ModuleIII B Modeling

Module - III -A: Modelling
Course: Mechatronics - ME225002

Autumn 2022
Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath
Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, IITRAM
Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 1 / 56

Outline
Topics to be covered
What is modeling?
How to model various systems?

What is a System?
What is a system?
What is its use?

Systems
Definition(s)
A system is an operator that transforms an input signal u into a unique output signal y.
A system is a function mapping input signals into output signals.
Systems with one input and one output are called single-input, single-output (SISO) systems, while
the ones withmore than one input and output are called multi-input, multi-output (MIMO) systems.

Causality
Definition
A system G is said to be causal if, for any t0 ∈ R (resp. k0 ∈ Z) the output at time t0 (resp. at step k0 )
depends only on the input up to, and including, time t0 (resp. up to, and including, step k0 ).
Definition: Strictly Causal

A system is said to be strictly causal if the dependency is only on the input preceding t0 (resp., k0 ).
A system is causal if it is non-anticipatory, i.e., it cannot respond to inputs that will be applied in the future,
but only on past and present inputs. (Strictly causal systems only depend on past inputs).
Note that a static system is causal, but not strictly causal.

Significance of Causality
Most control systems that are implementable in practice are, in fact causal. In general, it is not possible to
predict the inputs that will b applied in the future.
However, there are some cases in which non-causal systems can act be interesting to study:
On-board sensors may provide “look-ahead” information.

For example, in a nap-of-the-Earth flying mission, the path to t next way point, and the altitude
profile, may be known in advance
Commands may belong to a pre-defined class.

For example, an autopilot that is programmed to execute an ac maneuver (e.g., a loop).
Off-line processing.
For example, a system that is used as a filter to smooth a certain signal, or possibly to “rip” a song
from a CD to an MP3 file.

Linearity
A system ST is linear if the following two properties hold
Homogeneity: If y is any signal and 𝛼 is any scalar, then
ST ( 𝛼y) = 𝛼ST (y)
Superposition: If y1 and y2 are any two signals, then
ST (y1 + y2 ) = ST (y1 ) + ST (y2 )
In simple words, linearity means:

Scaling before or after the system is the same.
Summing before or after the system is same.
Examples of linear systems: scaling system, differentiator, integrator, running average, time shift
etc..
Examples of nonlinear systems: sign detector, multiplier (sometimes), comparator, adaptive filter..

Linear Systems
Consider the signal x, output y and the system ST as the multiplier
Definition (Linear system (again))

A system is said a Linear System if, for any u1 , u2 , t0 , x0,1 , x0,2 , and any two real numbers 𝛼, 𝛽, the
following are satisfied:

x(t0 ) = x0,1 , x(t0 ) = x0,2
u(t) = u1 , t ≥ t0 → y1 , u(t) = u2 , t ≥ t0 → y2

x(t0 ) = 𝛼x0,1 + 𝛽x0,2
u(t) = 𝛼u1 + 𝛽u2 , t ≥ t0 → 𝛼y1 + 𝛽y2
How to Describe Systems?
Many systems in real world, such as ones in automotive and aerospace industry (safety-critical systems,
autopilots, cruise control, autonomous vehicles, ...), biology and medicine (cardiac assist devices,
anesthesia delivery, systems biology ...) etc. have nonlinear behavior. For ease of analysis, we analyze
these systems by some approximations as linear systems. (Note: In later lecture we will read how to do this
approximation.)
How to describe a linear system?

Many systems are described by a linear constant coefficient ordinary differential equation
dyn dyn−1 dy dxm dxm−1 dx

an n
+ an−1 n−1 + . . . a1 + a0 y(t) = bm m + bm−1 m−1 + . . . b1 + b0 x(t)
dt dt dt dt dt dt
with given initial conditions
yn−1 (0), yn−2 (0), . . . , y(0)
(which fixes y(t), given x(t)) where
n is called the order/ dimension of the system.
b0 , b1 , . . . , bm , a0 , a1 , . . . , an are the coefficients of the system.
This is important because such systems are linear when initial conditions are all zero.

How to describe a system: Example

How to describe a system: Example
x(t) is displacement of base; y(t) is displacement of mass

spring force is k(x − y); damping force is b( x¤ − y¤ )
Newton equation of motion is
m¥y = b( x¤ − y¤ ) + k(x − y)
Rewrite as second-order differential equation as
m¥y + b¤y + ky = b¤x + kx
This is a linear system.

System Theory
What next?
How do we design a model for a system?
What parts should we model?

Modeling for Autonomous Systems
What behavioral aspects of a system should we model for

making it autonomous?
Time Characteristics?
Frequency Characteristics?

What is State Space Modeling
Let’s consider a simple spring mass system:
Using Newton’s law we can easily express the dynamics of this

system as:
with x indicating position and x¥ indicating acceleration.

Let’s consider a simple spring mass system:
Using Newton’s law we can easily express the dynamics of this

system as:
with x indicating position and x¥ indicating acceleration.
Thus the way this system is changing i.e. acceleration is a function of its current state i.e. position.

Now what would happen if initialize the above system with some energy?

Here we initialize the system by

stretching the spring and letting
it go..

Acceleration
Velocity
Position
k
So what happens:
Here we initialize the system by Acceleration changes velocity, that changes position and in
stretching the spring and letting turn that changes acceleration back again.
it go.. The mass just oscillates back and forth, and as there is no
damping this continues for ever as energy is conserved.

Acceleration
Velocity
Position
k
So what happens:
Here we initialize the system by Acceleration changes velocity, that changes position and in
stretching the spring and letting turn that changes acceleration back again.
it go.. The mass just oscillates back and forth, and as there is no
damping this continues for ever as energy is conserved.
Similar to this mass-spring system we see how energy changes for any arbitrary system by analyzing the
relationship between
x¤ = f (x)
The energy gives us information about stability of a system. Typically if energy is decreasing over time, we
have a stable system and vice-versa.

What is State Space Modeling?
The way the system changes can also be influenced by external inputs i.e.
x¤ = f (x, u)
where u is an external input applied to the system.
This external input corresponds to an external energy which is either added or removed form the original
system over time.

x¤ = f (x, u)
system over time.
Thus time evolution of systems is a function of current state and external input.

x¤ = f (x, u)
system over time.
Thus time evolution of systems is a function of current state and external input.
State-space modeling is basically a representation which repackages the above time evolution dynamics of
the system in a more convenient way, i.e. by converting the set of higher order differential equations (2nd
order from mass spring example) into a set of first order ones for a system.

State Space Modelling: How?
For representing system dynamics in state space, following terms need to be understood:
State
External or Control Input
Output or Measurements
State Space

State Space Modelling: How?
For representing system dynamics in state space, following terms need to be understood:
State
External or Control Input
Output or Measurements
State Space
Example: Rechargeable flashlight – the state is the current state of charge of the battery. If you know that
state, then you do not need to know how that level of charge was achieved (assuming a perfect battery) to
predict the future performance of the flashlight.
But to consider all nonlinear effects, you might also need to know how many cycles the battery has
gone through
Key point is that you might expect a given linear model to accurately model the charge depletion
behavior for a given number of cycles, but that model would typically change with the number cycles

State Space: A Detailed Overview
State variables
State variables are those minimum set of variables that fully describe the system i.e. those variables which
can be used to fully predict future behaviour of the system.
For example consider the mass-spring example we had before,
For this system, assume there is no information available and we want

to determine what the states can be.
If the question is to predict where the system will be in next 1 second, then what information do we need?

State variables
State variables are those minimum set of variables that fully describe the system i.e. those variables which
can be used to fully predict future behaviour of the system.
For example consider the mass-spring example we had before,
For this system, assume there is no information available and we want

to determine what the states can be.
If the question is to predict where the system will be in next 1 second, then what information do we need?
We need information of system constants i.e. k and m
what external force is acting on the mass i.e. u
We also need to know the initial conditions i.e. is the mass moving and how hard is spring pulling
on the mass?
Answers to these questions would help us in predicting the system after 1 second.

Let’s try answering the questions, assuming now we have the information of the constants k and m.

So to know if the mass is moving or not, we can check its velocity. Based on energy conservation velocity
might be varying considering the mass will be moving back and forth.
To determine how the spring is pulling, we consider the spring force as a variable which can be expressed
as, spring force = k x distance/ position of mass relative to un-stretched string.

So to know if the mass is moving or not, we can check its velocity. Based on energy conservation velocity
might be varying considering the mass will be moving back and forth.
To determine how the spring is pulling, we consider the spring force as a variable which can be expressed
as, spring force = k x distance/ position of mass relative to un-stretched string.
Thus using position and velocity as two state variables we can predict future behavior of the system. Hence
it is a second order system.
But can we have more state variables? What about acceleration?

State variables: Energy point of view

Number of states of a system is equal to number of energy storage devices the system has. For example,
springs, dampers, inductors, capacitors, mass etc.


Considering our spring mass system, there are two energy storage elements:
spring stores potential energy
mass stores kinetic energy
So with time, the dynamics of system keeps evolving as energy transfer occurs between one element and
another, and eventually dissipates as heat energy.


Considering our spring mass system, there are two energy storage elements:
spring stores potential energy
mass stores kinetic energy
So with time, the dynamics of system keeps evolving as energy transfer occurs between one element and
another, and eventually dissipates as heat energy.
At any given time, if we know how much energy is present in each element
↓
We know information of the state x
Note that states don’t directly represent the energy of a system, they just indicate how energy can be
determined.
State space, in simple terms thus helps in giving information about energy is stored, and how transfer
occurs between elements.

LTI systems: State Space Representation

Considering continious, linear, time-invariant (LTI) systems, the state space (SS) representation is of the
form:
x¤ = Ax + Bu (1)
y = Cx + Du (2)
In the above description Eq.(1) is called the state equation and Eq.(2) is called the output equation.
Further,
x ∈ R n is the state vector x = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }
u ∈ R m are the inputs u = {u1 , u2 , . . . , um }
y ∈ R p are the outputs i.e. y = {y1 , y2 , . . . , yp }
A ∈ R n×n is the state transition matrix
B ∈ R n×m is the system input matrix
C ∈ R p×n is the output matrix
D ∈ R p×m is the feed-forward matrix
In the entire representation, the variable which appears the most is the state vector. But what are states?

State Equation
The state equation establishes relationship between state vector x, how the state vector changes x¤ , and the
external inputs u.
State vector represents all state variables of the system.

The rate of change of state vector x¤ is a linear combination of the state vector and the inputs applied
to the system.
Instead of focusing on the dynamics of whole system (i.e. as a high order differential equation), we
can now focus on the dynamics of each state and its relationship with other states.

State Equation
external inputs u.

to the system.
In simple words, using the state equation one can know

How x¤ 1 changes as a function of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn and u1 , u2 , . . . , um
·
How x¤ n changes as a function of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn and u1 , u2 , . . . , um

State Equation
external inputs u.

to the system.
In simple words, using the state equation one can know

·
How x¤ n changes as a function of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn and u1 , u2 , . . . , um
Note here, we only focus on first-derivative of each state. Thus we end up with a set of first-order
differential equations, which is a system of linear equations. These equations can be represented in matrix
form and are easily solvable.
The A matrix depicts how the states affect and interact with each other, while B matrix depicts how
external inputs affects the states.

Output Equation
Output vector y is a linear combination of the states and the inputs.

Note that states are not necessarily the outputs themselves.
C matrix determines how the system states are combined to get the outputs.
D matrix determines how the inputs can bypass the system evolution and affect only the outputs.
Significantly, the output equation does not show evolution of states with time i.e. its not a
differential equation.

Output Equation
Output vector y is a linear combination of the states and the inputs.

Note that states are not necessarily the outputs themselves.
C matrix determines how the system states are combined to get the outputs.
D matrix determines how the inputs can bypass the system evolution and affect only the outputs.
Significantly, the output equation does not show evolution of states with time i.e. its not a
differential equation.
A simple example for the D matrix, is the multiplier of the form:
y = 𝛼u
with 𝛼 denoting a scalar gain. For this system, A = B = C = 0 and there is no state evolution. But the D
matrix is the value of the gain of the multiplier i.e. D = 𝛼.
The output equation will assume significance later on when we read about feedback control design in future
lectures.

Example: Mass Spring Damper System
Consider the linear single-input, single-output, mass-spring-damper translational mechanical system as

shown below:
For this system, the input is force f (t) and the output is displacement y(t).

Based on Netwon’s law, we can write
Total Force = m a = spring force + damper force + external force
Now, Spring force = -ky (Hooke’s law), damper force = - b (Linear approximation of Stoke’s law). Then
using the FBD shown here,
we get the following differential equation
m¥y (t) + c¤y (t) + ky(t) = f (t)
As there are two storage elements, we can define the state variables as mass displacement and velocity i.e.


The state space equations can be finally written as:
Q: What are the A, B, C and D matrices?

Example:Mass-Spring Higher Order System
Consider the translational mechanical system shown below
Here,
y1 (t) and y2 (t) denote the displacement of the associated mass from its static equilibrium position
f (t) represents a force applied to the first mass m1
The parameters are masses m1 and m2
viscous damping coefficient c, and spring stiffnesses k1 and k2
The input is the applied force u(t) = f (t), and the outputs are taken as the mass displacements

Example:Mass-Spring Higher Order System
Newton’s second law applied to each mass yields the coupled second order differential equations:
Note that the energy-storage elements are the two springs and the two masses. Thus we we can define state
variables in terms of mass displacements and velocities as:
Now develop the state space model of the system.

Example: Mass-Spring Higher Order System
It was convenient earlier to define the second state variable as the difference in mass displacements,
x2 (t) = y2 (t)y1 (t), because this relative displacement is the amount the second spring is stretched.
But what if we took absolute position as the second state i.e. x2 (t) = y2 (t)?
Derive the state space model. Do the matrices A, B, C and D change?

Is state space model enough?
Can we get all information via state space model?
What are short comings of the SS model?
Any easier method of computing response?
Any other method of modeling system dynamics?

Response of System: Forced & Initial Condition
What is the objective after modeling system dynamics in SS form?
Response
For the modeled dynamics, we want to check how state evolution has occurred/ will occurred for various
input signals. Thus, we want to find the response or output of the system.

The response, i.e. output of system starting at time t0 , knowing the initial state x(t0 ) = x0 , and the present
and future input u(t), t ≥ t0 , there can be two cases:
Initial condition/ Homogeneous response
xic (t0 ) = x0
uic (t) = 0 ; t ≥ t0 , → yic
Forced response
xf (t0 ) = 0
uf (t) = u(t); t ≥ t0 , → yic

The response, i.e. output of system starting at time t0 , knowing the initial state x(t0 ) = x0 , and the present
and future input u(t), t ≥ t0 , there can be two cases:
Initial condition/ Homogeneous response
xic (t0 ) = x0
uic (t) = 0 ; t ≥ t0 , → yic
Forced response
xf (t0 ) = 0
uf (t) = u(t); t ≥ t0 , → yic
Clearly, x0 = xic + xf , and u = uic + uf , hence
y = yic + yf
i.e., we can always compute the output of a linear system by adding the output corresponding to zero input
and the original initial conditions, and the output corresponding to a zero initial condition, and the original
input.
In other words, we can study separately the effects of non-zero inputs and of non-zero initial conditions.
The complete case can be recovered from these two responses.
Frequency Domain Modeling
Consider the following differential equation dynamics:
d2 x(t) dx(t)
a1 + a2 + a3 x(t) = f (t)
dt2 dt
where a1 , a2 , a3 are some scalars, x(t) are the state(s) and f (t) is an external input. To find the response of
x(t) we have to solve the above ordinary differential equation (ODE). Can use SS technique. But:
Challenging to find with various f(t) and initial conditions
If the order of the system increases, very difficult to solve.

d2 x(t) dx(t)
a1 + a2 + a3 x(t) = f (t)
dt2 dt
As a solution, can we transform the ODE into another representation that is simpler?

d2 x(t) dx(t)
a1 + a2 + a3 x(t) = f (t)
dt2 dt
Convert time-domain ODE to frequency domain algebraic equation. How?

d2 x(t) dx(t)
a1 + a2 + a3 x(t) = f (t)
dt2 dt
Laplace Transform

d2 x(t) dx(t)
a1 + a2 + a3 x(t) = f (t)
dt2 dt
Laplace Transform
Using LT, the above ODE can be written as the following algebraic equation:
a1 s2 X (s) + a2 sX (s) + a3 X (s) = F (s)
where s is a complex number. Now we get an easy algebraic relationship between input F (s) and state (or
output) X(s).

d2 x(t) dx(t)
a1 + a2 + a3 x(t) = f (t)
dt2 dt
Laplace Transform
Using LT, the above ODE can be written as the following algebraic equation:
a1 s2 X (s) + a2 sX (s) + a3 X (s) = F (s)
where s is a complex number. Now we get an easy algebraic relationship between input F (s) and state (or
output) X(s).
Can we use this idea to model systems?

Role of Modelling in Mechatronic Systems
– Consider the following situation: A microprocessor switches on a motor.
How will the rotation of the motor shaft vary with time?
The speed will not immediately assume the full-speed value but will only attain that speed after some time.

– Consider the following situation: A microprocessor switches on a motor.
How will the rotation of the motor shaft vary with time?
The speed will not immediately assume the full-speed value but will only attain that speed after some time.
– Consider another situation: A hydraulic system is used to open a valve that allows water into a tank to
restore the water level to that required.
How will the water level vary with time?
The water level will not immediately assume the required level but will only attain that level after some
time.



Modeling for Mechanical Systems
To depict the time-varying behavior of systems resulting in motion:
All these building blocks can be considered to have a force as an input and a displacement as an output.

Modeling for Mechanical Systems
What next?
How do we represent the dynamic behavior of a system

having such elements?
Significance of such Models?

Bulding a Mechanical System Model
Considering that reaction force input from the ground is causing displacement of the driver in the car, can
the mechanical model of a suspension system be developed?

Bulding a Mechanical System Model
What about rotational dynamics?
For example, consider a Motor operating through gear trains to rotate loads, can the mechanical model be
developed?

Energy dissipation in Mechanical Modeling

Modeling for Electrical Systems
To depict the time-varying behavior of systems resulting in potential difference:
All these building blocks can be considered to have a potential difference/ current as an input and a
charge/current as an output.

To depict the time-varying behavior of systems resulting in potential difference:
All these building blocks can be considered to have a potential difference/ current as an input and a
charge/current as an output.

Formulate the dynamic model of this simple electrical system:

Electrical vs Mechanical: Analogous system modeling
Mechanical–electrical analogies are used to represent the function of a mechanical system as an equivalent
electrical system by drawing analogies between mechanical and electrical parameters.
Mechanical–electrical analogies are useful in general where the system includes transducers
between different energy domains.
Example: Mechanical parts of acoustic systems suffer from resonance effects which can be treated
via electrical filters.
Example: Mechanical filters—these use mechanical devices to implement an electrical function.
Both magnetostrictive and piezoelectric transducers are used in mechanical filters.

Modeling for Fluid Systems
Fluid systems can be considered to fall into two categories:
Hydraulic - Incompressible fluid
Air (Pneumatic) - Compressible
Analogous to electrical systems, hydraulic system building blocks are:
Fig: Hydraulic (a) Resistance (b) Capacitance (c) Inertance

Hydraulic Resistance
What?
Hydraulic resistance is the resistance to flow that occurs as a result of a liquid flowing through valves or
changes in pipe diameter.
The bigger the resistance, the bigger the pressure difference for a given rate of flow.
Hydraulic linear resistances occur with the orderly flow through capillary tubes and porous plugs but
non-linear resistances occur with flow through sharp-edged orifices or if the flow is turbulent.

Hydraulic Capacitance
What?
Hydraulic capacitance is the term used to describe energy storage with a liquid where it is stored in the
form of potential energy.
For such a capacitance, the rate of change of volume is equal to the difference between the
volumetric rate at which liquid enters the container and leaves the container.

Hydraulic Inertance
What?
Hydraulic inertance is the equivalent of inductance in electrical systems or a spring in mechanical systems.
To accelerate a fluid and so increase its velocity, a force is required
The net force acting on the liquid is equal to the pressure difference times the cross-sectional areas.

Pneumatic Resistance, Capacitance, Inertance
Pneumatic Resistance
Pneumatic resistance is defined as the resistance to the mass rate of flow of air. It relates the mass rate of
flow to the pressure difference accordingly.
Pneumatic Capacitance
Pneumatic capacitance C is due to the compressibility of the gas, and is comparable with the way in which
the compression of a spring stores energy.
Pneumatic Inertance
Pneumatic inertance is due to the pressure drop necessary to accelerate a block of gas.
For hydraulics the volumetric rate of flow and for pneumatics the the mass rate of flow is analogous
to the electric current in an electrical system.
For both hydraulics and pneumatics the pressure difference is analogous to the potential difference
in electrical systems.

Energy dissipation in Fluid Modeling

Hydraulic Modeling
Develop a hydraulic model for the following system showing a liquid entering and leaving a container.

Pneumatic Modeling
Develop a pneumatic model for the following system showing, a bellows which extends or contracts due to
pressure difference.

Hydraulic Modeling
Develop a hydraulic model for the following system:

Summarizing

Modelling for Mechatronic Systems: Case Studies
Infant Incubator: Despite the ambient temperature and humidity variations, infant body temperature
should be kept constant through the body’s self-thermoregulation process. This is done through the
regulation of the temperature, relative humidity, and the oxygen concentration within the incubator cabinet.
So what should we model?

Modelling for Mechatronic Systems: Case Studies
Infant Incubator: Despite the ambient temperature and humidity variations, infant body temperature
should be kept constant through the body’s self-thermoregulation process. This is done through the
regulation of the temperature, relative humidity, and the oxygen concentration within the incubator cabinet.
So what should we model?

ModuleIII B Modeling

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ModuleIII B Modeling

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module - III -A: Modelling

Course: Mechatronics - ME225002

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath

Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, IITRAM

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 1 / 56

How to model various systems?

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 2 / 56

What is its use?

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 3 / 56

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 4 / 56

Definition: Strictly Causal

Note that a static system is causal, but not strictly causal.

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 5 / 56

On-board sensors may provide “look-ahead” information.

Commands may belong to a pre-defined class.

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 6 / 56

Homogeneity: If y is any signal and 𝛼 is any scalar, then

ST ( 𝛼y) = 𝛼ST (y)

Superposition: If y1 and y2 are any two signals, then

ST (y1 + y2 ) = ST (y1 ) + ST (y2 )

In simple words, linearity means:

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 7 / 56

Definition (Linear system (again))

How to describe a linear system?

dyn dyn−1 dy dxm dxm−1 dx

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 9 / 56

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 10 / 56

x(t) is displacement of base; y(t) is displacement of mass

Rewrite as second-order differential equation as

m¥y + b¤y + ky = b¤x + kx

This is a linear system.

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 11 / 56

How do we design a model for a system?

What parts should we model?

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 12 / 56

What behavioral aspects of a system should we model for

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 13 / 56

Let’s consider a simple spring mass system:

Using Newton’s law we can easily express the dynamics of this

with x indicating position and x¥ indicating acceleration.

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 14 / 56

Let’s consider a simple spring mass system:

Using Newton’s law we can easily express the dynamics of this

with x indicating position and x¥ indicating acceleration.

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 14 / 56

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 15 / 56

Here we initialize the system by

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 15 / 56

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 15 / 56

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 15 / 56

where u is an external input applied to the system.

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 16 / 56

where u is an external input applied to the system.

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 16 / 56

where u is an external input applied to the system.

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 16 / 56

External or Control Input

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 17 / 56

External or Control Input

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 17 / 56

For example consider the mass-spring example we had before,

For this system, assume there is no information available and we want

Dr. Jagat Jyoti Rath Mechatronics 18 / 56

For example consider the mass-spring example we had before,