Camarines Sur State Agricultural College

Pili, Camarines Sur

Review Material On
LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR AGRICULTURISTS

PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION1/

Prof. J.A. Osea2/

INTRODUCTION

Meaning and Scope of Crop Science

Plant - any organism belonging to the kingdom plantae, typically lacking of active
locomotion or obvious nervous system or sensory organs and has photosynthetic ability.
Crop - domesticated/cultivated plants that are grown for profit. It usually connotes a
group or population of cultivated plants.
Science - systematically accumulated and tested knowledge.
- it is not a set of facts but a way of giving unity and intelligibility to the facts of
nature so that nature may be controlled and new facts predicted.

Two groups of science practitioners may be identified, the theoretical, academic or basic
scientist and the applied scientist.
- the basic scientist bring the saturated solution of knowledge to the point of
crystallization
- the applied scientist bring the idea to a practical achievement

Crop production as a Science, Art and Business

As a science - Modern crop production is not based on guess-work or trial and error
method. Its science is derived from the adoption or application of the basic sciences of
chemistry, mathematics, physics and from various applied sciences like physiology,
meteorology, anatomy, plant breeding etc.
Crop science which is concerned with the observation and classification of knowledge
concerning economically cultivated crops and the establishment of verifiable principles
regarding their growth and development for the purpose of deriving the optimum benefit from
them. It is divided into areas -
Agronomy - from the Greek word ‘agros’ meaning field and "nomos" to manage.
Thus, agronomy deals with the principles and practices of managing field crops and
soils.
Horticulture - from the Latin words "hortus", which means a garden a term
derived from the Anglo-saxon word gyrdan, which means to enclose and "colere" to
cultivate. The concept of gardens or plants within an enclosure is distinct from the
culture of field crops, a medieval concept. It also implies a more intensive cultivation of
crops as contrasted from the extensive cultivation of field crops.
As an art - it is an art because it require skills to produce crops even if one has little or
no scientific training. The art of crop science reaches its greatest expression in horticulture
specifically in ornamental horticulture where plants are raised for their aesthetic qualities, e.g.
in floral arts as well as in landscaping.
As a business - plants are not grown simply to satisfy the needs of man but to realize
some profit in the process of producing it. Thus, maximization of output relative to production
input is one of the guiding principles of production. Scientific knowledge about plants is utilized
so that they are produced at the time when the demand and the best prices could be
obtained when sold, e.g. the production of oft-season tomatoes and flowers, raising disease-
resistant field crops to reduce cost of crop protectant chemicals.

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1/
Paper presented during the review on Licensure Examination for Agriculturists at the Crop Science Building,
Institute of Agricultural Sciences and Environmental Management, CSSAC, Pili, Camarines Sur on May 2, 2008.
2/
Associate Professor 3. Chairman, Plant Science Department, IASEM, CSSAC, Pili, Camarines Sur.

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Development of Crop Science

Man's needs for raw materials required to meet their basic needs of food clothing and
shelter and the increasing requirements of the processing and food industry have served as
incentives to further improve crop production practices.
Early recognition of the importance of agricultural research, was made by the British
Empire by the establishment of agricultural research stations. Similarly in the U.S. experiment
stations were also established upon establishment of the land-grant state colleges. It may thus
be presumed that the formal start of scientific agriculture dates back to the time when these
agricultural experimental research stations were established.
In the Philippines, agricultural research has been established through schools and
experiment stations, both private and public, such as;

1. State Colleges and Universities of Agriculture

2. Department of Agriculture Research network
3. Commodity Research Centers
CRDI – Cotton Research and Dev’t Institute
PTCTC – Phil Tobacco Research and Training Center
FPRDI – Forest Products Research and Development Institute
PRRI – Phil Rice Research Institute
4. Specialized Research Centers
IPB – Institute of Plant Breeding
NCPC – National Crop Protection Center
FSSRI – Farming Systems and Soils Research Institute
PHTRC – Postharvest Hort Trng and Research Center
5. International Research Organizations
IRRI – International Rice Research Institute
CIP – Centro International de Patatas

Contribution of related sciences to crop production

Some of the scientific fields and areas of knowledge related to crop production are the
following:
1) Crop breeding and genetics - concerned with the improvement of the inherent or
heritable properties of crops.
2) Botany (plant morpho-anatomy, plant physiology, plant systematics and plant
ecology) - concerned with plant structures, processes and relationships among plants as well as
to their environment.
3) Soil science - study the nature and properties of soils; fundamental principles upon
which proper soil management is based.
4) Plant Pathology and Entomology - concerned with insect pests pathogens and
weeds; their nature, as well as their control.
5) Agricultural engineering - concerned with farm structures, farm machinery, water
management as well as waste disposal.
6) Agricultural economics - concerned with the economics of production and marketing
of agricultural products.
7) Agricultural meteorology - concerned with the study of weather and climate. The
study of meteorology enables one to do weather forecasting and thus help the farmer minimize
losses due to bad weather.

A. The Nature and Importance of Agriculture

Agriculture defined

The terms "agriculture", "agricultural", and "farming" refer to all of the following:
(1) The cultivation of soil for production and harvesting of crops, including but not limited
to fruits, vegetables, sod, flowers and ornamental plants.
(2)  The planting and production of trees and timber.
(3)  Dairying and the raising, management, care, and training of livestock, including
horses, bees, poultry, and other animals for individual and public use, consumption, and
marketing.
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 (4)  Aquaculture as defined in G.S. 106-758.
(5)  The operation, management, conservation, improvement, and maintenance of a
farm and the structures and buildings on the farm, including building and structure repair,
replacement, expansion, and construction incident to the farming operation.
(6)   When performed on the farm, "agriculture", "agricultural", and "farming" also include
the marketing and selling of agricultural products, agritourism, the storage and use of materials
for agricultural purposes, packing, treating, processing, sorting, storage, and other activities
performed to add value to crops, livestock, and agricultural items produced on the farm, and
similar activities incident to the operation of a farm.

Definition of Agriculture (lower limit)

In the Philippines, the average farm size of 1.5 has is devoted to agriculture. In this
small piece of land, farmers produce a minimum number of livestock and plants and other
products with economical turnover.
Agriculture is any form of human activity that comprises utilization of soil for the purpose
of growing and harvesting crops meant for human or animal consumption, fibers, energy or
anyother economical utilization. Utilization of the soil for grazing animals and as basis for
livestock production and animal breeding of any kind is also comprised as agricultural
production.
Livestock production based on animals without access to the soil and where animal
faeces is not applied to the soil without an intermediate technical treatment is not comprised as
agriculture.
It is up to member countries to define the minimum size of a production unit categorised
as an agricultural enterprise but not higher than 2 ha of land and a number of animals
equivalent to 2 livestock units.

1. Some Data and Facts About Philippine Agriculture

o The Philippines is a tropical country, where most areas grow crops the whole year
round. It has 2 (previously) distinct seasons based on rainfall: wet (late part of April to
early part of October) and dry (late part of October to early part of April), where most
farmers are subsistence farmers with rice and corn as staple crops. According to
Coronas (1920), there are 4 types of climate in the country.
o The top three crops in the country are rice, corn and sugarcane. Field legumes like
soybean, mungbean and peanut are considered only secondary crops in terms of
economic importance. Worldwide, wheat, rice and corn are the top three major crops.
o The primary crop which is rice has at least 3 types of culture: irrigated lowland rice,
rainfed lowland rice, rainfed upland rice. Very recently, the Philippine government is
pushing for a nationwide hybrid rice production as one of its HIPS or high-impact
projects. Examples of rice hybrids are PSB Rc 72H or mestizo and Magilas (from
Monsanto). Such hybrids can potentially yield > than 9 tons/ha.
o Except for corn, the following major Philippine crops are under the research and
development possibilities of certain institutions: rice by the PhilRice (Phil Rice Research
Institute) and indirectly, IRRI (International Rice Research Institute); sugarcane by
PhilSuRIN (Phil Sugar Research Institute Foundation, Inc.); coconut by PCA (Phil
Coconut Authority).
o For corn production, Isabela is the top corn-producing province in terms of production
yield and next is Bukidnon.

2. Problems, status, and prospects of Philippine Agriculture

o There are about 0 M Filipinos (73.14 M in 2002), and the projected increase in population
in 1195 to 2025 was 55%. The domestic food demand is also about 55%, which may
not met if the current practices of crop production in the country will continue.
o Sustainable resource utilization and management is a major concern in Philippine
Agriculture, and land use conversion is another – where, agricultural areas are being
converted for industrial uses, among others. And, example of which is CALABARZON
(Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal and Quezon provinces, which were prime agricultural
provinces before were converted into industrial areas).

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 o The country is not yet sufficient in rice and corn production, which are its staple crops.
The local demand is still largely subsidized by importation. The AFMA Code of 1998
(Agricultural and Fisheries Modernization Act) is the banner program of the Philippine
government to strengthen and to develop the agriculture industry in the country.
o There are different views as to the value of GATT in ushering development for the country.
GAAT (general Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) which aims at promoting agricultural
trade by decreasing protectionism at national levels and increasing open regional and
world markets through reductions (or removal) of tariffs and subsidies, and thereby
promoting freer trade among countries; and this is highly supported by the WTO (World
Trade Organization). In short, GATT is about trade liberalization in the world.
o Biotechnology which has two categories: Traditional and modern is another highly debated
issue. Modern biotechnology, especially the use of GMOs (genetically modified
organisms) , is under the tighter spot. However, it has been used in several developed
countries since early 1990s commercially. In 2002, about 58.7 million hectares were
cultivated with GM crops (genetically modified crops) in 16 countries led by the USA,
Argentina, Canada, China and South Africa.
o Traditional biotechnology refers to the practices that have long been used such as cross-
pollination, breeding, fermentation and others; while modern biotechnology makes use of
genetic information found in the DNA to improve materials used in food production,
medicine, and others. Generally, biotechnology is the use of living organisms
(microorganisms, plants and animals), their parts or products to make materials such as
food, medicine, chemicals and others that are useful to man.
o The Philippine government which is supporting the biotechnology campaign for the food
sufficiency program of the government is certainly eyeing the potentials of
biotechnology, as well as, considering responsibly and studying its risks. The field trial
for Bt corn varieties of the Monsanto Company had concluded and these may be
commercialized in two years time.
o Hybrid rice varieties which makes use of cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) system usher a
lot of promise in the aim of food sufficiency program of the government. Most recently,
hybrid rice varietal development may be further revolutionized by the use of thermo-
sensitive genetic sterility system.

3. The nature and features of agricultural systems

o Agricultural systems in the Philippines are not sustainable. If not highly dependent on
non-farm resource inputs, these are being cultivated very poorly, i.e. poor inputs and
poor technical innovations; or existing in marginal areas.
o Agricultural systems in the Philippines are mostly monocropping in nature. Multicropping
inspite of its benefits, is still less popular because it is more labor intensive. Crop
rotation is seldom practiced, although some rice farmers in rainfed lowlands make use of
legumes (e.g. mungbean) as rotation after rice.
o Rice production is the country generally use inbred varieties (varieties that were
developed through self-pollination and selection). On the other hand, corn production
make use of hybrids (first generation offspring of a cross between 2 different individuals),
OPVs (open pollinated varieties) and traditional farmer’s varieties or landraces.
o Many agricultural systems practice conventional farming, which is largely dependent of
inorganic fertilizer inputs and pesticides. An extreme case is the slash and burn
agriculture or kaingin’ which continues to threaten the forested areas of the country.

4. The nature of agriculture as a field of study

o Agriculture is simply the art and science of raising plants and animals; and is considered
the basic and mother industry of most countries. Therefore, it has two branches: crop
production and animal production. Agriculture is the basic field where scientific
knowledge is needed, and an applied field where scientific principles, concepts and
theories are put into practice. However, one of the concerns or problems in Philippine
Agriculture is the immense gap between scientific knowledge and its application.
o Crop Production has two disciplines: agronomy (field crop production and management)
and horticulture (garden, orchard and plantation crop cultivation)

5. Performance Of Philippine Agriculture, January- March 2007

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 Agriculture recorded a 3.55 percent growth during the first quarter of 2007. The
crops, livestock and poultry subsectors registered production increases of more than 2.00
percent each during the period. However, it was the fishery subsector with its 8.52 percent
surge in output that proved to be the major gainer in the first quarter of 2007. The gross value of
agricultural output amounted to P243.2 billion at current prices. Compared to the previous year,
the sector posted a 4.78 percent increase in gross receipts this year
The crops subsector which accounted for 48.84 percent of the total agricultural
output came up with 2.01 percent growth during the reference period. A sustained
increase in corn production was noted as this year, another 11.43 percent output increment was
achieved. In the case of palay, increase in production was registered at 1.69 percent. Other
major crop gainers were banana, pineapple, mango and tobacco. The gross revenues from crop
production reached P130.0 billion at current prices or 2.22 percent more than last year’s record.
The livestock subsector put up almost the same growth rate it recorded last year.
A 2.20 percent expansion in production was noted this year. An upward trend in the
production of hog, goat and dairy was reported during the reference period. At current prices,
the subsector garnered P39.3 billion worth of output. This translated to about 4.00 percent
growth in gross earnings this year. Its share in total agricultural output was 12.63 percent.
The poultry subsector recovered from last year's slump. For the first quarter of
2007, output increased by 2.30 percent. The subsector contributed about 15.00 percent to
total agricultural production. During the period, chicken registered a 2.32 percent gain in
production. At current prices, the subsector grossed P30.3 billion and indicated a 9.72 percent
increase from 2006 record..
The fishery subsector which accounted for 23.68 percent of total agricultural
output expanded by 8.52 percent during the first quarter of 2007. Commercial fisheries
recorded a turnaround while municipal fisheries sustained the uptrend in production. Growth in
aquaculture production was not as robust as in the previous year. Gross value of fisheries
output amounted to P43.7 billion at current prices or 10.34 percent more than last year’s record.
On the average, farmgate prices of agricultural commodities posted a 1.19 percent
growth during the first three months of 2007. The poultry subsector registered the biggest
price appreciation of 7.25 percent. In the livestock subsector, prices went up by 1.75 percent.
The fishery subsector had an average price gain of 1.67 percent. Meanwhile, prices in the crop
subsector recorded a measly 0.20 percent gain.

B. Classification of Agricultural Crops

Definition of Terms

1. Cultivar – cultivated variety

2. Variety – a group of plants within a species that differ from the rest of the species
3. Family – is usually the highest taxon included in the plant identification study
4. Taxonomy – the field of science that deals with the classification, nomenclature and
identification of plants

1. Botanical Classifications

Plants are named in 3 ways:

1. Common name – usually the English name
2. Local name – varies from place to place
3. Scientific name – follows the binomial system of nomenclature (genus and species)

2. Agronomic or field crops

Agronomy is a term derived from the Latin words, "Agros", meaning field or farm and
"Nomos", pertaining to management.
Agronomic crops are annual herbaceous plants that are grown on the farm under a system
of "extensive" or large-scale culture. The crops can be further grouped based on the manner by
which they are utilized.
 Cereals or grain crops belonging to the grass family, Graminaceae, which are utilized as
staples. The word "cereal" is derived from the name of the most important grain deity, the
Roman Goddess Ceres.
The most important cereal crops grown in the Philippines are rice (Oryza sativa) and corn
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(zea mays). Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) is a minor cereal crop grown in the country. Millet
(Pennisetum typhoides and Eleusine coracana) and sorghum are important staples in India,
Middle East and Africa. Wheat (Triticum aestivum) is the principal grain crop in temperate
countries, notably North America, Europe, Middle East, Argentina and Australia.
 Grain legumes or pulses of the family Leguminoseae, which are consumed in the dry
seed form. The legumes are rich sources of protein. The plants possess the ability to fix
nitrogen from the air in symbiotic association with the Rhizobium bacteria. The major legume
crops in the Philippines are: mungbean (Vigna radiata); peanut (Arachis hypogaea); and
soybeans (Glycine max).
 Fiber crops are sources of fiber. The commercial fiber crops in the Philippines are: kenaf
(Hibiscus sabdarisffa); jute (Corchorus olitorius); ramie (Boehmeria nivea); cotton (Gossypium
hirsutum).
 Root crops which are rich sources of carbohydrates. The major species are: cassava
(Manihot esculenta); sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas).
 Forage legumes and grasses for animal fodder. The important grass species are: napier
or elephant grass (Pennisetumpurpureum); Guinea grass (Panicum marimum); paragrass
(Brachiaria mutica); pangola grass (Digitaria decumbens); Alabang X (Dicanthium aristatum).
The important legume forages are: centro (Centrosema pubescens); ipil-ipil (Leucaena
leucocephala); Townsville stylo (Stylosanthes humilis); siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum).
 Crops for industrial processing. The economic species are: sugarcane (Saccharum
officinarum); tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum); castor bean (Ricinus commun is).

3. Horticultural Crops

The term "horticulture" is derived from the Latin words: "Hortus", meaning garden and
"colere", to cultivate.
Horticultural crops are annual and perennial species which are grown under a system of
"intensive" culture which means they usually require special care. They can be further grouped
in relation to the manner that they are utilized.
 Olericultural or vegetable group. This consists of a broad range of crops including leafy,
fruit and root vegetables.
Some of the important species are: onion (allium cepa); garlic (allium sativum); tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum); eggplant (Solanum melongena); cabbage (Brassica oleraceae);
yardlong bean or "sitao" (Vigna sesquipedales); winged bean or seguidillas (Psophocarpus
tetragonolobus); bitter gourd or "ampalaya" (Momordica charantia); watermelon (Citrullus
lunatus); pechay (Brassica napus).
 Pomological or fruit crops which are consumed fresh or in the processed form. This is a
diverse group and some of the major species are: mango (Mangifera indica); banana (Musa
spp.); pineapple (Ananas comosus); papaya (Carica papaya); lanzones (Lansium domesticum);
rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum); pummelo (Citrus grandis); durian (Durio zibethinus);
mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana).
 Ornamental plants which include a wide variety of species grown for the cutflower
industry and decorative purposes. The major cutflower species are the orchids (Dendrobium
and Vanda), anthurium, rose (Rosa sp.), chrysanthemum (C. morifolium) and gladiolus
(Gladiolus sp.).
 Plantation crops for industrial processing. The major crops are: coconut (Cocos
nucifera); coffee (Coffea spp.); cacao (Theobroma cacao); abaca (Musa textilis); rubber (Hevea
brasiliensis). Other plantation crops that are yet of minor importance in the Philippines but which
have high economic potential are the following:

 Spice-producing crops: black pepper (Piper nigrum); vanilla (tanillaplanfolia);

 Aromatic or essential-oil producing crops: lemon grass or "tanglad" ((ymbot)ogon

citratus); citronella or "salay" (C. winterianus); patchouli (Pogostemon cablin); vetiver
grass (Vetiveria zizanoides); "ilang-ilang" (Cananga odorata)

 Medicinal and biocidal plants which are sources of pharmaceutical and insecticidal
compounds. Examples of native species which have been clinically tested to have
medicinal properties are "lagundi" (Vitex negundo), "yerba buena" (Mentha cordiflora)
and "sambong" (Blumea balsamifera).

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 As already mentioned, the method of grouping of crops into agronomic and horticultural is
based not on botanical differences but on the purpose and extent by which the crops are
cultivated, which can be arbitrary, depending on the prevailing situations in the country. This
point needs further clarification.
Intensive and extensive cultivation based on physical area has been used as a point of
distinction but this is no longer valid. In the Philippines, sweet potato, white potato and field
beans are still considered horticultural by virtue of their intensive nature of culture. However, in
other countries where the production of such crops is done in a highly mechanized and
extensive scale, they are classified as agronomic crops.
Intensive cultivation refers to a system in which a high amount of inputs in terms of capital,
labor and technology is invested per unit of land area (Janick 1972). In many horticultural crops,
the products are of high value as to warrant such large investments per unit of land area. For
example, the sugary gene in maize which increases the value of sweet corn warrants its
intensive care.
Another point of distinction is the state in which crop products are used. Horticultural
products are usually utilized in the "living state" and are thus highly perishable; high moisture
content of freshness is a necessary factor for quality. In contrast, the usable products of
agronomic crops are usually in high dry matter form or in a "non-living state" (Janick 1972).
Usage of the commodity has also been used as a basis of grouping crops. A good example
is maize; when it is grown and utilized as a grain crop, it is classified as agronomic; when it is
used as vegetable as in the case of young corn and sweet corn, it is classified as a horticultural
crop.

4. Descriptive Classification

1. Growth habits - Annuals, Biennials, Perennials

2. Structure and Form – Herbaceous, Woody, Vines and Trees
3. Leaf retention – Deciduous, Evergreen
4. Climatic condition – Tropical, Temperate, Sub-tropical
5. Usefulness – rootcrop, medicinal crop, forage, fruit and vegetable, grains or cereals,
ornamentals, fiber crop, sugar crop, beverage, cover crop, companion crop, catch
crop

Botanical Classification of common agronomic and horticultural crops

Classification RICE CORN SORGHUM PEANUT SOYBEAN MUNGBEAN

Kingdom Plantae - do - - do - - do - - do - - do -
Phylum Spermatophyta - do - - do - - do - - do - - do -
Class Angiosperm - do - - do - - do - - do - - do -
Sub-class Monocotyledon - do - - do - Dicotyledon - do - - do -
Order Graminalis - do - - do - Rosales - do - - do -
Family Graminae - do - - do - Leguminosease - do - - do -
Genus Oryza Zea Sorghum Arachis Glycine Vigna
Species Sativa Mays Bicolor hypogeae Max radiata
Scientific Oryza sativa L. Zea Sorghum Arachis Glycine Vigna
name mays L. bicolor L. hypogea L. max L. radiate W.

Classification Banana Mango Coconut Cabbage Eggplant Chrysantemum

Kingdom Plantae - do - - do - - do - - do - - do -
Phylum Spermatophyta - do - - do - - do - - do - - do -
Class Angiosperm - do - - do - - do - - do - - do -
Sub-class Monocotyledon Dicotyledon Monocotyledon Dicotyledon Dicotyledon Dicotyledon
Family Musaceae Anacaredia Palmae Crucifirae Solanaceae Compositae
Genus Musa Mangifera Cocos Brassica Solanum Chrysantemum
Species Spp. Indica nucifera oleracea melongena spp
Scientific Musa Mangifera Cocos Brassica Solanum Chrysantemum

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name spp. indica nucifera oleracea melongena spp.

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 Comparison Between Agronomic and Horticultural Crops

CRITERIA AGRONOMIC CROPS HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Commodities Cereals, grain legumes, peanut, Vegetables, fruits, ornamental
sugarcane, forages, etc. plants, plantation crops, etc.

Diversity/unit growing area less More

Management Extensive Intensive

Income/unit area Lower Higher

Adaptation Limited Wide

Utilization Eaten as staples Consumed with staples

Consumption Usually processed and are Usually consumed in fresh

eaten at mature stage form and can be eaten at any
stage depending on purpose

Aesthetic Value Lower Higher

Nutritive value Carbohydrates, proteins and Provides important vitamins

lipids plus vitamins and minerals and minerals, some
carbohydrates, protein and
lipids

Life cycle Semi-annual, annual, few Semi-annual, annual, biennial

perennials and perennial

Compatibility to cropping Less Highly compatible

systems

Moisture content of low high

harvested product

3. The Nature and Composition of Plants

The organizational structure of plants represent a complex system composed of different

levels which can be summarized as follows:

Organelles Cells Tissues Organs Systems Organism/plant Community

A cell contains the different organelles and groups of cells composed the tissues, group
of tissues formed organs, group of organs comprise the system and the systems altogether
make-up the plant.

A. The Plant Cell

The cell is the unit of structure of life of an organism. All plants are made-up of cells.
They have components that occur in all living cells (i.e. nucleus), but there are components (like
the chloroplast) that are present only in the leaves and other organs.
The functions of cells depend on their type and components: they can divide, grow,
transport food and water, photosynthesize, respire, secrete nectar, excrete and contain toxic
substances, etc. Some cells contain genetic materials that control the activities of cells and can
be inherited by new cells through cell division.

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Parts of a Cell

1. Protoplast. Protoplast is divided into many compartments by different particles and

membranes or organelles. Among these organelles, the most important is the nucleus which is
the bearer of the hereditary characteristics. It is composed of a bounding nuclear envelope and
a kanyolymph fluid which bathes the recticulum or chromosomes.
The particles of a cell include the chloroplast where photosynthesis occur, and the
mitochondria, the site of respiration. The membranes also include the bounding ectoplast and
tonoplastend and the internal endoplasmic reticulum and the dictysomes. The ergostic
materials include the cell wall, starch grains, crystals and proteinaceous bodies.
2. Cell Wall. The cell wall is the outside rigid membrane that surrounds the entire
protoplast. The wall is secreted by the protoplast which separates the protoplasts from each
other. These walls are cemented together by the intercellular substance called the middle
lamella composed of pectates and other substances.
The first wall formed by the protoplasts is the primary wall which is composed mainly of
cellulose. As this wall ages more deposits by the protoplast brings about the formation of the
secondary wall. Between the cell wall and the protoplast is the membrane that envelops that
protoplast which is the cell membrane also called the plasmamembrane or plasmalemma. It is
a semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the protoplasm. It is a barrier which protects the
cells from harmful substances. However, it allows the passages of gases and nutrients into and
out of the cell.

B. Anatomical Regions of the Plant Body

C. Plant Tissues and Tissue System

The primary plant body is composed of the following different kinds of cells and tissues.
1. Epidermis – which has three types of cells: epidermal, guard and epidermal hairs
2. Cortex – composed of collenchyma, sclerenchyma (the fibers and the sclereids) and
parenchyma
3. Vascular tissues – consist of xylem and the phloem
4. Pith – composed largely of parenchyma with occasional fibers
5. Pith rays – composed of parenchyma cells

Functions of cells and tissue systems

1. The parenchyma cells functions as storage of water and food and for the conduction
of materials
2. Collenchyma, sclereids, fibers and tracheids strengthen the cells or serve as
mechanical tissue elements
3. Tracheids and vessels conduct water and mineral salts
4. Sieve-tubes conduct food
5. Vascular cambium is a meristematic tissue whose cells are capable of cell division

D. The Plant Organs

Nature has provided us the array of plants which vary in sizes and forms. Some plants
are tall with a single trunk (stem) while others have many branch-stems of equal size, which
may be woody, tender or non-woody. Although there are 14 large divisions or phyla, most
plants that we see today belong to Pterophyta which is composed of the cone-bearing, the class
gymnospermae, (the conifers) and the large class Angiospermae which have diverse
appearances of leaves and either evergreen or deciduous and can be divided into two groups,
the monocots and the dicots.
The stem. Generally, there are four types of stems: 1) the stems of the woody
dicotyledons and gymnosperms; 2) monocotyledonous stems; 3) stems of the herbaceous
plants; and, 4) different modified stems.
All stems have nodes and internodes which may be distinct or not. The buds and
leaves are attached on these nodes and by their position on the stem can either be terminal,
laternal or axillary, accessory or adventitious. These buds further can develop into a leaf, flower
or a combination of both.
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 Functions of the stem
1) As support system. Stems function to support the leaves, flowers and fruits. The
leaves being the site of photosynthesis are held in a favourable position by the stem to receive
air and light. Likewise, the flowers are raised in a position that will facilitate pollination and
subsequent dispersal of seeds.
2) As conduction system. The stem conducts water, mineral salts from the roots to the
structures above the soil. It also conducts food from the leaves to all parts of the plants.
3) As storage of food and water. Some plants particularly the rootcrops have stems
which store food and water.
4) As vegetative reproductive structures. The stems can be used as propagating
materials.

The Leaves. The lamina which is the expanded flat part of the blade is the most
important part of the true leaf. The leaf blade may be attached to a stem-like part known as
petiole. The base of the leaf encircles the stem called leaf sheath.
Modified leaves are the bracts and tendrils. The tendrils which are used by the plants to
twine around objects are the slender thread-like structure while the bracts are simpler in shape
and structure than a leaf and more exposed than the petals.

The Root. Roots absorb nutrients and water from the soil. They serve as the anchorage
of the plant to the growing media. They could be storage organs for food.
The cross section of a simple root has:
1) epidermis which consists of a layer of epidermal cells and a protective layer called
cuticle
2) vascular cylinder which is composed of the vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) and
one or more layers of non-vascular tissues called pericycle.
3) cortex which is between the epidermis and the vascular cylinder

The Flowers. Reproductive structure of a plant which are composed of the following
parts:
1) receptacle which is the enlarge based of a flower where the floral organs are arrange
such as the petals, sepals and stamens
2) petals collectively called corolla are the highly colored part of the flower
3) sepals collectively called calyx are the green leaf-like structures enclosing the flower
at bud stage
4) carpels (pistil) collectively called gynecium consist of:
a. ovary – contains the ovules which will become seed
b. Stigma – where pollen lands and grows
c. Style – connects the ovary and the stigma (this may be absent)
5) Stamen collectively called androecium consists of:
a. anther – contains the pollen
b. filament – stalk of the anther

The Fruits. Fruits are formed as a result of fertilization of the egg cell. Some fruits
developed even without fertilization as in banana, pineapple, seedless grapes. These fruits are
called parthenocarpic fruits.
The fruits consit of the fruit wall and the seeds. The fruit wall could be dry or fleshy,
dehiscent (splits apart when ripe) or indehiscent. The three layers of fruit wall are:
1) exocarp or epicarp – outer layer which is colored, thick and has oil glands beneath
the surface
2) mesocarp – middle part which is white and spongy
3) endocarp – the inner part which is composed of locular membrane and the juice sacks

Quoted Literature:

Rimando, Tito J. 2001. Fundamentals of Crop Science. Dept of Hort. UPLB, Laguna.
CLSU Reviewer on Licensure Examination for Agriculturists
Osea, J.A. 2007. Compilation of Lecture Guides in Agriculture 1.
www.bas.gov.ph
www.da.gov.ph

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