Masayoshi Nakashima

Professor
Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University
Gokasho, Uji, Kyoto 611-0011 JAPAN
Director
Director, Hyogo Earthquake Engineering Research Center
(E-Defense), National Research Institute for Earth Science and
Disaster Mitigation (NIED)
1501-21, Nishikameya, Mitsuta, Shinjimicho,
Miki, Hyogo, 673-0515 JAPAN
Steel structures, Experimental techniques, Base-isolation

My personal acquaintance with Luis began in 1987, when I visited Mexico City for the first
time. I was a member of a Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) team, in Mexico to
examine the possibilities of Mexican-Japanese collaboration on earthquake engineering
research. One day, the team visited Luis’ office, and I shook hands with him. I am sure that
he does not remember that occasion, but I recall vividly the striking modesty and kindness of
this highly respected researcher in the earthquake engineering community. More than fifteen
years later we met again, this time in Kobe, Japan. He was there as a distinguished guest at the
inauguration ceremony of E-Defense, the world largest shaking table, on the outskirts of Kobe.
It was a two-day ceremony, featuring an inauguration party held on January 15, 2005 and the
inauguration’s international symposium held on January 16, 2005. He was a keynote speaker
at the symposium, delivering a very solid message about the past accomplishments, present
problems, and future challenges of earthquake engineering and expressed great expectations
for the contribution of E-Defense to earthquake disaster mitigation worldwide. We are very
thankful to Luis for his strong support of E-Defense. On behalf of Luis’s many Japanese
friends, I express my sincere appreciation of his long-time leadership in the advancement of
earthquake engineering, and wish him continuing health and leadership.

Masayoshi Nakashima
August 10, 2005

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 TEST ON COLLAPSE BEHAVIOR OF STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

ABSTRACT

Damage observed in the 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu (Kobe) earthquake

highlighted the importance of accumulating real data by experimentation
regarding the earthquake response, damage, and collapse of structures.
Full-scale tests to complete collapse in real time are indispensable. Four
series of such tests conducted by the writer are presented, including complete
failure tests applied to steel beams, columns, and connections, and full-scale
tests applied to a steel moment frame. A newly built large shaking table
owned by E-Defense is introduced, and its mission, strength, and status are
outlined. Ongoing research projects including the NEES/E-Defense program
are described.

Lessons Learned from 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu (Kobe) Earthquake

The 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu (Kobe) earthquake caused devastating damage to

buildings and infrastructure in Kobe and its vicinity [Architectural 1995, Kinki 1995,
Nakashima et al 1998a, Nakashima 2001]. The earthquake taught us lessons aboutstructural,
economical, societal, cultural, and human factors. Since the earthquake, much research and
development has been implemented for the mitigation of earthquake disasters. The 1995
Kobe earthquake, however, was not the sole motivation. Japan is destined to suffer from large
earthquakes on a regular basis. Figure 1 shows a map of Japan, and the bold line indicates
an ocean ridge called the Nankai trough, running deep along the Pacific Coast of Japan. The
trough is divided into three regions, Tokai, Tonankai, and Nankai, reading from east to west.
Slips and ruptures have occurred periodically in these regions.

Figure 1. Nankai Trough and periodical large earthquakes.

Table 1 shows the historical earthquakes related to the slips and ruptures of the three
regions [Council 2004]. In some earthquakes, one or two of the regions ruptured; all three

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regions ruptured simultaneously in other cases. The frequency of occurrence was between
one hundred and one hundred and fifty years. Observing the pattern of these previous
earthquakes, Japan is to be hit by large earthquakes in the middle of the twenty-first century.
Contemporary science is not able to predict the date and time of the next rupture precisely,
but the public throughout Japan is fully aware that within several decadesJapan will be hit by
a very large earthquake.

Table 1. Historical records of Nankai, Tonankai, and Nankai ruptures.

Year Earthquake Toka Tonankai Nankai
1605 Keicho ○ ○
1701 Hoei ○ ○ ○
1854 Ansei ○ ○ ○
1944 Tonankai ○
1946 Nankai ○
20xx NEXT ? ? ?

In 2005, the Council of National Disaster Mitigation, chaired by the Prime Minister of
Japan, disclosed an estimate of the damage that Japan will sustain if the Nankai trough were
ruptured again [Council 2004]. Table 2 shows the damage statistics in terms of the number
of houses and buildings collapsed, the death toll, and direct capital loss for various
combinations of ruptures. Should the three regions rupture all together together, about forty
million people, equivalent to one-third of the entire population of Japan, would be affected,
about one million houses and buildings would collapse, about twenty-five thousand people
might lose their lives, and the economic loss might amount to close to one trillion US dollars.
As Tables 1 and 2 clearly indicate, the earthquake disaster was, is, and will remain the most
critical national problem in Japan.

Table 2. Damage estimates for possible Nankai, Tonankai, and Nankai ruptures.
Tokai Tonankai Tokai 1995
& Nankai & Tonankai Kobe
& Nankai
Collapse 460 629 940 105
(x 1000)
Death 9,200 17,800 24,700 6,400
Loss 260 - 370 380 - 570 530 - 810 100
(billion $)

Needs of Structural Test

Regarding the 1995 Kobe earthquake, the writer is convinced that the following two
lessons are most notable in the structural aspect.

(1) Cities and towns throughout Japan have large stocks of old buildings and infrastructural
systems whose seismic capacity is insufficient. To prepare for future large earthquakes, it
is crucial to accurately evaluate their existing seismic capacities and then to retrofit and
rehabilitate them accordingly.
(2) Much larger shaking than that contemplated in current seismic design is known to be
possible. Evaluation of the reserve seismic capacity of existing buildings and
infrastructural systems, development of design and construction technologies to enhance
the seismic capacity, and implementation of these technologies for real design and

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 construction are critical.

As evidence of (1), Fig. 2 shows a photo taken in downtown Kobe immediately after
the 1995 Kobe earthquake. Two RC buildings, standing side by side, disclosed a clear
contrast in damage; the one on the right side lost the third story completely, while the one on
the left side looked nearly intact from the exterior. The ages of the structures were
significantly different. The severely damaged building was nearly forty years old and had
been constructed according to obsolete design and construction practices, whereas the
undamaged building was relatively new. This distinctive contrast demonstratesthat
earthquake-resisting capacity can differ significantly among structures.

Figure 2. A contrast of damage observed in 1995 Kobe earthquake.

As evidence of (2), Fig. 3 shows the pseudo-acceleration spectra of eleven strong

motions recorded in the 1995 Kobe earthquake [6], together with the design spectrum
stipulated for large earthquakes in the current Japanese seismic design code. It is evident
that quite a few records possess significantly larger pseudo-accelerations than the code
acceleration. Ground motions that would exceed those considered in the seismic code were
also obtained in other recent earthquakes, e.g. the 1999 Tottoriken-Seibu, 2000 Geiyo, and
2004 Chuetsu earthquakes.

25

20
Sa (m/s/s)

15 Code spectrum

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Period (s)
Figure 3. Pseudo accelerations of strong motions recorded in 1995 Kobe earthquake.

In light of lessons (1) and (2) cited above, it is crucial to identify the state of complete

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collapse in which the structure no longer can sustain gravity and as a result will kill people in
the structure. This need is relevant to the characterization of the collapse margin, defined as
the reserve capacity that the structure possesses for loads greater than that specified in
seismic code up to the collapse. The collapse margin is difficult to characterize because of
the scarcity of real data. Severe earthquake ground motions that would cause structure
collapses occur very rarely, which makes it difficult to monitor or measure the real behavior
of structures subjected to such events. The interactions between members and system
behavior are known to be complex; hence tests on a structural system that involve force
redistribution due to member yielding and plastification are indispensable. Building
structures, however, are massive, and it is difficult to fabricate and load them in the
laboratory, while miniature models are known to fail to duplicate real building behavior
because of lack of similitude. Advances in numerical analysis methods, particularly those
using the finite element method, are notable, but the analyses insufficiently duplicate the
behavior of structures to collapse, which involves significant material nonlinearity, strength
and stiffness degradations, and topology changes such as fracture, separation, and
detachment.

For the past ten years, much research has been conducted in the name of
“performance-based seismic design” on the development of innovative systems by which to
enhance the functionality, operability, and safety of structures. Base-isolation and passive
dampers are typical examples; indeed, numerous inventions have been proposed toward this
end. Ll such research and development must, however, be checked for expected actual
performance before being transferred with confidence to real design and construction
practices. Here, experimentation again plays a very important role to provide real data for
performance checking. The accumulation of such data is not sufficient, because tests in the
full-scale are rare due to limitations of loading devices. Furthermore, not a few materials
used for new inventions are affected significantly by the rate of loading, which aggravates the
situation because of the scarcity of facilities that are capable of conducting large dynamic
loading tests on a realistic scale.

The need for real data obtained by experimentation is deemed extremely urgent for the
advancement of earthquake engineering, particularly for issues pertinent to collapse (relative
to mildly inelastic, rather stable action), rate-of-loading (dynamic loading relative to
quasi-static loading), realistic-scale (relative to miniature models), and structural systems
(relative to components)

Example Tests Conducted to Reproduce Complete Failure and Collapse

Over the past few years, the writer and his group have conducted tests that focused
directly on the issues of collapse in realistically scales structural systems. They are
summarized below.

Behavior to Complete Failure of Steel Beams Subjected to Cyclic Loading [Liu et al

2003]

An experimental study was conducted on steel beams subjected to cyclic loading to

extremely large deformations (Fig. 4).

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Figure 4. Test setup for reproduction of complete failure of steel beams.

The study aimed to collect information on beam hysteretic behavior up to complete

failure, in the belief that such information is needed for the establishment of
performance-based design. Test beams were about 1/10-scale models, and the effects of RBS
details and lateral braces arranged at beam top flanges were examined. Behavior up to the
cyclic loading amplitude of 0.06 rad was commensurate with behavior observed in many
previous studies [Fig. 5(a)]. Behavior in extremely large deformations from 0.1 to 0.5 rad
amplitudes was significantly different from the behavior in large deformations (to 0.06 rad
amplitude) (Fig. 6). The RBS beam failed earlier in the reduced cross-section, primarily due
to strain concentrations at the section [Fig. 5(b)]. Lateral braces also caused strain
concentrations, leading to earlier fractures. Significant increase in the maximum resistance
was observed in extremely large deformations for beams not braced laterally. Tensile axial
forces induced in the beam according to the geometry change were responsible for the
increase.

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Behavior of beams in large deformations: (a) Lateral torsional buckling; (b)
fracture.

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 M/Mp
M/M
p
2
2
11

00

-1
-1
θ (rad)
-2
-2
-0.5 0 0.5
-0.5 0 θx (rad) 0.5

Figure 6. End moment – end rotation relationships to complete failure.

Instability and Complete Failure of Steel Columns Subjected to Cyclic Loading

[Nakashima and Liu 2005]

In a testing system designed for large deformations, structural columns were loaded to
complete failure, defined as either complete separation of the column or inability to sustain
the prescribed axial load. The test system consisted of very large stroke quasi-static jacks,
digital displacement transducers that can ensure accurate measurement of large deformations,
hydraulic pump units capable of controlling oil flow, controllers that control the jack motion,
and separate personal computers for operating the jack controllers and for supervising and
measuring data (Fig. 7). These components were connected on-line for data and signal
operations, which enables automatic and accurate load control for tests that lead specimens to
complete failure. Six columns having a square tube cross-section were tested in cyclic
loading conditions, with axial load and column length as major parameters. The
load-deformation relationships obtained from the tests were presented in detail, and
relationships among the deformation capacity, failure mode, slenderness, and axial load were
discussed (Fig. 8). An intermediate axial load of 30% of the yield axial load was effective
in retarding the occurrence and growth of cracks, resulting in larger deformation capacity to
complete failure. Finite element analysis accurately duplicated the experimental behavior up
to a large inelastic range including material yielding, strain hardening, and local buckling. It
failed to simulate the experimental behavior in a very large deformation range where the
column surfaces crashed and contacted each other (Fig. 19). More experimental data is
strongly needed on the behavior of structural systems and elements at and near complete
failure.

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Figure 7. Test setup for reproduction of complete failure of steel columns.

Figure 8. Test specimens at end of loading: (a) No axial load; (b) medium axial load; (c)
large axial load.

Figure 9. Comparison with test and finite element analyses: (a) Slip option; (b) glue
option.

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Tests of Welded Beam-Column Subassemblies I: Global Behavior and II: Detailed
Behavior [Nakashima et al 1998b, Suita et al 1998]

Cyclic loading tests were applied to fourteen full-scale beam-column subassemblages

(Fig. 10). Efforts undertaken in the Japanese steel community in response to damage
observed at welded beam-to-column connections in the 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu (Kobe)
Earthquake were introduced. The major test parameters chosen in this study were: type of
steel, type of connection, type of weld access holes, type of weld tabs, and type of loading.
The test results were presented in terms of the ductility capacity of the test specimens. Major
findings were as follows. All specimens developed plastic rotations and cumulative plastic
rotations of 0.03 rad and 0.3 rad. respectively, suggesting that the ductility capacity of the
specimens was sufficient in light of present Japanese seismic design. Dynamic loading had
no detrimental effect on ductility capacity (Fig. 11). A significant rise in temperature
observed in the dynamic loading tests was the likely cause of the larger ductility capacity and
more ductile fracture. Fracture surfaces were examined from fractography analysis.
Changes in material hardness before and after the test are also investigated, and the
correlation between the hardness increase and cumulative plastic strain was quantified (Fig.
12). Modified details for the weld access hole had the effect of preventing cracks initiating
from the toe of the weld access hole.

Figure 10. Test setup for fracture of steel beam-to-column connections.

(a) (b)
Figure 11. End moment – end rotation relationships: (a) Quasi-static loading; (b) dynamic
loading.

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 (a) (b)
Figure 12. Fracture surfaces: (a) Brittle fracture in quasi-static loading; (b) ductile fracture
in dynamic loading.

Test on Full-Scale Three-Story Steel Moment Frames and Assessment of Numerical

Analysis to Trace Inelastic Cyclic Behavior [Nakashima et al 2006]

A test on a full-scale model of a three-story steel moment frame (Fig. 13) was
conducted, with the objectives of acquiring real information about the damage and serious
strength deterioration of a steel moment frame under cyclic loading, studying the interaction
between the structural frame and nonstructural elements, and examining the capacity of
numerical analyses commonly used in seismic design to trace the real cyclic behavior. The
outline of the test structure and test program was presented, results on the overall behavior
were given, and correlation between the experimental results and the results of pre-test and
post-test numerical analyses was discussed. Pushover analyses conducted prior to the test
predicted the elastic stiffness and yield strength very reasonably. With proper adjustment of
strain hardening after yielding and composite action, numerical analyses were able to
duplicate the cyclic behavior of the test structure with great accuracy up to a drift angle of
1/25 (Fig. 14). The analyses could not trace the cyclic behavior for larger drifts, in which
serious strength deterioration occurred due to the fractures of beams and anchor bolts and the
progress of column local buckling (Fig. 15).

“South” “North”
750 3,700 3,5001,300

3C1 3C1 3 C1 3 C2 C1
3

3CG1 3G 2 3G1 3G1

2 C1 C1
2 2 C1 2 C2 C1
2
9,250

CG1
2 2 G2 2G1 G1
2

1 C1 C1
1 1 C1 1 C2 C1
1

2,850 1,500 8,250 6,000 6,000

3,975 12,000

2C1 2 G1 2 C2 2 G1 2 C1
“North”
G2

G2

G2
B1

B1
2

8,250

a a a a

C1 G1 C2 G1 C1
1,500

2 2 2 2 2
“South”
CG1
B3
B3

CG1
CG1

B2 B2
2

2
2

6,000 6,000
12,000

Figure 13. A three-story full-scale steel moment frame

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Figure 14. Comparison of test and analysis for behavior with mild plasticity.

Figure 15. Comparison of test and analysis for behavior with serious strength deterioration.

Development and Completion of E-Defense

Over the last ten years, the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster
prevention (NIED) had been constructing a shaking table facility, known as E-Defense
[Hyogo 2005]. E-Defense was completed in March 2005, and its operation started in April
2005. The Hyogo Earthquake Engineering Research Center was established on October 1,
2004, to manage research projects using E-Defense and to operate and maintain the facility.
E-Defense has the unique capacity to experiment with life-size buildings and infrastructural
systems in real earthquake conditions, and stands as a tool of ultimate verification. With this
feature, E-Defense should help expedite the transfer of various research outputs into the
practice of earthquake disaster mitigation.

Figure 16 is a bird’s eye view of E-Defense, located in a city called Miki on the north of
Kobe City. The heart of the facility is a jumbo shaking table in the center of the site. The
table is attached to five actuators in each horizontal direction and supported by fourteen
actuators installed vertically underneath the table (Fig.17). Table 3 shows the major
specifications of the table. The table is 20 meters by 15 meters in the plan dimension. It
can accommodate a specimen up to a weight of 12 MN (1,200 metric ton). The unique feature
of the table is that can produce shaking of a velocity of two meters per second and a
displacement of one meter in the two horizontal directions simultaneously. As far as the

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capacity is concerned, the table owned by E-Defense appears to be the largest shaking table
in the world.

Figure 16. A bird eye view of E-Defense.

Figure 17. Shaking table of E-Defense.

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Talbe 3. Major specifications of shaking table.

3D Full-Scale Earthquake Testing Facility

Payload 12 MN (1,200 tonf)
Size 20 m x 15 m
Driving Type Accumulator Charge
Electro-Hydraulic Servo Control
Shaking Direction X & Y Horizontal Z Vertical
Max. Acceleration >9 m/s/s >1.5 m/s/s
(at Max. Loading)
Max. Velocity 2 m/s 0.7 m/s
Max. Displacement 1m 0.5 m
Max. Allowable Overturning Yawing
Moment Moment Moment
150 MN x m 40 MN x m

Construction of E-Defense was in near completion in the fall of 2004, and since that
time a series of tests on performance calibration have been conducted, without specimens in
the first phase and with real-size specimens in the second phase. Figures 18 shows
examples for the table performance check. One shows how the table motion was duplicated
with the “basic control,” while the other shows how it was improved by the application of a
specially designed “advanced control.” In both cases, the JMA Kobe record (6.17 m/s/s,
8.18 m/s/s, and 3.32 m/s/s in the maximum acceleration of the EW, NE, and vertical
components), a strong motion recorded at the 1995 Kobe earthquake, was applied to the table.
The basic control was found to be satisfactory, and the advanced control augumented the
accuracy.

Figure 18. Reproduction of ground motion record (JMA Kobe record).

Regarding the performance test with specimens, the very first application was made for
a two-story wood house tested on January 15 and 16, 2005 at the inauguration ceremony of
E-Defense. The house had two stories, with ten meters by eight meters in plan and ten
meters in height (Fig.19). The JMA Kobe record shook the house in all three dimensions.
The total weight of the specimen was about 800 kN, far lighter than the maximum weight
accommodated by the table; hence the control was easy, and the test ran successfully. The
test was carried out for demonstration to the public, and the specimen was designed to be
very earthquake-resistant (to avoid any inconvenience). Accordingly, the specimen revealed

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only minor damage even for the unscaled JMA Kobe record.

Figure19. A two-story wood house tested at E-Defense.

The ongoing test featured a five-story steel braced frame (Fig. 20) on the table. The
frame is twenty meters tall, fifteen meters by ten meters in plan, 6MN in weight, and built
very strongly so that the frame would remain elastic even under the strongest shaking. The
natural frequency of the frame is 5.0 Hz when all braces are installed, and 3.0 Hz when they
are removed. According to the performance test of the table without any specimen, the
resonant frequency of the table system (reflecting the table dynamics) is about 4.4 Hz. The
two natural periods assigned to the specimen sandwich the table resonance period; hence the
overall performance can be checked even in the most difficult circumstances of control.
Furthermore, an overturning moment approximately equal to 150 MN x meter is to be
imposed onto the table, which is another challenge for the table control. The test is ongoing
at the time of this writing, and more details will be published soon.

Figure 20. A five-story steel frame for tests of table performance checking.

Ongoing Projects at E-Defense

E-Defense participates in a comprehensive research project named “Special Project for

Mitigation of Earthquake Disaster in Urban Areas” sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology, nicknamed MEXT. The project
started in 2002 and will extend for a period of five years. Four major thrust areas have been

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established; first is the evaluation of earthquakes and strong motions; second is the evaluation
and enhancement of the earthquake resistance of structures; third is the simulation for disaster
responses; and fourth is the integration of the first three projects for the enhancement of
better countermeasures to be taken by our society. Among the four areas, E-Defense deals
primarily with the second category.

In the project, three targets were chosen. One is wood houses, another is reinforced
concrete buildings, and the third comprises soils and foundations. There are sensible
reasons for the choice of the three targets. Wood is by far the most popular material for
Japanese houses. People are always very keen about the safety of their shelters against
earthquakes. Reinforced concrete is used most commonly for apartment buildings and
schools. This building type is also very involved in the daily life of the Japanese public.
Soils in particular liquefaction and lateral spreading are of serious concern throughout Japan.

At the time of writing, the project has completed its first three years. E-Defense was
not available until 2005; hence a variety of tests in this project were conducted using other
facilities. Full-scale tests are scheduled in 2005 and 2007 for the three types of structures
(Fig. 21).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 21. Three tests scheduled at E-Defense for 2005 to 2007: (a) Wood houses; (b) RC
frame; (c) soil-structure interaction.

Figure 22(a) shows a 1/3-scale wall-frame, fabricated as a replica of the first full-scale
RC test to be tested in the winter of 2005 to 2006 at E-Defense. The 1/3 scale frame was
sixstoreys tall, with two by three spans in plan and a total weight of 1.5 MN. The test was
conducted last winter on the shaking table owned by NIED at Tsukuba, Japan. The frame
was shaken to a complete first-story collapse, as shown in Fig. 22(b).

(a) (b)
Figure 22. One-third scale six-story RC frame: (a) Before test; (b) after test exhibiting

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 first-story collapse.

Collaboration Between E-Defense and NEES

Stimulated in 1995 by the Kobe earthquake, discussions and plans for the construction
of E-Defense bore fruit after ten years, and the facility was completed in March 2005. The
United States of America also implemented a national project on the upgrade of experimental
facilities used for earthquake engineering, named the George E. Brown, Jr. Network for
Earthquake Engineering Simulation (NEES), completed in the i fall of 2004 [George 2005].
Earthquake disaster and its mitigation is a very critical problem in both countries; NEES and
E-Defense facilities have similar missions and functions in research on the mitigation of
earthquake disasters, and the two countries have a very long history of collaboration on
earthquake engineering research and practices. In consideration of this, a very natural
outcome is research collaboration through complementary usage of the two facilities.

Since the spring of 2004, the research communities in the United States and Japan have
conducted an extensive discussion regarding visible and close research collaboration. The
two communities met a few times including three planning meetings held in April 2004 in
Kobe, July 2004 in Washington DC, and January 2005 in E-Defense, respectively. To
strengthen and formalize the collaboration, a memorandum of understanding (MOU) between
NSF and Japanese Ministry of Education (MEXT), and another MOU between NEES and
NIED are being prepared. As a result of the series of meetings, the parties reached an
agreement that “steel buildings” and “bridges” would be the immediate targets of research
collaboration between the two countries (Fig. 23). In addition, NEES and E-Defense have
formalized collaboration on the advancement of cyberinfrastructure in both countries.
Details of the collaboration can be found in [13].

(a) (b)
Figure 23. Structures considered in NEES/E-Defense joint project: (a) steel frame; (b)
bridge.

E-Defense and International Collaboration

As indicated in the previous sections, E-Defense is a very large shaking table, probably
the largest in the world, but NIED is in no manner boasting about the size of E-defense.
NIED fully understands that “large” is not synonymous with “good.” After all, good and
useful research is achieved only through intellect and enthusiasm of the participants in the
test. To this end, E-Defense tries its best to recruit as many experts available in Japan as
possible for research projects conducted at E-Defense, and wishes to implement

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community-based research that involves all layers of researchers and professionals engaged
in earthquake engineering. E-Defense also has a goal of positive and effective collaboration
within the international community of earthquake engineering to collect and make the best
use of the intellect and enthusiasm throughout the world and to collaborate on the mitigation
of earthquake disasters in all the regions that are prone to earthquake disasters.

References

Architectural Institute of Japan (1995). Preliminary Reconnaissance Report of the 1995

Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake, 216pp.

Council of National Disaster Migitation (2004). http://www.bousai.go.jp/jishin/chubou/

George E. Brown, Jr. Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation (NEES) (2005).
http://www.nees.org/index.php

Hyogo Earthquake Engineering Research Center, National Research Institute for Earth Science and
Disaster Prevention (NIED) (2005). http://www.bosai.go.jp/hyogo/ehyogo/index.html

Kinki Branch of the Architectural Institute of Japan (1995). Reconnaissance report on damage to steel
building structures observed from the 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake, Steel Committee, Osaka (in
Japanese with attached abridged English version).

Liu, D., Nakashima, M., and Kanao, I. (2003). Behavior to complete failure of steel beams subjected
to cyclic loading,” Journal of Engineering Structures, 25(3), 525-535.

Nakashima, M., Inoue, K., and Tada, M. (1998a). Classification of Damage to Steel Buildings
Observed in the 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake. Engineering Structures, 20,(4-6), 271-281.

Nakashima, M., et al. (1998b). Tests of welded beam-column subassemblies I: Global behavior,"
Journal of Structural Engineering, 124(11), 1236-1244.

Nakashima, M., Matsumiya, T., and Asano, K. (2000). Comparison in earthquake responses of steel
moment frames subjected to near-fault strong motions recorded in Japan, Taiwan, and the U.S.,
International Workshop on Annual Commemoration of Chi-Chi Earthquake, Taiepi, Taiwan, 112-123.

Nakashima, M. (2001). APPENDIX C. Overview of Damage to Steel Building Structures Observed in

the 1995 Kobe Earthquake, Past Performance of Steel Moment-Frame Buildings in Earthquakes,
Federal Emergency Management Agency, Report FEMA-355E, C-1-C24.

Nakashima, M. and Liu, D. (2005). Instability and complete failure of steel columns subjected to
cyclic loading, Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, 131(6), 559-567.

Nakashima, M., Matsumiya, T., Suita, K., and Liu. D. (2006). Test on full-scale three-story steel
moment frames and assessment of numerical analysis to trace inelastic cyclic behavior,” Journal of
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics (accepted for publication).

Suita, K., Nakashima, M, and Morisako, K. (1998). Tests of welded beam-column subassemblies II:
Detailed behavior, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 124(11), 1245-1252.

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