
significant number of delinquent youths have criminal fathers. West and Farrington’ study has been supported by
Rochester Youth Development Study. The latter found an intergenerational continuity in antisocial behavior, that
is, criminal fathers produce delinquent sons who grow up to have delinquent children themselves (Siegel et
al.,2007).

3.2 Sibling and Twin Similarities

Biosocial theorists have compared the behavior of twins and non-twin siblings and found that the twins, who
share more genetic material, are also more similar in their behavior. When comparing identical monozygotic (MZ)
twins with same-sex fraternal dizygotic (DZ) twins, they found out that the former have an identical genetic makeup,
while the latter share only about 50% of their genetic combinations. Reviews of twin studies found that in all cases,
MZ twins have delinquent and antisocial behavior patterns more similar than that of DZ twins (Siegel et al., 2007).

3.3 Adoption Studies

Sarnoff Mednick and Bernard Hutchings (1983) forced to conclude based on their study that genetics played at
least some role in creating delinquent tendencies. They found that adoptees share many of the behavioral intellectual
characteristics of their biological parents despite the social and environmental conditions found in their adoptive
homes (Siegel et al., 2007).

Lesson 2: Evolutionary Theory

Evolutionary Theory

Evolutionary theory explains the existence of aggression and violent behavior as positive adaptive behavior in
human evolution. These traits allowed their bearers to reproduce disproportionately, which has had an effect on the human
gene pool (Siegel et al., 2007). For example, if the child witnessed that his father beats her mother every time his father is
under the influence of alcohol, then the child will assume that it is good to beat somebody. When the time comes a
husband, the same situation will be applied to his wife.

Cheater theory is one of the theories under evolutionary theory which suggests that a subpopulation of men has
involved with genes that incline them toward extremely low parental involvement and become sexually aggressive who
use their cunning to gain sexual conquests with as many females as possible. Because females would not choose them as
mates, they use stealth to gain sexual access-cheating including such tactics as mimicking the behavior of more stable
males. Psychologist Byron Roth notes that these cheater-type males maybe especially attractive to younger, less intelligent
women who begin having children at a very early age. This theory also explains male aggressiveness (Siegel et al., 2007).

R/K selection theory is another theory under evolutionary theory which holds that all organisms can be located
along a continuum based upon their reproductive drives. Those along the “R” end reproduce rapidly whenever they can
and invest little in their offspring; while those along the “K” end reproduce slowly and cautiously and take care in the
raising their offspring. K-oriented people are more cooperative and sensitive to other, whereas R-oriented people are
more cunning and deceptive. People who commit crimes seem to exhibit R-selection traits such as frequent sexual activity
(Siegel, 2004).

Lesson 3: Arousal Theory

Arousal Theory

The main assumption of arousal theory is that environmental factors influence the brain’s level of arousal. It
explains that aggression is a function of the level of individual’s needs for stimulation or arousal from the environment.
Those who require more stimulation may act in an aggressive manner to meet their needs. On the other hand, thrill is a
motivator of crime. Adolescents may engage in such crimes as shoplifting and vandalism simply because they offer the
attraction of getting away it; criminality is a thrilling demonstration of personal competence. It also explained that
adolescents with low heart rates are more likely to commit crimes as they seek stimulation to increase their arousal levels
to normal levels. Arousal theorists believed that genetic and environment stimuli. The theory emphasizes the importance
of a balance in arousal levels (Siegel et al., 2007).

For example, when person’s arousal level is extremely low and feels bored, that person will engage in activities
that will increase his arousal level, such as going out with friends or watching a car race. On the other hand, when arousal
level is too high, such as when is too anxious or overstressed, he often resorts to engaging in relaxation methods such as
reading book, getting a message, or meditating. People generally perform their best when arousal is at a moderate level
(Psychology Notes, 2017).

Lesson 4: Life Course Theory

Life-Course Theory

Life Course Theory also known as Developmental Theory suggests that criminal behaviour is a dynamic process
influenced by individual characteristics as well as social experiences, and that the factors that cause antisocial behaviours
change dramatically over a person’ life span. The theory is the product of the collaborative efforts of Sheldon Glueck
(1896-1980), a Polish-American criminologist and his wife Eleanor Touroff-Glueck (1898-1972), an American social
worker and criminologists.

According to the life-course view, even as toddlers, people begin relationships and behaviours that will determine
their entire life course, as children they must learn to conform to social rules and function effectively in society. Later,
they are expected to begin thinking about their careers, leave their parental homes, find permanent relationships and
eventually marry and begin their own families. These transitions are expected to be in place in an orderly manner. Some
transitions can occur too early like when adolescents engage in precocious sex. In some way, transitions may occur as late
when a student fails to graduate because of bad grades or too many incomplete grades.

The negative life transitions can become cumulative, that is, as kids, acquire more personal deficits, their chances
of acquiring additional deficits increase. Hence, the theory mainly emphasizes that disruption in life’s major transitions
can be destructive and ultimately can promote criminality.

However, life course theory also recognizes that as people mature, the factors that influence their behaviour
change. For example, some antisocial who are in trouble throughout their adolescence may manage to find stable work
and maintain intact marriages as adults (Siegel et al., 2007).

Lesson 5: Latent Trait Theory

Latent trait is defined as a stable feature, characteristic, property, or condition, such as defective intelligence,
impulsive personality, genetic abnormalities, Latent theorist such as David Rowe, Wayne Osgood, and Alan Nicewander
(1990) focus on basic human behavior and drive such attachment, aggression, violence, and impulsivity—all linked to
antisocial behavior patterns.

They recognized that human traits alone do not produce criminality and that it is a combination of environmental
factors such as family life, educational attachment, economic factors, and neighborhood conditions. Some people may
have a predisposition towards aggression, but environmental stimuli can either suppress or trigger antisocial acts (Siegel,
2011). One example is when a person has an impulsive personality. This person may somehow commit crime because he
acts in an impulsive manner like when he suddenly draws his gun aiming to his enemy but unfortunately he hit another
person.

KNOWLEDGE EVALUATION #6

ACTIVITY 6.1: Do it!

1. Explain the concepts of biosocial theory using your own words. Write your answer on the space provided.

2. Concept Mapping: Discuss briefly the sub-concepts of biosocial theory using key terms. Write your answer on the
space provided.

3. Analysis: Cite at least one real life (situation) that exemplifies the biosocial theory. Write your answers on the
space provided.

APPLICATION AND ASSESSMENT

Mr. A is an alcoholic person. He drinks alcoholic beverages every other day. One rainy afternoon, he drunk with a
neighbor, had a heated debate with him then stabbed him death.

Based on the situation above:

4. How will you describe the future children of Mr. A, using the concept of biosocial theory?

5. What sub-concepts of biosocial theory best explain the above-mentioned scenario? Support your answer.

ACTIVITY 6.2: Rephrasing

Rephrase the concepts of evolutionary theory. Write your answers on the space provide
ACTIVITY 6.3: Formulate a real life case scenario using any of the concepts of evolutionary theory and its sub-theories.
Write your answers on the space provided.

ACTIVITY 6.4: Summarizing Main Points

Summarize the concepts of Arousal Theory. Write your answers on the space provided.

ACTIVITY 6.5: ACTING LIKE A JURY

On a scale 1-10, 10 being the highest and 1 being the lowest; evaluate the relevance of life course theory in
today’s society. Support your answer. Write it on the space provided.

ACTIVITY 6.6: Straight to the point

Discuss the main concept of latent theory using your own words. Write your answers on the space provided.

WEEK 7 - Lesson 6: Family Studies: Jukes and Kallikak Family

Jukes Family

Advocates of the inheritance school, such as Henry H. Goddard (1866-1957), Richard L. Dugdale (1841-
1883), and Arthur H. Estabrook, traced several generations of crime-prone families (referred to by pseudonyms such as
the “Jukes” and the “Kallikaks”), finding evidence that criminal tendencies were based on genetics. Their conclusion:
traits deemed socially inferior could be passed down from generation to generation through inheritance (Siegel, 2011).
 According to the story told Richard Louis Dugdale in his books, “The Jukes”: A Study in Crime, Pauperism,
Disease and Heredity and Further Studies of Criminals. “Ada Juke” publicly known as “Margaret, the mother of
criminals”. Ada Juke had one bastard son, who is the progenitor of the distinctively criminal line. 52.40 percent or 84 of
the descendants of Ada are into harlotry (prostitution). Dugdale as cited in Adler (2019) found out that among the
thousands of the Jukes descendants, there were 280 paupers, 60 thieves, 7 murderers, 40 other criminals, and the other 40
percent of the sons have venereal disease. With that, Dugdale (1841-1883) made some tentative inductions based on his
study of the Jukes family line when it comes to committing crime.

1. The burden of the crime is found in the illegitimate lines;

2. The legitimate lines marry into a crime;
3. The eldest child has a tendency to be the criminal of the family;
4. Crime chiefly follows the male line; and
5. The longest lines of crime are along the line of the eldest.

Kallikak Family

Dr. Henry H. Goddard (1866-1957), a prominent American psychologist together with Elizabeth S. Kite
conducted a study entitled the “Kallikak Family: A Study in the Heredity of Feeblemindedness,” wherein they trace the
family tree of revolutionary war soldier with the “pseudonym Martin Kallikak, Sr.” The former had an illegitimate son
named as Martin Kallikak Jr. From Martin Kallikak, Jr. have come 480 descendants: 143 were feeble-minded, while only
46 have been found normal. The rest are unknown or doubtful. Among these 480 descendants, 36 have been illegitimate.
There have been 33 sexually immoral persons, mostly Prostitute. There have been 24 confirmed alcoholics, 3 epileptics,
82 died in fancy, 3 criminals, and 8 kept house of ill fame. These people have married into other families, generally of
about the same type, so that we now have on record and charted eleven hundred and forty-six individuals. Of this large
group, Goddard have discovered that 262 were feeble-minded, while 197 are considered normal, the remaining 581 being
still undetermined (Goddard, 1916). Kallikak, Jr. is the great-great grandfather of Deborah, an 8-year old girl who was
interviewed by Goddard. Deborah gained admission at the Training School at Vineland because she did not do well at
school and might possibly be feeble-minded.

Lesson 7: Somatotyping Theory

Somatotyping Theory

Somatotyping is a theory which associates body physique to behavior and criminality; it began with the work of
German psychiatrist neurologist, psychopathologist, Ernst Kretschmer (1888-1964) who constituted three principal
types of body physiques:

1) the asthenic-lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders;

2) the athletic-medium to tall, strong, muscular, coarse bones; and
3) pyknic- medium height, rounded figure, massive neck and broad face (Adler et al., 2010).

Since Kretschmer was a psychiatrist, he related these body shapes to various psychiatric disorders: pyknics to
manic depression. On the other hand, he related asthenic and athletics to schizophrenia.

William H. Sheldon, Jr.

Kretschmer’s work was brought to the United States, William H. Sheldon, Jr. (1998-1977) an American
psychologist and physician who devised his own group of somatotypes:

 the endomorph,
 mesomorph and
 ectomorph.

According to Sheldon, people with predominantly mesomorph traits (physical powerful, aggressive and athletic physique)
tend more than others to be involved in illegal behavior (Adler et al., 2010).

Sheldon Glueck and Eleanor T. Glueck

This article seemed to be the basic improvements of both Sheldon’s and Kretschmer’s categorization of body physique.
Glueck and Glueck showed that 60.1 per cent of the delinquent group compared to 30.7 per cent of the nondelinquents are
mesomorphic (with “relative predominance of muscle, bone and connective tissue”) and, at the other extreme, 14.4 per
cent of the delinquents compared to 39.6 per cent of the controls were found to be ectomorph (with relative
predominance of linearity and fragility and, in proportion to their mass, with “the greatest surface area and hence
relatively the greatest sensory exposure to the outside world”). A distinguished authority in the field, who is a trained
anthropologist, Professor C. Wesley Dupertuis, is lavish in his praise of the work of Glueck couples (Glueck, 1960).

Earnest A. Hooton

He examined the relationship between personality and physical type, with regards to criminal behavior. Hooton
(1887-1954) an American physical anthropologist, suggesting that criminals have inferior characteristics compared to
people who do not commit crimes. For example, according to Hooton:

 criminals are less often married and more often divorced

 criminals often have tattoos
 criminals have thinner beards and body hair, and their hair is more often reddish-brown and straight
 criminals often have blue-gray or mixed colored eyes, and less often dark or blue eyes
 criminals have low sloping foreheads, high nasal bridges, and thin lips
 criminal’s ears often have rolled helix and a perceptible Darwin’s point

He suggested that human somatotype (body shape and physique) can even determine which type of crime a
person will commit:

 tall-slender men are predisposed for murder and robbery; tall-medium heavy men for forgery; tall-
heavy men for first degree murder;
 medium height-heavy for antisocial behavior,
 short-slender for burglary and larceny;
 short-medium heavy for arson; while
 short heavy men for sex offences.

Since he believed that biological prepositions determine deviant behavior, Hooton advocated the removal of criminals
from society, seeing no hope in their rehabilitation (http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Earnest_Hooton).

Lesson 8: Physiognomy

Etymology of the term Physiognomy

Physiognomy came from the Middle English phisonomie, from Anglo-French phisenomie, from Late Latin
physiognomonia, physiognomia, from Greek physiognōmonia, from physiognōmōn judging character by the features,
from physis nature, physique, appearance plus gōmōn interpreter (Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary).

Giambattista della Porta, also called Giovanni Battista Della Porta, (1535-1615) an Italian physician and nature
philosopher, founded the school on human physiognomy. Physiognomy deals with the study of facial features and their
relation to human behavior. According to Porta, a thief had large lips and sharp vision. Porta’s findings was in
correlation with the argument of the Father of Modern Criminology-Cesare Lombroso when he said that criminals
frequently have jaws and strong canine teeth, characteristics common to carnivores who tear and devour meat raw (Adler
et al., 2010).

Two centuries later, Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741-1801), Swiss writer, Protestant pastor was able to revive the
work of Porta (Adler et al., 2010).

Lesson 9: Phrenology

CONCEPTS

Phrenology is a theory of brain and science of character reading, what the nineteenth-century phrenologists called
“the only true science of mind”. Phrenology was derived from the theories of the distinctive German-French anatomist
and physiologist Franz Joseph Gall. In essence, phrenology is the study of the conformation of the skull as indicative of
mental faculties and traits of character, especially according to the hypotheses of Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828), and
19th-century adherents Johann Kaspar Spurzheim (1776-1832) and George Combe (1788-1858)
(https://www.britannica.com/topic/phrenology). Phrenologists posited that bumps on the head were

His collaboration with his pupil Johann Kaspar Spurzheim (1776-1832), who served as his research assistant and
collaborator, which began in 1800, led him to the development of his theories concerning brain localization and
phrenology, which he initially referred to as cranioscopy. He characterized his primary goal to develop a functional
anatomy and physiology of the brain as well as a revised psychology of personality as “organology”. Gall ultimately
identified 27 discrete brain “centres” of behavior, 25 of which have never been confirmed to exist.

Phrenology was re-introduced to Britain by the American “phrenological Fowlers” led Lorenzo Nile Fowler (1811-1896)
in the 1860s and 1870s. The Fowlers had begun lecturing and reading heads for fees in New York in the 1830s. Their
phrenology was wholly borrowed from the British modifications of Gall’s system (wyhe, 2000).
 In the United States, the views on phrenology were supported by physician Charles Caldwell (1772-1853), who
searched for evidence that brain tissue and cells regulate human action (Adler et al., 2010).

Lesson 10: Nature Theory

CONCEPTS

Nature theory holds that low intelligence is genetically determined and inherited. This was supported by Henry
H. Goddard in his studies in 1920 that many institutionalized people were what he considered “feebleminded” and
concluded that at least half of all juvenile delinquents were mentally defectives. In similar vein, William Healy and
Augusta Bronner tested a group of delinquents in Chicago and Boston and they found that 37 percent were subnormal in
intelligence. Bronner and Healy concluded that delinquent boys were 5 to 10 times more likely to be mentally deficient
than dutiful boys. Thus, many criminologists agreed the predisposition of substandard individuals toward delinquency
(Siegel et al., 2007).

KNOWLEDGE EVALUATION #7

ACTIVITY 7.1: What is your Family Tree?

Trace your family line starting from the parents of your grandparents to yours. Place your illustration below.

ACTIVITY 7.2: Rephrase the main points of somatotyping theory. Write your answers on the space provided.

ACTIVITY 7.3: Identify what type of physique you have using Ernst Kretschmer and William Sheldon’s category of
body physique. Support your answer. Write it on the space provided.

ACTIVITY 7.4: Rate your level of agreement with the concept of human physiognomy in today’s generation of criminal
offenders. On Scale of 1-5 (5-Strongly agree; 4-Agree; 3-Neutral; 2-Disagree; and 1-Strongly Disagree, rate your level of
agreement with the concept on physiognomy that criminal of antisocial behavior can be determined based on the facial
feature of a person. Support your answer. Write it below.
ACTIVITY 7.5: Evaluate the concepts of phrenology on today’s era of committing crime.

On a scale of 1-5 (5-Strongly agree; 4-Agree; 3-Neutral; 2-Disagree; and 1-Strongly Disagree) Rate your level of
agreement with the concept of phrenology that criminal or antisocial behavior can be determined based on the shape of the
head or skull of a person. Support your answer. Write it on the space provided.

ACTIVITY7.6: Compare and Contrast Physiognomy from Phrenology. Write your answers on the space provided.

Theories Similarities Differences

Physiognomy

Phrenology

ACTIVITY 7.7: Using the scale of 1-10; ten being the highest and one being the lowest, rate the concept of nature
theory. Support your answer. Would you believe that people who have low IQ are prone to criminality? Yes or No, Why?
Write your answers on the space provided.

CHAPTER 4

DETERMINIG THE CLASSICAL THEORIES OF CRIME

WEEK 8 - Lesson 1: Rational Choice Theory

Rational choice theory holds that person will engage in criminal behavior after weighing the consequences and
benefits of his/her actions. Criminal behavior is a rational choice made by a motivated offender who perceives that the
chances of gain outweigh any possible punishment or loss (Siegel et al., 2007).
“Rational choice” theory, which is derived mainly from the expected utility model in economics, has become a “hot” topic
in criminology, sociology, political science, and law. The rational choice theory posits that one takes those actions,
criminal or lawful, which maximize payoff and minimize costs (Akers, 1990).

Lesson 2: Routine Activity Theory

This theory was created by Lawrence E. Cohen and Marcus K. Felson, based on their 1979 publication of their
seminal article “Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach”. They viewed that crime is a
“normal” function of the routine activities of modern living, that is, offenses can be expected if there is a motivated
offender and a suitable target that is not protected by capable guardians (Siegel et al., 2007).

Routine Activity Theory also sometimes referred to as life style theory has been proven to be one of the more
useful theories for understanding criminal victimization and offending patterns in the late 20 th and early 21st centuries.
This theoretical explanation is primarily focused on providing information regarding who is more or less likely to be a
crime victim. Routine Activity Theory is most useful and makes important contributions to social policy and by
predicting conditions under which victimization risks are enhanced and identifying patterns of social events associated
with criminal incidents (Cohen and Felson, 2010). Below is an illustration of the said theories (Siegel et al., 2007).

MOTIVATED
OFFENDERS
Unemployed
Teenage boys
Gang members

LACK OF CAPABLE
GUARDIANS SUITABLE TARGETS
Police officers Unlocked homes
Home owners Expensive cars
Security systems early transported goods
Parents
Lesson 3: Lifestyle Theory

The main concept of lifestyle theory is that people may become crime victims because their lifestyle increases
their exposure to criminal offenders (Siegel et al., 2007).

A “lifestyle theory of victimization” was developed by Michael R. Gottfreson Michael Hindelang, and James
Garofalo in 1978. It argues that because of changing roles (working mother versus housewife) and schedules (a child’s
school calendar), people lead different lifestyles (work and leisure activities). The theory has 8 propositions and one of it
is that the probability of suffering a personal victimization is directly related to the amount of time that a person spends in
public places (Adler et al., 2010). A high risk lifestyle may be getting involved with deviant peer groups, just “hanging
out”, or frequenting bars until late into the night and drinking heavily (Walsh, 2012)

Lifestyle theory presents that a person may become a potential suspect because of the presence of potential target.
For example, if Franzet, a call center agent who is travelling every night at 11:00 from her place of duty to her house
maybe prone to becoming a victim of robbery or rape because she is always exposed to delinquents who are usually
attacking during the nighttime. Therefore, lifestyle theory presented that a person may become a potential suspect because
of the presence of potential target.

Lesson 4: General Deterrence and Specific Deterrence Theory

General Deterrence is aimed at making potential criminals fear the consequences of crime showing that crime
does pay. It focuses on potential offenders and that these offenders must receive punishment in severe, swift and certain
ways. It also manifesting societal deterrence which aimed to target would be offenders (Siegel et al., 2007). An example
of which is imposing long prison sentences in the lifetime imprisonment for violent or heinous crimes.

Specific deterrence holds that if offenders are punished so severely, the experience will convince them not to
repeat their illegal acts. It main targets are those offenders who have already been convicted as it also claims that
punishing more criminals will reduce their involvement in criminal activities (Siegel et al., 2007).

Lesson 5: Victim Precipitation Theory

Victim precipitation theory viewed that some people may actually initiate the confrontation that eventually
leads to their injury or death. It was first presented by Hans von Hentig (1941) and applies only to violent victimization.
Its basic premise is that by acting in certain provocative ways, some individuals initiate a chain of events that leads to
their deaths (Walsh, 2012). A wife who was able to kill her husband because he kept on beating her every time he got
drunk is one example. The husband became a victim in this case since the perpetrator (the wife) just acted on self-defense.

The concept of victim offender interaction can be classified either active or passive precipitation (Walsh, 2012).

Active precipitation occurs when victims act provocatively, use threats or fighting words, or even attacks the
offenders first (Siegel et al., 2012). For example, a person shouts and utters profane language at his enemy; however the
latter has a knife and thus he stab the former to deaths.

Passive precipitation occurs when the victim exhibits some personal characteristics that unknowingly either
threatens or encourages the attacker (Siegel, 2012). For example, Bee who has tattoos all around body maybe a threat to
somebody especially if Bee is already drunk. Even though he did nothing wrong, the other person got threatened may
attack him leading either to his injury or immediate death.

Lesson 6: Incapacitation Theory

Incapacitation Theory stands to reason that if more criminals are sent to prison or keeping known criminals out
of circulation the crime rate should go down (Siegel et al., 2007). This theory supported the idea of imprisoning the
criminals.

KNOWLEDGE EVALUATION #8

ACTIVITY 8.1: Two-minute Paper

Discuss the main concept of routine activity theory by writing a short essay. Write your essay on the space
provided.

ACTIVITY 8.2: Give an example based on real life situation citing the elements of routine activity theory. Write your
answers on the space provided.
ACTIVITY 8.3: Explain the concept of Lifestyle Theory. Write your answer on the space provided.

ACTIVITY 8.4: Describe the concepts of general and specific deterrence theory. Write your answers on the space
provided.

ACTIVITY 8.5: Compare and contrast the concepts of general and specific deterrence theory.

Theories on Crime Control Policy Similarities Differences

General Deterrence

Specific Deterrence

ACTIVITY 8.6: In five sentences, discuss the principle of victim precipitation theory using your own words. Write your
answers on the space provided.

ACTIVITY 8.7: Explain the concept of incapacitation theory. Write your answers on the space provided.