Extended Essay

Title: The Main Issues Surrounding the Biofuel Industry in the State of São Paulo

Research Question: What are the main obstacles surrounding the ethanol industry in São

Paulo?

Subject: Geography

Word count: 3798

1
Contents Page

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. page 3-5

Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… page 4-

Land and Infrastructure ………………………………………………………………………….………………... page 10-

13

Production ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… page 14-

15

Demand ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. page 15-

17

Conclusion and Evaluation ………………………………………………………..………………………………. page 17-

20

Appendix …………………………………….……………………………………………………………………………. page 20-

22

2
Introduction

Recently, humanity has been facing a significant dilemma: climate change. One of the

contributors to climate change is the burning of fossil fuels. Many scientist and businesses are

searching to replace fossil fuels with renewable and efficient energy sources to mitigate climate

change. This essay will investigate the prospect of ethanol as an energy source in the state of

São Paulo, Brazil.

The state of São Paulo is located in the southeast region of Brazil, South America. It is

the most populated state in Brazil, with about 41 million people. The state accounts for a third

of the country’s economy, outproducing any other state in the nation1.

This is the state of Sao Paulo.

1
Meyer, Amelia. "Sao Paulo (State)". Brazil.Org.Za, 2019, https://www.brazil.org.za/sao-paulo.html. Accessed 24
Nov 2019.

Images taken from Google Maps

 São Paulo State houses São Paulo City, the largest city in South America. The city’s

population is around 11 million but including the connecting towns, the metropolitan area is

home to 21 million people2.

It is evident that the state requires a big supply of energy for its economy and society to

function. To understand the current role of biofuels in supplying energy to the state of Sao

Paulo, it is paramount to look at the history of energy in the state. Increase in demand for

electricity in São Paulo began in the late 1880s when Brazil’s rapid industrialization, especially in

the South and the Southeast regions, greatly increased the demand for electric energy.

Subsequently, after the First World War, electricity demand increased, when the global demand

for coffee bean, one of the state’s main agricultural products, collapsed and urbanisation and

industrialization took hold.3 Brazil’s focus and main alternative to fossil fuels has been

hydroelectric power (HEP), mainly due to the country’s lack of coal resources and its vast supply

of rivers and waterfalls. HEP arrived in the state of São Paulo in the beginning of the 20 th

century. Today Sao Paulo’s energy supply comes mainly from hydroelectric power; however,

the demand for a more diversified energy supply continues to increase and HEP is not sufficient

to meet the state’s demand. Sugarcane products, such as ethanol, account for 29% of Sao

Paulo’s internal energy and 19% of its electric energy supply 4. In fact, it has become a real

question whether HEP will be able to sustain Brazil’s energy demand in the future.

2
“Sao Paulo Population 2019”. Worldpopulationreview.Com, 2019, http://Worldpopulationreview.com/world-
cities/sao-paulo-population/. Accessed 24 Nov 2019.
3
Hesla, E. “Electricity in Brazil-Part 1”. Ieeexplore.ieee.org, 2019, https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5711613.
Accessed 20 Feb 2019.
4
“Energy”. Saopauloglobal.sp.gov.br, 2019, http://www.saopauloglobal.sp.gov.br/frameSetores.aspx?
gp=10&IdIdioma=2&IdTrad=76. Accessed 20 Feb. 2019.

4
 There are three main issues surrounding the production of ethanol in São Paulo. First, is

the topography of the land surrounding the city of São Paulo and the rest of the state. The

second is the production efficiency of ethanol, and finally, the demand for ethanol. The land

surrounding the city of São Paulo is crucial for any agribusiness because it can be costly to

develop the infrastructure to sustain the flow of goods between the city and the interior of the

state. If producing ethanol in São Paulo is more costly than its output, then the chances that

ethanol will become a major source of energy will be greatly reduced. Furthermore, the

production of sugarcane can be affected by weather and soil fertility; if these aren’t suitable for

the production of ethanol, it will be very difficult to continue the development of sugarcane and

other sources of ethanol in São Paulo. It is also important for this investigation to inquire about

the views on ethanol in São Paulo for this will dictate if elected governments will prioritise

investing in biofuels or not. Additionally, the status of Brazil’s and Sao Paulo’s economy is key

for the biofuel business in the state, if the economy is growing then the demand for energy will

rise and therefore, the price and cost of biofuels.

This investigation focuses on the geographical aspects that affect ethanol, such as

topography and people. However, this investigation also looks at synoptic issues that could be

used to better explain the future of the ethanol industry. It is very important that this study

looks at different areas of study, such as economics, so it can truly analyse the challenges to the

ethanol business.

5
Methodology

My methodology is based on the limitations in infrastructure, production and demand

regarding ethanol as an energy source. To analyse these three factors, I have decided to gather

both primary and secondary data.

Regarding the limitation of infrastructure in São Paulo, I used a map detailing the relief of

Brazil that was constructed using the Generic Mapping Tools Software that used public datasets

gathered by GLOBE, SRTM and ETOPO25. Other figures were used such as: a diagram illustrating

the linear relief of the land encompassing the city of São Paulo. The diagram was originally

created by author Karl Hueck who published it in their book titled “As Florestas da America no

Sul”6. which help illustrate the topography of the state of São Paulo. I also used Google Maps to

illustrate the scale of the state including the distances between the interior and the city. Using

the data from the relief, I will then use the internet and other secondary sources to look at its

effects on infrastructure. All this would analyse how the area’s relief affected the transportation

of Ethanol from the interior to the city.

In regard to the limitations of producing ethanol, I interviewed the head market specialist at

Raizen, Marieangela Grola, who had a lot of information on the production of Ethanol and a lot

of experience in the market. I asked her 4 questions but also asked some other follow up

question during the interview. The questions are as following:

5
"File:Brazil Topo.Jpg - Wikimedia Commons". Commons.Wikimedia.Org, 2020,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brazil_topo.jpg. Accessed 22 Jan 2020.
6
Bdpa.Cnptia.Embrapa.Br, 2020, https://www.bdpa.cnptia.embrapa.br/consulta/busca?
b=ad&id=293471&biblioteca=vazio&busca=autoria:%22HUECK,%20K.%22&qFacets=autoria:%22HUECK,%20K.
%22&sort=&paginacao=t&paginaAtual=1. Accessed 22 Jan 2020.

6
 1. Is it true that it takes more energy to produce ethanol than the energy it produces?

2. More ethanol is consumed as a fuel for vehicles or for the production of electricity?

3. What are the biggest obstacles regarding the production of Ethanol in Brazil?

4. What have and are the government’s intentions in the Biofuel Market?

I then added data from secondary sources such as the internet to back up the information I

received from the interview.

Finally, in respect to the demand of ethanol, I will base my research on the Kuznets curve.

The Kuznets curve illustrates that there is a negative quadratic relationship between

GDP per capita and environmental degradation. Countries whom have low GDP’s per capita will

prioritize economic growth over anything else, including the environment. The majority of

people living in these countries are poorly educated about the environment, already have a lot

of problems due to poverty, and governments and businesses don’t have enough money to

mitigate pollution or other damages to the environment. Therefore, as GDP per capita
7
increases, at this stage, more harm will come to the environment through construction,

pollution and etc. As the country reaches the point of inflection, because people or more

educated and have less problems regarding money, people will start demanding both

government and business to stop harming the environment. Furthermore, because businesses

and governments are wealthier at this stage, they will be able to spend that money in ways to

reduce the damage to the environment. Therefore, after the point of inflection an increase in

GDP per capita will lead to a decrease in environmental degradation 7. I will use the theory to

analyse if Brazil is likely to increase the use of ethanol or not. To test if the theory applies to São

Paulo, I produced a questionnaire. Here is a sample of the questionnaire:

This questionnaire is 100% anonymous, your individual data will not be publicized. The first

section is regarding individual information. Only answer the Questionnaire if you are 16 and

over. SP refers to the state of Sao Paulo.

1. Do you believe that energy security for SP should be one of the government’s main

priorities?

a. Strongly agree

b. Agree

c. Unsure / neutral / not enough knowledge on the topic

d. Disagree

e. Strongly disagree

2. Do you think that SP would benefit from using ethanol?

a. Strongly agree
7
Agarwal, Prateek. "The Environmental Kuznets Curve | Intelligent Economist". Intelligent Economist, 2020,
https://www.intelligenteconomist.com/environmental-kuznets-curve/. Accessed 25 Jan 2020.

8
 b. Agree

c. Neutral / Unsure / not enough knowledge on the topic

d. Disagree

e. Strongly disagree

3. Do you think the government should diversify its energy supply?

a. Strongly agree

b. Agree

c. Neutral / Unsure / not enough knowledge on the topic

d. Disagree

I will not only look at how the results from the questionnaire compare to what the theory says

but see if there is an overall sense of positive public opinion.

The completion of all the above, will lead to a thorough response to my three hypotheses:

1. Does the topography of the state of São Paulo limit rail transportation of ethanol?

2. Does the production of ethanol limit the supply of ethanol?

3. Does the Kuznets curve theory apply to São Paulo?

Land and Infrastructure

Infrastructure is essential for business, industry and society to thrive. Without

infrastructure, goods, services and labour cannot reach markets or manufacturers. Therefore,

9
without suitable infrastructure it is impossible to carry out business. Although sugarcane is

refined into ethanol on site, ethanol needs to be transported to urban areas for it to be sold,

consumed and used as a fuel or energy source.

Rail transport is one of the most common and efficient ways to transport ethanol from

its site of production to its market. Despite its efficiency, rail transport is susceptible to

topography. Relief can impose constraints on the gradient and track alignment of railways.

Passenger trains can only climb 40 metres every kilometre, which means the track can only

elevate 4o; freight trains are constrained to a 1 o elevation. This means that freight trains require

50 kilometres to climb 500m. Freight trains are used to carry cargo not people and therefore

usually carry more weight than normal trains. The transportation of ethanol is done via freight

train and ethanol has a density of 789kg.m -3; this means it is pretty heavy to carry. Freight trains

traveling long distances and with heavy cargo consume a lot of energy; the amount of energy

they consume is heavily compounded by increases in the gradient that they are travelling 8.

8
Rodrigue, Jean-Paul. "Rail Transportation And Pipelines". The Geography Of Transport Systems, 2019,
https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1759. Accessed 20 Dec 2019.

10
 Figure 1

Flat Land in the Interior

of São Paulo state.

Here land can be 1500m

high. This highland is called
Serra da Mantiqueira

The city of Sao Paulo

is located here.

Here is the port of Santos,

the biggest port in Brazil

Here is a closer look at the region surrounding the city of Sao Paulo:

9
Figure 2: "File:Brazil Topo.Jpg - Wikimedia Commons". Commons.Wikimedia.Org, 2019,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brazil_topo.jpg. Accessed 25 Nov 2019.

11
 The area marked in red This large green area is the Serra and divides The interior of the
is Sao Paulo and the the flat plane of Sao Paulo from the coastline state is flat and
urban sprawl around it and the interior. It features a large humid forest includes the majority
is called “Grande Sao on a mountainous ground making it impossible of the state’s
Paulo”. to build on. farmland
10

Here is a diagram illustrating the linear relief of the state of São Paulo:

Serra da Mantiqueira separates São

11 Sao Paulo is on a plane Serra do mar separates São
Paulo from the interior of the state (750m above sea level) Paulo from the coastline

10 Figure
Figure 4 from Google Maps
3: taken Very hard to build Coastline is here
11
railways or highways
Figure 4: Brainly. "Redirect Notice". Google.Com, 2019, https://www.google.com/url?
sa=i&source=images&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwiRgODWq7rmAhX0JLkGHfDfBmcQjRx6BAgBEAQ&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fbrainly.com.br%2Ftarefa%2F12226171&psig=AOvVaw3lAug20bBnLi2GxgIg9cjU&ust=1576591603359697.
Accessed 16 Dec 2019.

12
 The Serra da Mantiqueira separates the city of São Paulo from the interior of the state,

where sugarcane is grown and refined into ethanol. The Serra da Mantiqueira can go up to

1500m, 750m above the city of São Paulo. As stated, earlier freight trains cannot climb more

500m over a horizontal distance of 50km, and therefore a 75-kilometre track would need to be

constructed for it to go over the Serra.

The Serra consists of many small hills, presenting another disadvantage to freight trains.

For freight trains to make turns, a minimal curvature radius of 100 meters is needed.

Considering higher speeds, a radius of 1 km for a speed of 150 km/hr and 4 km for a speed of

300 km/hr are needed. This high relief makes it very difficult to build and operate railways. The

end result is that only corporations with a lot of disposable funds can afford to transport the

production of ethanol in São Paulo. This means that there isn’t a lot of competition in the

ethanol industry in São Paulo causing prices to increase.

Production

13
 As stated in the introduction the likelihood of ethanol becoming a major energy supplier

to the state of São Paulo depends on its efficiency. When discussing efficiency, it is important to

understand that energy efficiency is not the only relevant factor, but production efficiency, cost

efficiency and other efficiency metrics are also relevant. Its efficiency depends on the manner it

is produced. There are many factors that affect the production of ethanol, including the amount

of land required and the susceptibility of sugarcane to the weather. In the case of ethanol in

São Paulo, the main issues are the weather and the properties of sugarcane (price and

biological). One thing that isn’t scarce in the state of SP is land, and therefore, it isn’t one of the

local industries main concerns.

Ethanol can be made from any type of plant, even animal fat; however, in Brazil, ethanol

is mainly made from sugarcane. Sugarcane used to be the most efficient biofuel until American

farmers started genetically modifying corn. Corn has become the main component of ethanol

produced in the US. Sugarcane, on the other hand, has a very complex DNA structure, meaning

that it is currently impossible to genetically modify its DNA. Furthermore, Brazilian ethanol

producers don’t have access to the same amount of funds and technology that American

producers have; therefore, there isn’t much research being carried out to modify sugarcane’s

DNA.

The advantages that corn has over sugarcane also include that corn isn’t susceptible to

seasonal changes. Sugarcane cannot be produced in the rainy season 12; therefore, many

Brazilian companies import corn from the US to produce ethanol during this time of year.

Brazil’s long history of protectionism and high trade barriers worsen the situation, as producers
12
"Sugarcane". Sugarcanecrops.Com, 2020, http://www.sugarcanecrops.com/climate/. Accessed 26 Jan 2020.

14
have to pay incredibly high import taxes on corn. Ethanol producers in São Paulo spend much of

their profit (earned during the dry season) in corn imports from the US to continue production

during the wet season.

One way the Brazilian ethanol industry tries to equilibrate their losses during the wet

season is by selling sugarcane for the production of sugar. However, sugar prices have been on

a general decline. Scientists, doctors and medical researchers around the world have been

increasingly criticizing sugar as an addictive and unhealthy substance. The criticism has been so

significant that governments have started to tax sugar in order reduce its consumption and

schools have started to remove sugar from daily meals 13. This is a major problem for the

Brazilian ethanol industry as it relies on the sale of sugarcane to sugar producers in order to

help finance and maintain its operations during the wet season. If sugar prices continue to

decrease, then the ethanol industry in Brazil will find it very difficult to sustain itself.

Demand

A very important factor in the development of an energy source is its level of support by

government, businesses and people. For instance, recently, with the rise of concerns over

climate change and public favour towards renewable energy sources, governments have begun

to invest in renewable energy. According to the Kuznets curve, as nations get richer, they

become more worried about the environment; however, people in LEDCs, theoretically,

prioritise economic growth and development over the environment. In 2015 Brazil suffered a

13
Brown, J. (2019). Is sugar really bad for you?. [online] Bbc.com. Available at:
http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20180918-is-sugar-really-bad-for-you [Accessed 16 Aug. 2019].

15
huge recession and in 2018 Brazil’s GDP per capita was US$8,920.80 14. Therefore, if the Kuznets

curve is correct Brazil’s population shouldn’t be that concerned over the environment, and

therefore, not supportive of renewable energies, such as ethanol.

Bio fu els
100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

Strongly Disagree Disagree Unsure/Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

The majority of subjects in my research were in favour of the government diversifying

energy supply; however, very few agreed that energy security should be a main priority of the

government. There are two reasons for this seemingly contradictory set of responses: the first

that more Brazilians are generally aware of energy’s role in climate questions from social media

and the internet, and the other being that many subjects were unaware that São Paulo is

mainly supplied by HEP. In fact, many subjects believed that São Paulo was mainly supplied by

fossil fuels, such as oil and coal. Therefore, subjects likely answered with a distorted

14
"GDP Per Capita (Current US$) - Brazil | Data". Data.Worldbank.Org, 2020,
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=BR. Accessed 25 Jan 2020.

16
understanding of facts due to having little knowledge on São Paulo’s energy supply and because

of events and concerns happening in richer countries. Moreover, many subjects confused the

purpose of the question regarding the diversification of the energy supply because many

associated the question solely with climate change. My questionnaire showed people are

generally concerned with environmental issues but haven’t really focused on the practical

questions and implications of this concern as it applies to São Paulo.

According to the Kuznets curve, because the US is more developed than Brazil, people

should be more concerned about the environment. This might explain why in the US,

democratic candidates running in the 2020 primary election have put energy security and

climate change as priorities and even some saying climate change is the highest issue in their

agenda15. However, the president of the United States hasn’t expressed concern over the issue.

To many in the US, climate change shouldn’t be a government priority; instead, it should be

addressed by the private sector and citizens. However, it is still a big topic of discussion in

political discourse and debates. Meanwhile, in Brazil, Facebook published some statistics

regarding topics discussed before the 2018 election, and they found that the

environment/climate change was the 8th most discussed topic on Facebook 16. There is no

question that there is an overwhelming majority of people in the US who believe that climate

change should be a main government priority, as compared to in Brazil.

15
Irfan, Umair, and David Roberts. "How Climate Change Ranks As A Priority For 2020 Democratic Presidential
Contenders". Vox, 2020, https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/10/14/20880675/2020-
democratic-debates-climate-change-priorities. Accessed 26 Jan 2020.
16
Valente, Jonas. "Saiba Quais São Os Temas Mais Debatidos Pelos Brasileiros No Facebook". Agência Brasil, 2020,
http://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/geral/noticia/2018-07/saiba-quais-sao-os-temas-mais-debatidos-pelos-brasileiros-
no-facebook. Accessed 26 Jan 2020.

17
Conclusion and Evaluation

After a thorough investigation, I concluded that the ethanol industry in São Paulo faces

many obstacles. The Serra separating the coastline from the interior of the State presents

obstacles to the transportation of ethanol. The infrastructure needed to transport ethanol is

highly complex and expensive. This makes it extremely expensive to operate an ethanol

business in SP. Small companies and start-ups face obstacles to entry and competition in the

local ethanol industry, leaving production to very few big corporations. When there are few

firms competing in an industry, prices tend to be high because of the lack of incentives. The

higher prices of ethanol make it less appealing as an energy source.

The production of ethanol is another obstacle to ethanol´s potential success as an

energy source. The wet season in Brazil and in SP curtails sugarcane plantation and production;

meanwhile, drawbacks in research and technology prevent the genetic modification of

sugarcane. Both of these factors contribute to the source’s inefficiency, which makes ethanol

less appealing as a major energy source. If ethanol is to compete with HEP and other energy

sources, it is paramount that the local industry finds ways of making production more efficient.

The Kuznets curve was an accurate predictor of people’s sentiment towards the urgency

for energy security and diversification. It stated that in less developed countries people were

less concerned and aware of the environment and issues about climate change and energy. This

proved to be correct. I found that subjects were generally unaware about the current reliance

on HEP, a renewable and non-pollutant energy source, and the need to supplement HEP with

18
other energy sources. Furthermore, there was an overwhelming majority of subjects who didn’t

believe that the government should prioritise energy security and diversification. If ethanol is

going to succeed as an energy source, more people need to be concerned and aware of energy

security and climate change, which isn’t currently the case in Brazil.

The investigation was a success; however, the reliability and sufficiency of some of the

primary information used in the research can be questioned. The interview with Mariangela

Grola from Raizen featured only one perspective of the industry. Therefore, some of the

information might have been too one-sided or subjective, to the detriment of other possible

perspectives regarding the object of this investigation. That said, the majority of statements

and conclusions arrived at this investigation were backed by secondary sources, which provided

more perspectives over certain topics.

The questionnaire used in the investigation also presented some issues. A majority of

the subjects that were questioned has some type of connection with me. Many of them are

people who I know or people who know people who I know. This is slightly problematic for a

questionnaire trying to analyse the opinion of a whole a state of 44 million people. This sample

could not be representative of the general opinion of people in the state regarding climate

change and energy. The questionnaire can further be questioned for the limited number of

subjects questioned - totalling 100 people, which isn’t enough to represent the full scope of the

population of São Paulo. Lastly, subjects questioned only came from the city of São Paulo;

therefore, the questionnaire could have failed to represent the opinions of people living in rural

areas, which might have altered the results. However, the questionnaire was able to question

people from different cultural, financial and social backgrounds that approximated the diversity

19
of the state of SP. Therefore, there isn’t a need to fully discard the interpretation and analysis

from the results of the questionnaire.

Appendix

Meyer, Amelia. "Sao Paulo (State)". Brazil.Org.Za, 2019, https://www.brazil.org.za/sao-

paulo.html. Accessed 24 Nov 2019.

“Sao Paulo Population 2019”. Worldpopulationreview.Com, 2019,

http://Worldpopulationreview.com/world-cities/sao-paulo-population/. Accessed 24 Nov 2019.

“Energy”. Saopauloglobal.sp.gov.br, 2019,

http://www.saopauloglobal.sp.gov.br/frameSetores.aspx?gp=10&IdIdioma=2&IdTrad=76.

Accessed 20 Feb. 2019.

Hesla, E. “Electricity in Brazil-Part 1”. Ieeexplore.ieee.org, 2019,

https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5711613. Accessed 20 Feb 2019.

"File:Brazil Topo.Jpg - Wikimedia Commons". Commons.Wikimedia.Org, 2020,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brazil_topo.jpg. Accessed 22 Jan 2020.

Bdpa.Cnptia.Embrapa.Br, 2020, https://www.bdpa.cnptia.embrapa.br/consulta/busca?

b=ad&id=293471&biblioteca=vazio&busca=autoria:%22HUECK,%20K.%22&qFacets=autoria:

%22HUECK,%20K.%22&sort=&paginacao=t&paginaAtual=1. Accessed 22 Jan 2020.

20
Agarwal, Prateek. "The Environmental Kuznets Curve | Intelligent Economist". Intelligent

Economist, 2020, https://www.intelligenteconomist.com/environmental-kuznets-curve/.

Accessed 25 Jan 2020.

Rodrigue, Jean-Paul. "Rail Transportation And Pipelines". The Geography Of Transport Systems,

2019, https://transportgeography.org/?page_id=1759. Accessed 20 Dec 2019.

Figure 2: "File:Brazil Topo.Jpg - Wikimedia Commons". Commons.Wikimedia.Org, 2019,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brazil_topo.jpg. Accessed 25 Nov 2019.

Figure 3: taken from Google Maps

Figure 4: Brainly. "Redirect Notice". Google.Com, 2019, https://www.google.com/url?

sa=i&source=images&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwiRgODWq7rmAhX0JLkGHfDfBmcQjRx6BAgBEAQ&url=

https%3A%2F%2Fbrainly.com.br%2Ftarefa

%2F12226171&psig=AOvVaw3lAug20bBnLi2GxgIg9cjU&ust=1576591603359697. Accessed 16

Dec 2019.

"Sugarcane". Sugarcanecrops.Com, 2020, http://www.sugarcanecrops.com/climate/. Accessed

26 Jan 2020.

Brown, J. (2019). Is sugar really bad for you? [online] Bbc.com. Available at:

http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20180918-is-sugar-really-bad-for-you [Accessed 16 Aug.

2019].

"GDP Per Capita (Current US$) - Brazil | Data". Data.Worldbank.Org, 2020,

https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=BR. Accessed 25 Jan 2020.

21
Irfan, Umair, and David Roberts. "How Climate Change Ranks As A Priority For 2020 Democratic

Presidential Contenders". Vox, 2020,

https://www.vox.com/energy-and-environment/2019/10/14/20880675/2020-democratic-

debates-climate-change-priorities. Accessed 26 Jan 2020.

Valente, Jonas. "Saiba Quais São Os Temas Mais Debatidos Pelos Brasileiros No

Facebook". Agência Brasil, 2020, http://agenciabrasil.ebc.com.br/geral/noticia/2018-07/saiba-

quais-sao-os-temas-mais-debatidos-pelos-brasileiros-no-facebook. Accessed 26 Jan 2020.

22