Basic Electronics Engineering

Lab report
BY

PRIYANSHU RANE

MIS- 112116032

Branch- ECE

Batch- 2021-25

Page 1 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

List of the experiments

Sr.no Name of the experiments Page
1 Study Familiarization with Resistor, Capacitor & Indicator 2-7
2 To verify Ohm's Law 8-10
3 To study VI Characteristics of a Diode 11-14
4 To design and verify Half Wave Rectification 15-16

5 To design and verify Full Wave Rectification 17-20

6 To design and verify Capacitive Rectification 21-23

7 To design and verify Zener Diode-Voltage Regulator 24-27

8 To study BJT Common Emitter Characteristics 28-30

9 To study BJT Common Base Characteristics 31-35

10 To design and verify Studies on BJT CE Amplifier 36-37

Name- Priyanshu Rane

MIS – 112116032

Experiments 1
Page 2 of 37
Study Familiarization with Resistor, Capacitor
and Inductor

1. 1 Resistor
Objectives of the Experiment-
1. Explain the function.
2. Unit of the resistors.
3. Types of the resistors.

 Function of the resistors-

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that

implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic
circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels,
to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines,
among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of
electrical power as heat may be used as part of motor controls, in power
distribution systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors have
resistances that only change slightly with temperature, time or operating
voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as
a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light,
humidity, force, or chemical activity.

 Unit of the resistors-

 Resistance of the resistor is measured in the “ohm”

 1000 ohm resistor is shown as 1k ohms and 1000k ohms resistor is
shown as 1M ohms.

Name- Priyanshu Rane

MIS – 112116032

 Type of the resistors-

Page 3 of 37
1.Carbon film resistor-

 Most general purpose, cheap resistor.

 Tolerance of Resistance value is usually +/- 5%.
 Power ratings of 1/8 W ,1/4 W and ½ W are usually used
 Con: Tend to be electrically noisy.

2.Metal Film Resistor

 It is used when higher tolerance is needed, i.e. more value.

 They have about +/- 0.05% tolerance.

3.Wire Wound Resistors

 A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and

 because of this they can be manufactured to precise values.
 Also, high wattage resistors can be made by thick wirematerial.
 Wire wound resistors in a ceramic case are called as ceramic Name-
resistors.
Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

1.2 capacitor-
Page 4 of 37
Objectives of the experiment-

After the end of the experiment a student would learn following-

1.Provide the definition of the capacitor its name and unit.
2. Explain how a capacitor can be constructed to give particular value of the
capacitance.
3.Explain why a capacitor has maximum working voltage.

 What is capacitor –

It is one of the passive components like resistor. Capacitor is also known as

condenser. Capacitor is generally used to store the charge. The charge is stored
in the form of “electrical field”. Capacitors play a major role in many electrical
and electronic circuits.

 Construction of the capacitor-

The basic construction of all capacitors is of two parallel metals plates separated
by an insulating material (the dielectric). An insulator is a material which is
non-conducting. It shows a high resistance to letting to electric used is air. Other
types are oil or paper. Real capacitors are made by taking thin strips of metal
Name- Priyanshu Rane
foul and the appropriate dielectric material and sandwiching them together.
MIS – 112116032

Capacitors achieve large area (thus large capacitance) by doing something

tricky, such as putting dielectric between 2 layers of metal foul and rolling it in
this figure.

Page 5 of 37
  Capacitance

A capacitor is so called because it has the capacity to store charge- just

like a beaker storing a liquid. Capacitors are marked with a value which
indicates their capacitance- their ability to store charge. Capacitance can
be thought of as the “electrical capacity” of that body.

The unit of the capacitance is “Farad”.

Note- Maximum Working Voltage

If the voltage across a capacitor is too high, the insulator between the
plates fails to insulate and charge passes from one plate to the other.
Name- Priyanshu Rane
Capacitor are usually marked with the maximum working voltage to help
the user avoid situation. MIS – 112116032

A good rule of thumb is to never place a voltage across the capacitor which
exceeds about two thirds of this value, especially for alternating current circuits.

Page 6 of 37
 1.3 Inductor-
Objectives of the experiment-
1. Explain the function of inductor.
2. Explain the factor influencing inductance.

1.Functions of an inductors-

 The function of a valve is to control the amount of fluid that flows

through a pipe.
 In an electronic circuit, the resistor is used to control the amount of
current that flows through a conductor.
 Mother device that controls the current is the inductor.

However unlike the resistor that affects the current uniformly at all times, the
inductor only affects currents when they are changing in value Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

 Equation of the inductor-

V= L*dl/dt
Page 7 of 37
  L is the inductance and is measured in henry.
 Putting a voltage across an inductor causes the current to rise as a ramp.
 1 volt across 1 henry produces a current that increases at 1 amp per
second.

 Structure of the inductor

It consists of a wire wound as a coil around a core. The core may consist of a
air filled hollow tube or solid material .

 Inductance

The amount of the inductance in hanries coil is determined by the

following factors.

 Cross sectional area of the coil.

 The material type of the coil.
 The Length of the coil.
 No of turns of wire wound around the coil.
Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Experiment 2

Page 8 of 37
 To verify the Ohm’s law

 The objectives of the experiment are-

 Explain Ohm’s Law.

 Explain Ohm’s Law for Resistance in series.
 Ohm’s Law for Resistance in series.
 Explain Non-Ohmic Device.
 Measure and confirm Ohms Law.

 Ohms law theory

 The law states that the current through a conductor between two is
directly proportional to the voltage across the two points. Such a
conductor is characterized by its “Resistance -R measured in
Ohms.”

V = I*R*v = I*R

Here
 V is the voltage across the conductor.
 I is the current in Amperes through the conductor.
 Voltage(V) is directly proportional to current .
 Resistance(R) is inversely proportional to current.

Name- Priyanshu Rane

MIS – 112116032
OHM’S LAW TRIANGLE
From the above figure, the equation may be represented bty a triangle know as
Ohm’s law triangle, where V is placed on the top section, the I is place to the
left section, and the R is placed to the right. The line that divides the left and
right sections indicates multiplication, and the divider between the top and
bottom sections indicates divisions.

Page 9 of 37
Therefore equations derived from Ohm’s law triangle are –

V=I×R
I=V/R
R=V/I

Page 10 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Experiment -3
To study V-I characteristics of diode

 The objectives of the experiment are –

At the end of the experiment the students would able the –
 Explain the structure of the P-N junction diode.
 Explain the functions of the P-N diode.
 Explain the forward and reserves biased characteristics of the diode.

 Structure of P-N junction diode

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type
semiconductor material. The lead connected to the p-type material is called the
anode and the lead connected to the n-type material is the cathode. In general,
the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid line on the diode.

 Function of P-N Junction diode in forward bias –

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the

negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) of a diode, the
holes in the p-type region and the electrons in the n-type region are pushed
toward the junction and start to neutralize the depletion zone, reducing its width.
The positive potential applied to the p-type material repels the holes, while the
negative potential applied to the n-type material repels the electrons. The
change in potential between the p side and the n side decreases or switches sign.
With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes
thin enough that the zone's electric field cannot counteract charge carrier motion

Page 11 of 37
across the p–n junction, which as a consequence reduces electrical resistance.
The electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-type material (or holes that
cross into the n-type material) will diffuse into the nearby neutral region. The
amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of
current that may flow through the diode.

 Function of P-N junction diode in reverse biased

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode.
Therefore, very little current will flow until the diode breaks down.

 Forward and Reversed biased characteristics of P-N junction

diode.
 N forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P
side and the negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side of the
diode. Diode will conduct in forward biasing because the forward biasing
will decrease the depletion region width and overcome the barrier
potential. In order to conduct, the forward biasing voltage should be
greater than the barrier potential. During forward biasing the diode acts
like a closed switch with a potential drop of nearly 0.6 V across it for a
silicon diode. The forward and reverse bias characteristics of a silicon
diode. From the graph, you may notice that the diode starts conducting
when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode).
This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

Page 12 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side

and the negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In
reverse biasing, the diode does not conduct electricity, since reverse biasing
leads to an increase in the depletion region width; hence current carrier charges
find it more difficult to overcome the barrier potential. The diode will act like
an open switch and there is no current flow.

Page 13 of 37
Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Page 14 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Experiment-4
To design and verify half wave rectification

 The objectives of the experiment are-

At the end of the experiment the students would able to-

 Explain Rectification.
 Explain Half Wave Rectification.
 Explain Half Wave Rectification:For Positive Half Cycle.
 Explain Half Wave Rectification:For Negative Half Cycle.

Rectification-
A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct
current(DC), a process know as rectification.

 Half Wave Rectification

On the positive cycle the diode is forward biased and the negative cycle the
diode is reverse biased. By using a diode we have converted an AC sources into
a pulsating DC source. In summary we have rectified the AC signal.
The simplest kind of rectifier circuit is the half-wave rectifier. The half-wave
rectifier is a circuit that allows only part of an unput signal to pass. The circuit
is simple combination of a single diode in series with a resistor .

Page 15 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032
Half Wave rectifiers- Waveforms

Page 16 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Experiment -5
To design and verify Full Wave
rectifications

Objectives of the experiment –

At the end of the module the student would able to –
 Explain Rectification.
 Explain centre trapped full wave rectification.

Rectification

A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current

(DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers are essentially of two types –
a half wave rectifier and a full wave rectifier.

Full wave rectifier-

A full- wave rectifier is exactly the same as the half- wave, but allows
unidirectional current through the load during the entire sinusoidal cycle (as
opposed to only half the cycle in the half-wave). A full- wave rectifier converts
the whole of the input wave form to one of constant polarity (positive or
negative) at its output. Let us see our half wave rectifier example and deduce
the circuit.

Page 17 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

For a half wave rectifier this is what we have observed -

If we change the phase of the input waveform by 180 degrees.

Page 18 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Now if we add these two circuits, we would get-

full wave rectifier- waveform

The resulting waveform of the schematic is shown above. This cofinguration is

rarely used because sometimes it may be impractical to obtain two voltage
sources and it is difficult to SYNC the sources. Let us see how a single source
can be used.

Page 19 of 37
Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Page 20 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Experiment-6
To design and verify Capacitive
rectification
Objectives of the experiments-
At the end of the experiment the student would able to –
 Learn filtering of rectified signal.
 Ripple Voltage and Ripple Factor.
 Learn Capacitive filtering.

Rectifier –
In our earlier experiment we have seen that a full- wave rectifier is
exactly the same as the half-wave, but allows unidirectional current
though the load during the entire sinusoidal cycle (as opposed to only half
the cycle in the half-wave). A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of
the input waveform to one of the constant polarity at its input

Filter

Page 21 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

What is really desired is to convert the pulsating output of the rectifier to

a constant DC supply. Thus we would like to ‘filter’ the pulsating input
signal.

We can do this by splitting the input waveform into AC (high frequency)

and the DC components (very low frequency) and by then ‘rejecting’ the
high frequency components.

Filtering –
From our filtering experiments we have seen that the simplest kind of
filter that can perform the filtering task just described is capacitor. Thus,
if we connect a capacitor directly across the output of a rectifier, the AC
components will ‘see’ a low impedance path to ground and will not,
therefore appear in the output.

Ripple Voltage and Ripple Factor-

Assuming a finite capacitor is connected, since a new charging pulse
occurs every half cycle the capacitor charges and discharges very
frequently. We can observe that smaller the Vpp, the more the waveform
will resemble a pure DC voltage. The variable portion is known a ripple
and the value Vpp is known as the ripple voltage.

Page 22 of 37
Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Page 23 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Experiment – 7
To design and verify Zener diode –
voltage regulator

Objectives of the experiment-

At the end of the experiment a student would able to explain

 Explain the function of a Zener diode.
 Explain the Zener diode as voltage regulator.

Zener diode-
A Zener diode is a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the
forward direction as normal. But will also allow it to flow in the reverse
direction when the voltage is above the breakdown voltage or ‘Zener’ voltage.
Zener diodes are designed so that their breakdown voltage is much lower- for
example 2.4 volts.

Functions of the Zener diodes

 Zener diodes are special kind of diode which permits current to flow in
the forward direction.
 Zener diodes will also allow current to flow in the reverse direction when
the voltage is above a certain value. This breakdown voltageName-is known as Rane
Priyanshu
Zener voltage. In standard diode, the Zener voltage is high, MISand –the diode
112116032
is permanently damaged if a reverse current above the value is allowed to
pass through it.
 In the revers bias direction, there is practically no reverse current flow
until the breakdown voltage is reached. When this occur there is a sharp
increase in there is a sharp increase in reverse current. Varying amount of
Page 24 of 37
 reverse current can pass through the diode without damaging it. The
breakdown voltage or Zener voltage across the diode is remains relatively
same.
Zener diode as a voltage regulator-
There is a series resistor connected to the circuit in order to limit the current into
the diode. It is connected to the positive terminal of the DC. It works in such a
way the reverse-biased can also work in breakdown conditions. We do not use
ordinary junction diode because the low power rating diode can get damaged
when we apply reverse bias above its breakdown voltage. When the minimum
input voltage and the maximum load current is applied, the Zener diode current
should always be minimum.
Since the input voltage and the required output voltage is known, it is easier to
choose a Zener diode with a voltage approximately equal to the load voltage,
i.e. VZ = VL.

Page 25 of 37
Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Page 26 of 37
Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Page 27 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Experiment -8
To study BJT common emitter
characteristics
Objectives of the experiment-
At the end of the experiment a student would able to
 Explain structure of Bipolar Junction Transistor.
 Explain Operation of Bipolar Junction Transistor.
 Explain Common Emitter characteristics of a BJT.

Structure of the BJT-

A bipolar junction transistor, BJT, is a single piece of silicon two back-to-back
P-N junctions. BJTs can be made either as PNP or NPN.

Structure, layers and circuit symbol of NPN transistor

They have three regions and three terminals, emitter, base and collector
represented by E, B and C respectively. The direction of the arrow indicates the
direction of the current in the emitter when the transistor is conducting
normally. AN easy way to remember this is NPN stands for “Not pointing iN”.

Structure layers and circuit symbol of PNP transistors

Page 28 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Operations of the Bipolar junction transistor-

Fig - Four operating conditions

Cutoff Region- Base emitter junction is reverse biased. No current flow.

Saturation region- Base- emitter junction is forward biases and collector-base
junction is forward biased.
Active region – Base emitter junction is forward biased and collector-base
junction is reverse biased.

Output characteristics
The most important characteristics of the BJT is the plot of the collector current
IC verses the collector-emitter voltage, VCE, for various values of the base
current, IB as shown on the circuit on the right.

Page 29 of 37
Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Page 30 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Experiment-9
To study BJT common base characteristics

Objectives of the experiment-

At the end of the experiment the student would able to –
 Explain structure of Bipolar Junction transistor.
 Explain operation of bipolar junction transistor.
 Explain common base characteristics of BJT.
Common base configuration
In this configuration, we use base as common terminal for both input and output
signals. Here the input is applied between the base and emitter terminals and the
corresponding output signal is taken between the base and collector terminals
with the base terminal grounded. Here the input parameters VCB and IE and the
output parameters are VCB and IC.The input current flowing into the emitter
terminal must be hight that the base current and collector current to operate the
transistor, therefor the output collector current is less than input emitter current.
This transistor configuration has high output impedance and low input
impedance. This type of configuration has high resistance gain ration of output
resistance to input resistance is high. The voltage gain for this configuration of
circuit is given below.

Page 31 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Input characteristics-
For PNP transistor, the input current is the emitter current(IE) and the input
voltage is the collector base voltage.

As the emitter- base junction is forward biased, therefor the graph of IE vs VEB is
similar to forward characteristics of a PN junction diode.

Page 32 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Output characteristics-
The output characteristics show the relation between output voltage and output
current IC is the output current and collector- base voltage and the emitter
current IE is the input current and works as the parameters.
The figure shows the output characteristics for PNP transistor in CB mode.

Page 33 of 37
Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Page 34 of 37
Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Page 35 of 37
 Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Experiment 10
To design and verify studies on BJT CE ‘
amplifier

The common emitter configuration is widely used as a basic amplifier as it has both voltage
and current amplification.

Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider across the base of the transistor. The function of
this network is to provide necessary bias condition and ensure that emitter-base junction is
operating in the proper region.

In order to operate transistor as an amplifier, biasing is done in such a way that the operating
point is in the active region. For an amplifier the Q-point is placed so that the load line is
bisected. Therefore, in practical design VCE is always set to VCC/2. This will confirm that the
Q-point always swings within the active region. This limitation can be explained by
maximum signal handling capacity. For the maximum input signal, output is produced
without any distortion and clipping.

DESIGN
From the transistor data sheet, for BC107,

hfe = β = 110, IC max=100 mA, VCE max = 45V

Let VCC =12V, IC = 2mA. Since the quiescent point is in the middle of the load
line for the

amplifier, VCE = 50% of VCC = 6V.

VRE = 10% of VCC = 1.2V.

Assuming IC =IE, VRE = ICRE= IE RE

Page 36 of 37
Name- Priyanshu Rane
MIS – 112116032

Page 37 of 37