1.

Discuss the device, process and application of the following Non-

Destructive testing methods:
A. Software Testing- The process of evaluating and verifying that a software
product or application does what it is supposed to do. The benefits of testing include
preventing bugs, reducing development costs and improving performance.
-Software testing follows a common process. Tasks or steps include defining the test
environment, developing test cases, writing scripts, analyzing test results and
submitting defect reports.
-Software Testing is a critical function within businesses. A career in software testing
can be challenging but satisfying, requiring you to problem solve, manage risks, and
improve quality throughout all phases of the software development life cycle.

B. Infrared and Thermal Testing- Infrared thermography testing detects

radiated thermal-energies emitted from objects. With thermal imaging, the visible
range of the wavelength spectrum is increased, allowing the examiner to view and
measure radiated energy. Infrared cameras are non-contact devices which can produce
single images or even videos. Any heat sensed by the instrument can be precisely
quantified and measured, which allows the thermal performance to be monitored and
problem areas to identified.
-Infrared and thermal testing involves temperature and heat flow measurement to
predict or diagnose the failure. This may involve contact or non-contact devices or a
combination of both. Infrared thermography is the non-destructive, non-intrusive,
non-contact mapping of thermal patterns on the surface of objects
-They are used to test mechanical and metallurgical components, product
manufacturing assembly lines, as well as entire factories where slight changes in heat
dissipation can aid in the prevention of an accident. An example of infrared testing in
this field would be the detection of tiny holes in an aluminum plate.

C. Eddy-current Testing- Eddy current testing (also known as eddy current

inspection) is a method used in non-destructive testing, employing electromagnetism
to detect surface breaking and slightly sub-surface flaws in materials. The main areas
where eddy current testing (ECT) is used include crack and corrosion detection, non-
conductive coating thickness measurement, material identification and heat treatment
condition.
-Eddy current testing is carried out using a specially designed coil that is energised
with an alternating current that creates a changing magnetic field surrounding the coil.
The coil is placed within the proximity of a test surface where the changing magnetic
field permeates the conductive material. This changing magnetic field in turn induces
local electrical currents in the test surface that are known as eddy currents.
-Eddy current testing is most commonly used to inspect surfaces and tubes. It is an
incredibly sensitive testing method, and can identify even very small flaws or cracks
in a surface or just beneath it. On surfaces, ETC can be done with both ferromagnetic
and non-ferromagnetic materials.

D. Thermography- Involves the use of thermal imagers, which are sophisticated

devices that measure the natural emission of infrared radiation from a heated object to
produce a thermal picture or video. Modern infrared cameras are portable and easy to
operate, meaning that they can be used for many different applications.
-Thermography measures surface temperatures by using infrared video and still
cameras. These tools see light that is in the heat spectrum. Images on the video or film
record the temperature variations of the building's skin, ranging from white for warm
regions to black for cooler areas.
-A thermography machine uses an infrared camera to detect temperature differences
within your breast tissue. During a thermogram screening, the machine never touches
your body. On a thermogram image, “hot spots” appear red compared to surrounding
tissue that appears yellow, green or blue.

E. Acoustic Emission Testing- Acoustic emission testing is an inspection

method that uses the release of ultrasonic stress waves to identify defects in materials.
These ultrasonic waves are not introduced from an external source, as they are in
ultrasonic testing, but rather originate from within the material being inspected.
-Acoustic emission (AE) measurements are carried out in mines as part of geo-
mechanical investigations regarding the stability of underground cavities and the
integrity of the rock mass. Micro cracks are detected and located by analyzing high-
frequency seismic energy in the frequency range between 1 and 100 kHz.
-The three major applications of AE techniques are: 1) source location – determine
the locations where an event source occurred; 2) material mechanical performance –
evaluate and characterize materials and structures; and 3) health monitoring – monitor
the safe operation of a structure, for example, bridges, pressure containers, pipelines,
etc.

2. Together with tensile and compression test, FLEXURE TEST is

also commonly done in different practices.
(a) What is flexure test?
-Flexure (Bend) tests are generally used to determine the flexural modulus or flexural
strength of a material. A flexure test is more affordable than a tensile test and test
results are slightly different. The material is laid horizontally over two points of
contact (lower support span) and then a force is applied to the top of the material
through either one or two points of contact (upper loading span) until the sample fails.
The maximum recorded force is the flexural strength of that particular sample.

(b) What properties can be determined using flexure test?

Flexure testing can determine several important mechanical properties, including the
flexural modulus, yield stress and breaking stress. Flexure tests are often done
on brittle materials and fibre–polymer composites, but only rarely on ductile
materials such as metals.

(c) What are 2- point flexure test, 3-point flexure test and 4-point
flexure test?
1. 2-point flexure test- a mechanical test used to determine the flexural strength
and stiffness of a material. It involves applying a load to a sample supported at two
points, causing it to bend, and measuring the resulting deflection and stress
distribution.

2. 3-point flexure test- provides values for the modulus of elasticity in

bending, flexural stress , flexural strain  and the flexural stress–strain response of the
material. This test is performed on a universal testing machine (tensile testing
machine or tensile tester) with a three-point or four-point bend fixture. The main
advantage of a three-point flexural test is the ease of the specimen preparation and
testing.

3. 4-point flexure test- This test is very similar to the three-point bending flexural
test. The major difference being that with the addition of a fourth bearing the portion
of the beam between the two loading points is put under maximum stress, as opposed
to only the material right under the central bearing in the case of three-point bending.

(d) Where do each of these types of flexure testing applied?

1. 2-point flexure test- The flexural test measures the force required to bend a
beam under three point loading conditions. The data is often used to select materials
for parts that will support loads without flexing. Flexural modulus is used as an
indication of a material's stiffness when flexed.

2. 3-point flexure test- The test method for conducting the test usually involves a
specified test fixture on a universal testing machine. Details of the test preparation,
conditioning, and conduct affect the test results. The sample is placed on two
supporting pins a set distance apart.

3. 4-point flexure test- The test method for conducting the test usually involves a
specified test fixture on a universal testing machine. Details of the test preparation,
conditioning, and conduct affect the test results. The sample is placed on two
supporting pins a set distance apart and two loading pins placed at an equal distance
around the center. These two loadings are lowered from above at a constant rate until
sample failure.

(e) What are the tools/devices used in flexure testing?

-The Flexure Strength Testing Machines are designed to test flexural strength of
concrete beams. The design provide maximum rigidity throughout their working
range. The load is applied by the downward movement of the piston. A spacer is
provided for testing different size of beams.
References:
https://www.ibm.com/topics/software-testing#:~:text=Software%20testing%20is%20the
%20process,development%20costs%20and%20improving%20performance.

https://www.fdmgroup.com/blog/5-reasons-why-you-should-become-a-software-tester/
#:~:text=Software%20Testing%20is%20a%20critical,of%20the%20software%20development
%20lifecycle.

https://www.applus.com/global/en/what-we-do/service-sheet/thermal-infrared-testing-ir-
thermography-ndt#:~:text=Infrared%20thermography%20testing%20detects%20radiated,single
%20images%20or%20even%20videos.

https://worldofndt.com/introduction-to-ir-thermal-testing/#:~:text=Infrared%20and%20thermal
%20testing%20involves,on%20the%20surface%20of%20objects.

https://www.techimaging.com/applications/infrared-thermal-imaging-applications

https://theweldinginstitute.com/Eddy-Current-Testing-Process-A-Definitive-Guide#:~:text=Eddy
%20current%20testing%20(also%20known,sub%2Dsurface%20flaws%20in%20materials.

https://www.flyability.com/eddy-current-testing#:~:text=Eddy%20current%20testing%20is
%20most,ferromagnetic%20and%20non%2Dferromagnetic%20materials.

https://www.twi-global.com/technical-knowledge/faqs/what-is-thermography-in-
engineering#:~:text=Thermography%20involves%20the%20use%20of,used%20for%20many
%20different%20applications.

https://www.mdanderson.org/cancerwise/mammograms-vs--thermography--what-you-need-to-
know.h00-159385890.html#:~:text=A%20thermography%20machine%20uses%20an,appears
%20yellow%2C%20green%20or%20blue.

https://www.flyability.com/acoustic-emission-testing#:~:text=Acoustic%20emission%20testing
%20is%20an,within%20the%20material%20being%20inspected.

https://www.bgr.bund.de/EN/Themen/Erdbeben-Gefaehrdungsanalysen/
Ingenieurseismologische_Gefaehrdungsanalysen/Mikroakustik/
mikroakustik_node_en.html#:~:text=Acoustic%20emission%20(AE)%20measurements
%20are,between%201%20and%20100%20kHz.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustic_emission#:~:text=The%20three%20major%20applications
%20of,%2C%20for%20example%2C%20bridges%2C%20pressure

https://www.testresources.net/applications/test-types/flexural-test/

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/flexural-testing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-point_flexural_test

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-point_flexural_test

https://www.aimil.com/products/flexure-testing-machine#:~:text=The%20Flexure%20Strength
%20Testing%20Machines,testing%20different%20size%20of%20beams.