LESSON 2

Japanese Literature

Introduction

Japanese literature, the body of written

works produced by Japanese authors in
Japanese or, in its earliest beginnings, at a
time when Japan had no written language, in
the Chinese classical language. From the
early seventh century until the present there
has never been a period when literature was
not being produced by Japanese authors.
Japan adopted its writing system from China
when writing was introduced to Japan from
China in the 5th century via Korea.
Japanese literature often use Chinese characters to represent Japanese words with similar
phonetic sounds. Early works were heavily influenced by cultural contact with China and Chinese
literature, and was often written in Classical Chinese. Though the Japanese writing system was
adapted from Chinese, the two languages are unrelated. The rich emotional vocabulary of the
Japanese language gave rise to a refined sensitivity of expression, while Chinese was often used
to write about more intellectual and abstract concepts such as morality and justice.

Japanese literature has both quantity and quality. It ranks as one of the major literatures of the
world, comparable in age, richness, and volume to English literature, though its course of
development has been quite dissimilar. The surviving works comprise a literary tradition extending
from the 7th century CE to the present; during all this time there was never a “dark age” devoid
of literary production. Not only do poetry, the novel, and the drama have long histories in Japan,
but some literary genres not so highly esteemed in other countries—including diaries, travel
accounts, and books of random thoughts—are also prominent.

Japanese literature is typically divided into four periods:

Ancient Literature (until 794)

The earliest Japanese literary works date to the 8th century and mostly deal with Japanese
legends and myths. The finest example is Kojiki which his thought to be written by O no
Yasumaro in the early 8th century. Other notable works during the ancient period include Nihon
Shoki (720) which has been shown to be partly based on real historical events and Man’yoshu
(759) which is the oldest example of Japanese poetry.

Classical Literature (794-1185)

During the Heian period that followed the Nara period (ancient period), the Japanese literature
reached its golden age. A Japanese noblewoman and lady-in-waiting Murasaki Shikibu wrote
the Tale of Genji (Genji Monogatari, early 11th century) which is considered the world’s first
novel, while the 10th century folk-tale Taketori Monogatari is considered one of the first
examples of proto-science fiction. Other notable works and authors from the classical period
include Kokin Wakashu (c. 905), Makura no Soshi by Sei Shonagon and Konjaku
Monogatarishu.

Medieval Literature (1185-1603)

Medieval Japanese literature was greatly influenced by civil wars and the emergence of the
warrior class, resulting in the rise of war tales. Among the finest examples of are the Tale of the
Heike (Heike Monogatari, late 12th century) which deals with the struggle between the two
powerful Japanese clans, Hojoki (1212) by Kamo no Chomei and Tsurezuregusa (c.1330-
1332) by Yoshida Kenko.
Besides war tales, the medieval period also saw the rise of the so-called renga ( a genre of
Japanese linked-verse poetry in which two or more poets supplied alternating sections of a poem.
The renga form began as the composition of a single tanka (a traditional five-line poem) by two
people and was a popular pastime from ancient times, even in remote rural areas) which is one
of the most prominent literary arts in Japan before the modern period.

Modern Literature (1603-)

Modern Japanese literature is typically further divided into early modern and modern literature.
The first period corresponds to the Edo period, while the second starts with the Meiji period
(1868-1912) when Japan opened to the West and entered the period of industrialization.
The early modern Japanese literature saw the rise of the
many new genres including kabuki or Japanese dance-
drama, haiku (hokku) poetry and yomihon, a type of
Japanese books which, unlike others in the Edo period
such as kusazoshi, put little emphasis on illustration.
Notable authors from the early modern period include
Ihara Saikaku, Jippensha Ikku, Tokaidochu
Hizakurige, Ueda Akinari and Santo Kyoden.
Modern Japanese literature was marked by the emergence of new styles including romanticism
that was introduced by Mori Ogai in the late 19th century and reached its height in the early 20th
century. Pre-war Japan saw the rise of proletarian literary works, while war-time Japan
produced some of the finest literary works in modern period.
The Second World War has greatly influenced post-war
Japanese literature but soon, Japanese authors also started
to deal with the problems of the modern society. Just like the
Western authors, the contemporary Japanese authors cover
just about all genres and subjects. But despite the influence
of globalization, Japanese literature has managed to retain
its distinct style as well as remained a breeding ground for
new literary forms. One of the best examples are the manga
comic books which have also achieved a major success on
the international book market.
Some of the most prominent modern Japanese authors
include: Toson Shimazaki, Kafu Nagai, Takiji Kobayashi, Denji Kuroshima, Yasunari
Kawabata, Osamu Dazai, Nobuo Kojima, Kobi Abe and Haruki Murakami to mention only a
few.

Characteristics of Japanese Literature

Japanese literature can be difficult to read and understand, because in many ways the written
Japanese reflects certain peculiarities of the spoken language. Statements are often ambiguous,
omitting as unnecessary the particles of speech which would normally identify words as the
subject or object of a sentence, or using colloquial verb forms from a specific region or social
class. Special language used to depict gender, age, social status, or regional origins is often the
only clue as to who is speaking or being spoken about in a sentence. In many cases the
significance of a simple sentence can only be understood by someone who is familiar with the
cultural or historical background of the work.
Japan’s deliberate isolation during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries created a strong
cultural homogeneity, and the literature of that period incorporated many common understandings
that are unintelligible to someone who does not share the same background. For example,
Japanese readers of the seventeenth century immediately understood the phrase,“some smoke
rose noisily” (kemuri tachisawagite), as a reference to Great Fire of 1682 that ravaged Edo (the
modern city of Tokyo).
Japanese literature tends to be emotional and subjective, rather than intellectual, and
consequently appeals strongly to modern readers all over the world, who can relate to sentiments
and feelings which transcend historical changes and cultural differences. Japanese writers who
wanted to express more intellectual or abstract meanings wrote in Chinese, or borrowed from the
Chinese language.
As early as the tenth century, patronage of literature and poetry by the court and the aristocracy
gave rise to literary criticism and artistic “codes,” developed by the writers and poets themselves,
which dictated the style and form of poetic composition. These codes restricted the types of
sentence structures which were acceptable, and generally prohibited the use of words with
humble meanings or foreign origins until the sixteenth century, when less formal haikai no renga (
俳諧の連歌, “playful linked verse”) became popular. Japanese writers emphasized refinement of
sentiment and elegant phrasing over the expression of intellectual concepts.
The nature of the Japanese language influenced the development of poetic forms. All Japanese
words end in one of five simple vowels, making it difficult to construct effective rhymes. Japanese
words also lack a stress accent, so that poetry was distinguished from prose mainly by being
divided into lines of specific numbers of syllables rather than by cadence and rhythm. These
characteristics made longer poetic forms difficult, and most Japanese poems are short, their
poetic quality coming from rich allusions and multiple meanings evoked by each word used in the
composition.
Japanese prose often contains very long sentences which follow the train of the author’s thought.
Japanese writers concentrated more on making a smooth transition from one thought to the next
than on linking each statement to an overall structure or meaning. Personal diaries and accounts
of travel from place to place developed as a means of linking unrelated elements together in a
chronological succession.

Japan. The people and its culture

Japanese culture is multifaceted and very distinctive, having evolved rapidly in the past century.
The advancements of technology, the government’s adoption of democratic rights and the
country’s population boom have introduced new lifestyles to its people. These modern
developments can often seem inconsistent with the traditional virtues of Japanese culture. For
example, while Japanese culture classically emphasizes a patient, gentle and harmonious way
of life, today it is normal for people to be packed into Tokyo trains like sardines and work long
hours with little rest. Nevertheless, many traditional values of Japan still underpin the culture.

For instance, harmony remains a guiding philosophy in Japan that affects many features of
society – especially that of family and business. Working in harmony is viewed as the crucial
element for productivity; thus, the Japanese have a predisposition to be indirect, gentle and
courteous even if they disagree with what you are saying. This ethos of cooperation is impressed
upon Japanese children at young ages. The educational systems stress interdependence over
independence. Such sensitivity to respecting one’s relationships in the community manifests into
many of the behavioural attitudes foreigners observe of the Japanese (such as their emphasis
on politeness and teamwork). It is rare for Japanese people to disagree openly or voice any
opinion that could create friction. However, shyness is starting to be considered less of a virtue
and more of a limitation to some of the younger generation.

The importance of harmony in Japan also means that emphasis is put on modest and gentle
interpersonal relations. As such, the concept of face has remained very central to Japanese
communication. Face is the quality embedded in most Asian cultures that indicates a person's
reputation, influence, dignity and honour. By complimenting people, showing them respect or
doing something to increase their self-esteem, you give them face. Similarly, people can
lose face and save or build face. Therefore, individuals in Japan usually act deliberately and
with restraint to protect their self-worth and peer perception. Conservative conduct is the norm,
as people don’t want to stand out and/or risk losing face by doing something inappropriate. For
many Japanese, the fear of letting down family or society dominates almost everything else.
However, for the younger generation, a person’s social media profile has now become a
significant way of maintaining face and gaining status in one’s social hierarchy. As a result, some
Japanese are becoming less concerned with the importance of their behaviour during interactions
in person.

Japanese culture is also very collectivist. Individuals often perceive themselves to be members
of 'groups' rather than autonomous actors. These groups reflect or come to define who its
members are and often implicitly demand a high degree of loyalty. In return, an individual gains a
sense of belonging, protection and unity. It is important to note that over 98% of Japan shares the
same Japanese ethnicity, making it one of the most homogeneous societies in the world. There
tends to be an automatic and unique sense of group belonging to the nation itself. Sharing a
common heritage, history, culture and identity, people in Japan broadly anticipate their
perceptions to be consistent with the other Japanese people around them.

The Language

The Japanese language itself also influences people’s

perception of situations and one another. The language
is very formal and observant. It diverges into different
styles of speech for people depending on their status.
For example, natural speech changes to be more
respectful when people speak to someone older than
them. This distinguishes distinct hierarchies in society
as deference and adherence to societal roles is
naturally implied through the language.
Japanese culture puts heavy emphasis on participation, diligence and performance in people’s
professional lives. The workforce is extremely dedicated and there is much pressure to strive for
excellence and perfection. This has led to a disturbing trend in Japanese society; many Japanese
(men, in particular) work to the point of utter exhaustion or even sometimes death. Japanese
youth can feel a sense of trepidation as they grow up, foreseeing the day they too will have to join
the workforce. They are conscious that it will likely involve giving up many of the luxuries they
enjoy as minors. Japan is extremely productive and technologically advanced, yet it is one of the
most sleep-deprived countries in the developed world.

As a reminder, this general summary does not necessarily apply to all Japanese people. Japan
accommodates many different microcultures that contribute different characteristics to both rural
and urban society. A diversity of lifestyles are also emerging as people reevaluate their goals and
values in the modern age. However, modesty, honour and ultra-politeness are generally valued
by most. The Japanese are largely private, patient and thoughtful people.

Religion
Statistics show that 66.8% of Japanese people are Buddhist, 1.5% are Christian and 7.1%
belong to another religion. However, an overwhelming number of Japanese people (79.2%) also
believe in Shintoism, often in conjunction with another religion (such as Buddhism).

Almost all Japanese observe customs that have origins in Buddhism or Shintoism, yet many
may define themselves as atheists. This is common as the religious traditions of Shintoism, in
particular, have started to be considered as more ‘cultural’ than ‘spiritual’.

Shinto in Japan
Shinto is the indigenous religion of Japan. It has no founder or sacred scripture but has been
rooted in Japanese belief and traditions since the origins of Japan. Its philosophy is grounded in
the value of man’s relationship to nature. The main belief of Shinto is that the world is full of spirits,
‘kami’, that symbolize certain concepts of life or the physical world (e.g. wind, water, fertility).
When treated properly, these kami intervene in people’s lives to bring benefits.Many Japanese
people worship at shrines of specific kami or locations where kami are thought to reside, to be
supported throughout their life. It is an optimistic faith that believes humans are inherently good
and all evil is the manifestation or effect of evil spirits. Shinto also emphasizes the reverence of
ancestors, ritual purity and respect for the beauty of the natural world.
Not all Japanese believe in the mythology and philosophy of Shinto. However, most people in
Japan participate in its practices as part of social tradition. In some ways, Shinto can be regarded
as an aspect of culture (instead of a religion) by some Japanese. It isn’t monotheistic and can
coexist with other religions, such as Buddhism, fluidly.
Buddhism in Japan
Buddhism is a philosophy built around the belief that people can reach a state of enlightenment
in which they obtain the love, wisdom and clarity to see reality clearly and exist in it purely. Many
teachings are based on a set of truths about reality known as “The Four Noble Truths”. These
are the following: firstly, that there is suffering; secondly, that suffering has a cause; that
suffering has an end; and finally, that there is a path to the end of suffering (The Eightfold
Path). To be a Buddhist is to follow a path towards leading a moral life. One also seeks to develop
wisdom and understanding and be mindful of one’s thoughts and actions. This is achieved by
practising methods such as meditation to gradually overcome negative mindsets. Buddhism views
human life as a continual repetitive cycle of birth and death as a being moves towards
enlightenment.

Lady Sei Shonagun

Sei Shōnagon, (born c. 966, Japan—died c. 1025,
Japan), diarist, poet, and courtier whose witty,
learned Pillow Book (Makura no sōshi) exhibits a brilliant
and original Japanese prose style and is a masterpiece of
classical Japanese literature. It is also the best source of
information on Japanese court life in the Heian
period (794–1185).
Sei Shōnagon was the daughter of the poet Kiyohara
Motosuke and was in the service of the empress Teishi
(Sadako) at the capital of Heian-kyō (Kyōto) from about
993 to 1000. Little is known about her life outside of her
time at court. Her Pillow Book consists in part of vividly
recounted memoirs of her impressions and observations within which she listed and classified the
people, events, and objects around her. The work is notable for Sei Shōnagon’s sensitive
descriptions of nature and everyday life and for its mingling of appreciative sentiments and the
detached, sometimes caustic, value judgments typical of a sophisticated woman at court.
Sei Shōnagon’s ready wit and intelligence secured her place in Teishi’s court. Those qualities
also won her enemies, according to the diary of her contemporary Murasaki Shikibu, who herself
declared Sei Shōnagon conceited. Though capable of great tenderness, Sei Shōnagon was often
merciless in the display of her wit, and she showed little sympathy for those unfortunates whose
ignorance or poverty rendered them ridiculous in her eyes. Her ability to catch allusions or to
compose in an instant a verse exactly suited to each occasion is evident throughout her Pillow
Book. Legend states that Sei Shōnagon spent her old age in misery and loneliness, though that
is likely an invention.

Pillow Book (Makura no sōshi)

Japanese Makura no sōshi, (c. 1000), title of a book of reminiscences and impressions by the
11th-century Japanese court lady Sei Shōnagon. Whether the title was generic and whether Sei
Shōnagon herself used it is not known, but other diaries of the Heian period (794–1185) indicate
that such journals may have been kept by both men and women in their sleeping quarters—hence
the name. The entries in Makura no sōshi, although some are dated, are not in chronological
order but rather are divided under such headings as “Amusing Things” and “Vexatious Things.” A
complete English translation of Makura no sōshi by Ivan Morris appeared in 1967 (The Pillow
Book of Sei Shōnagon). The Pillow Book belongs to the genre of zuihitsu (“random
jottings”). Tsurezuregusa, by Yoshida Kenkō, is an outstanding 14th-century example of this
genre.

THE CAT WHO LIVED IN THE PALACE

(See attachment provided in this module)
 Kikuchi Kan
Kikuchi Kan, also called Kikuchi Hiroshi, (born
Dec. 26, 1888, Takamatsu, Japan—died March 6,
1948, Tokyo), playwright, novelist, and founder of
one of the major publishing companies in Japan. He
wrote much of his best work in the short period
between 1917 and 1920. Kikuchi’s writing shows
little speculative thought; he was more concerned
with the direct exposition of a particular moralistic
theme, expressed in a realistic and clear style.
Another story, “Tadanaokyo gyōjō ki” (1918; “On the
Conduct of Lord Tadanao”), attracted great
attention. His other well-known works are the
plays Chichi kaeru (1917; The Father Returns)
and Okujo no kyojin (1916; The Madman on the
Roof) and the novel Shinju Fujin (1920; “Madame
Pearl”).
In 1923 Kikuchi established Bungei shunju, a
popular literary magazine that gave rise to a large
publishing company. Through the magazine he set
up two of the most prestigious literary awards given to new Japanese writers, the Akutagawa and
Naoki prizes.

THE MADMAN ON THE ROOF (Okujo no kyojin)

(See attachment provided in this module)
 Matsuo Basho
The 17th-century Japanese haiku master Basho was born
Matsuo Kinsaku near Kyoto, Japan, to a minor samurai and his
wife. Soon after the poet’s birth, Japan closed its borders,
beginning a seclusion that allowed its native culture to flourish. It
is believed that Basho’s siblings became farmers, while Basho, at
Ueno Castle in the service of the local lord’s son, grew interested
in literature. After the young lord’s early death, Basho left the
castle and moved to Kyoto, where he studied with Kigin, a
distinguished local poet. During these early years Basho studied
Chinese poetry and Taoism, and soon began writing haikai no
renga, a form of linked verses composed in collaboration.

The opening verse of a renga, known as hokku, is structured as three unrhymed lines of five,
seven, and five syllables. In Basho’s time, poets were beginning to take the hokku’s form as a
template for composing small standalone poems engaging natural imagery, a form that eventually
became known as haiku. Basho was a master of the form. He published his haiku under several
names, including Tosei, or “Green Peach,” out of respect for the Chinese poet Li Po, whose name
translates to “White Plum.” Basho’s haiku were published in numerous anthologies, and he
edited Kai Oi, or Seashell Game (1672), and Minashiguri, or Shriveled Chestnuts (1683),
anthologies that also included a selection of his own work

HAIKU

1. The Narrow Road to Deep North

Japanese

草の戸も 住替る代ぞ ひなの家

Kusa no to mo/ Sumikawaru yo zo/ Hina no ie

English
A owner of the old thatched hut
Is also changed to another
It’s the Doll’s Festival.
2. A Ball Of Snow

you make the fire

and I’ll show you something wonderful:
a big ball of snow!

3. A Bee

A bee
staggers out
of the peony.

Translated by Robert Hass

4. A Caterpillar
A caterpillar,
this deep in fall--
still not a butterfly.

Translated by Robert Hass

A cicada shell;
it sang itself
5. utterly away. A Cicada Shell

Translated by R.H. Blyth