A MANUAL trF ENVIRONMENTAL PLAXNINGI AND OEAIGIN

LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECTURE
 LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECTURE
A Manual of E"uironmental
PlnnningandDesign

FOURTHEDITION

/
Completelyreuisedwith emphasison the shapingof a
betterenuironmentfor liuing and the careofplanet Earth

JOHNORMSBEE SIMONDS
\N. STARKE
BARRY

McGrow-Hill
New York Chicogo Sqn Froncisco Lisbon London Mqdrid
MexicoCity Milon New Delhi SonJuon Seoul
Singopore Sydney Toronto
 r'^ {-)
_\ i)

tr2l
)

l a: t'6

Copyright@ 2006,1998,1983,1961byThe McGraw-HillCompanies, Inc.

All rightsreserved.
Printedin the UniredStatesofAmerica.Exceptaspermir-
ted under the united statescopyright Act of 1976,no parr of this publica-
tion may be reproducedor distributedin anyform or by anymeans,or stored
in a databaseor retrievalsystem,without the prior written permissionof the
publisher.

r23456789 0 DO\ilDO\r 0r2109876

ISBN 0-07-146120,5

The sponsoringeditorfor this bookwascary Sullivan,the editingsupervisor

waschristine Furry,and the productionsupervisorwasRichardc. Ruzycka.
It was set in Adobe Garamondby North Market StreetGraphics.The art
directorfor the coverwasAnthony Landi.

Printedand bound by RR Donnelley.

McGraw-Hill booksareavailableat specialquantitydiscountsro useaspre-

miums and salespromotions,or for usein corporatetrainingprograms.For
moreinformation,pleasewrite to the Directorof SpecialSales,McGraw-Hill
Professional,
Two PennPlaza,New York, NY lOI2l-2298. Or contactyour
localbookstore.

This book is printed on acid-freepaper.

This text is gratefully dedicated

To -y teachers,whose gifts to all who would accept them were the

open mind, the awakenedcuriosity, the discerning eye,and the
compelling vision of that which is higher, wider, deeper,and
greater-and worth the striving for . . .
To *y students,who in thoughdul agreementor in lively dissent
have proved a reverberatingsounding board and provided a
stimulating climate for discussionand research. . .
To -y partners and colleaguesin practice, for whom the planning
of a better environment for living is a strong and vital
compulsion . . .
And to lovely Marjorie, my wife, help, and inspiration.

John OrrnsbeeSimonds

This book is further dedicated to all landscape architects who, in the

spirit of John Simonds, strive to make the world a better place; to my
wife, Laurie, who supported me in the effort; to my office staff, who
made the necessaryadjustments;to my assistant,Susan,who personally
adopted the cause;and to the people and firms who generouslycon-
tributed their "Best in Show."

BarryW Starhe
 LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECTURE
 LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECTURE
A Manual of E"uironmental
PlnnningandDesign

FOURTHEDITION

/
Completelyreuisedwith emphasison the shapingof a
betterenuironmentfor liuing and the careofplanet Earth

JOHNORMSBEE SIMONDS
\N. STARKE
BARRY

McGrow-Hill
New York Chicogo Sqn Froncisco Lisbon London Mqdrid
MexicoCity Milon New Delhi SonJuon Seoul
Singopore Sydney Toronto
 r'^ {-)
_\ i)

tr2l
)

l a: t'6

Copyright@ 2006,1998,1983,1961byThe McGraw-HillCompanies, Inc.

All rightsreserved.
Printedin the UniredStatesofAmerica.Exceptaspermir-
ted under the united statescopyright Act of 1976,no parr of this publica-
tion may be reproducedor distributedin anyform or by anymeans,or stored
in a databaseor retrievalsystem,without the prior written permissionof the
publisher.

r23456789 0 DO\ilDO\r 0r2109876

ISBN 0-07-146120,5

The sponsoringeditorfor this bookwascary Sullivan,the editingsupervisor

waschristine Furry,and the productionsupervisorwasRichardc. Ruzycka.
It was set in Adobe Garamondby North Market StreetGraphics.The art
directorfor the coverwasAnthony Landi.

Printedand bound by RR Donnelley.

McGraw-Hill booksareavailableat specialquantitydiscountsro useaspre-

miums and salespromotions,or for usein corporatetrainingprograms.For
moreinformation,pleasewrite to the Directorof SpecialSales,McGraw-Hill
Professional,
Two PennPlaza,New York, NY lOI2l-2298. Or contactyour
localbookstore.

This book is printed on acid-freepaper.

This text is gratefully dedicated

To -y teachers,whose gifts to all who would accept them were the

open mind, the awakenedcuriosity, the discerning eye,and the
compelling vision of that which is higher, wider, deeper,and
greater-and worth the striving for . . .
To *y students,who in thoughdul agreementor in lively dissent
have proved a reverberatingsounding board and provided a
stimulating climate for discussionand research. . .
To -y partners and colleaguesin practice, for whom the planning
of a better environment for living is a strong and vital
compulsion . . .
And to lovely Marjorie, my wife, help, and inspiration.

John OrrnsbeeSimonds

This book is further dedicated to all landscape architects who, in the

spirit of John Simonds, strive to make the world a better place; to my
wife, Laurie, who supported me in the effort; to my office staff, who
made the necessaryadjustments;to my assistant,Susan,who personally
adopted the cause;and to the people and firms who generouslycon-
tributed their "Best in Show."

BarryW Starhe
 t a a
a a
a a a a a " '

t o

a a a a a a a
a a a " '

a a . a a a a
a a a
. aa a a a
a a . a

vonrents:..
^t.r:

Prologue ix 6 . LANDSCAPE
CHARACTER
7I
Foreword xi TheNoturolLondscope7l
TheHunterond thePhilosopher Modlficotion73
TheBuiltEnvironment
79
1. THEHUMANHABITAT
TheHumonAnimol I
Noture 7 7 . TOPOGRAPHY89
TheNoturolSciences l0 by Contours Bq
Represenioiion
TheFcolooir-ol
Bosis l3 Surveys 93
rl
troilnscoPe tJ Doto 95
Supplementory

2 . CLIMATEI9
Climcteond Responsel9 I SITEPLANNING 99
Sociollmprint 20 ProgromDevelopment99
Accommodotion2l SiteSelection l0O
Glob,:lWorming 2l SiteAnolysis I 02
Microclimctology26 Comprehenslve LondPlonning 106
TheConceptuol Plon I l2
ComputerApplicotion I l7
3 . LAND 33
H u m o nl m p o c i 3 3
Londos o Resource36
9 . SITE 121
DEVELOPMENT
LondGronts 38
ExpressionI 2l
Siie-Structure
LondRights 38
PlcnDevelopmentI 33
Site-Structure
Surveying39 Siip-Strr
rr^tr
rre I Jnihr | 36
Use 40
SiteSystems 139

4 . WATER43
Woteros o Resource43 1 0 . LANDSCAPE
PLANTING 145
NoiurolSysiems47 Purpose 145
Monogemeni50 Process 146
SiteDesign </l
Woter-Reloted Guidelines | 47
Advonces I 53
6I
5 . VEGETATION
Topsoil Montle 6l
Plonts in Noture 62 1 ' , tSITE
. VOLUMES157
P l o n t l d e n t i f i c o t i6o4n Spoces I 57
PlontCulture 65 TheBosePlone | 70
lntroduced Plontotions67 TheOverheodPlone | 73
Vonishing Green 68 TheVerticols 175

vtl
 17. URBAN
D E S I G N2 9 9
Ciiyscope 299
TheCiryDiogrom 302
T h eU b i q u i t o u
Asu r o m o b i l e3 t t
People P l o c e s3 t 2
U r b o nG r e e n U, r b o nB l u e 3 1 3
T h eN e w U r b o n i l y 3 1 4

I B. GROWTH
MANAGEMENT3I7
1 3 .CIRCULATION
213 Tl lt.^l
I n e U u t o e t t n ef l o n J l/
Motion 213 Scotterotion
ond UrbcnSprcwl 323
Sequence 224 Resiorotion325
nl
fedestrionMovement 227
TheAutomobile23 t I9. THEREGIONAL
LANDSCAPE
333
Trovelby Roil,Air,ond Woter 240 Interrelotionships 333
PeopleMovers 245 Regionol Form 342
Open-Spoce Frome 343
TheEssentiols345
1 4 . STRUCTURES
249 R e g i o n oPll o n n i n g3 4 5
C o m m o n D e n o m i n o t o2r4s9 Governcnce 346
C o m p o s i t i o n2 5 1
Structures in theLondscope25q 20. THEPLANNED
ENVIRONMENT
949
TheDefined Open Spoce 261 A Conservotion Credo 350
t n v i r o n m e n t o l l s s u3e5s0

1 5 . HABITATIONS 2I . PERSPECT3
I V6E
1
265
Dwelling-Noture Disovowol
ond Quest 36t
Relotionships
265
lnotngs JoJ
HumonNeedsond Hobitot 267
Insights364
Residentiol
Components270
Evolution
ond Revolution366
ThePlonnedExperience367
1 6 . COMMUNITY
PLANNING277 n,
Ketrospecttve 3,23
TheGrouplmperotive277 Proiect Credits 37q
Problems278 LiuototionSources 385
Possibilities
282 B i b l i o g r o p h y3 8 7
New Directions2q2 Index 3Bq

viii Contents
Prologue ix 6. LANDSCAPE 7t
CHARACTER
Foreword xi TheNoturolLondscooe7l
TheHunterond thePhilosopher Modificotion73
TheBuiltEnvironment
79
t. THEHUMANHABITAT
T h eH u m o nA n i m o l I
Noture 7 7. TOPOGRAPHY
89
TheNoturolSciences l0 Representotion
by Contours Bq
TheEcologicol Bosis l3 Surveys 93
Eorthscopel5 Supplemeniory
Doto 95

2 . CLIMATEI9
Climoto e n d R e s p o n s el 9 B . SITEPLANNING 99
Socicllmprint 20 ProgromDevelopmentgq
Accommodotion2l SiteSelection 100
G l o b oW
l orming 2l SiteAnolysis l02
Micr,rclimotology26 Comprehensive LondPlonning 106
TheConceptuol Plon I l2
ComputerApplicotion I l7
3 . LAND 33
H u m o nl m p o c t 3 3
Londos c Resource36
tl^,^n 9 . SITE
DEVELOPMENT
I2I
L O n O\ r f o n I S Jd
Site-Structure
ExpressionI 2l
LondRights 3B
Sife-Structure
PlonDevelopment133
Surveying39
.Site-Strr
rr^tr
rrc I Jnihz I 36
Use 40
SiteSystems 139

4 . WATER43
Woteros o Resource43 1 0 . LANDSCAPE
PLANTING145
NotLrrol
Sysiems47 Purpose 145
Monogement50 Process 146
SiteDesign 5/
Woter-Reloted G u i d e l i n e s1 4 7
^l
AOVONCCS /JJ

5 . VEGETATION
6I
Tops,ril Montle 6l
Plonts in Noture 62 i l . SITE
VOLUMES157
P l o n t l d e n t i f i c o i i6o4n Spoces I 57
PlontCulture 65 TheBosePlone l70
lntroduced Plontotions67 TheOverheodPlone 173
Vonishing Green 68 TheVerticols I 75

vii
 :ll: '..: :ll: .l.i :ll: 'll.
i :"i :":
1I 0
L.
. VrSrsiE ti\zi t..i:..:i"i :
L:ANDScApE DESIGN299
1 7 . URBAN
Tl \./. ':i
. ...1?1
lheView-!-tp1:..::i :. .' : : .: : :
7.
Cilyscope 299
.
T h eV L t oi 7 q 1 . i . . : ' :. : ! 1 j : : ' : : . . 4 : TheCityDiogrom 302
\.^. , '::: '." ' ." :
T h eA x i s . 1
' 94 ." : : : . T h el l h i o r r i t oAr rrsr i o m o b i l3el I
t t ' ^ t'..:
t
t t t '

: ..:
TheSyrnmdfitdl P'lcrrr:
2N: Po^^lo Pl^.o. ?12

A ' s y h i n a t2r yO' 4 ' ". " ': , r b o nB l u e 3 1 3

U r b o nG r e e n U
Vi s u oRl e s o u rceMo n o g e me n2t1 0 T h eN e w U r b o n i l y 3 1 4

tB. GROWTHMANAGEMENT317
1 3 .C I R C U L AT ION2 1 3 T h eG u i d e l i nPel o n 3 1 7
M o t i o n2 1 3 Scotterotion cnd UrbonSprowl 323
Sequence224 Restorction325
Pedestrion Movement227 .|9.
T h eAu t o m o b i l2e3 1 THEREGIONAL 333
LANDSCAPE
Trovel by Rcll,Air,ondWoier 240 333
lnterrelctionships
People Movers 245 RegionolForm 342
O n e n - S n a r ^ eF r c r m e 3 4 3
TheEssentiols345
R e g i o n oPll o n n i n g3 4 5
1 4 . STRUCTURES
249
Governonce346
C o m m o n De n o mi n o2to4rs
9
C o m p o s i t i o2n5 1 20. THEPLANNED 349
ENVIRONMENT
Structuresin theLcndscope259 Credo 350
A Conservotion
Tho l-tofi^ol f)^o. Spq6e 261
Environmentollss3
u5e0
s

2I . PERSPECT3
I V6E
1
265
1 5 . HABITATIONS D r s o v o w o nl d Q u e s t 3 6 1
Dwelling-Noture Relotionships 265 F i n d i n g s3 6 3
HumonNeedsond Hobitol 267 Insights364
R e s i d e n t i o l C o m n o n e2n7t0s Evolution ond Revolution366
ThePlonned Experience367

PLANNING277
1 6 . COMMUNITY Palrncnarti.,o 27?

The Gror'n lmnerotive

',,'Y",",,' 277 Proiect Credlts 379
Problems278 Quotction Sources 385
P o s s l b i l i t i e2s8 2 B i b l i o g r o p h y3 8 7
New Directions292 lndex 38q

viii Contents
On the afternoon of December 72,2004, my phone rang, rhe caller ID
read "John Simonds," and a dreadful thought flashedthrough my mind.
It had been severalyearssince John and I had talked following rwo years
of intense communication preparing for the American Society of Land-
scapeArchitect's centennial celebradon. John was not well at that time
and I feared it was his family calling ro say that John was gravely ill or
had passedaway. Following my hello, the sound of Johnt voice engen-
dered a sigh of relief and what he was about to say would shifr my emo-
tions from fear to total eladon.

"Barry would you consider working wirh me asthe coaurhor of the fourth
edition of LandscapeArcbirccrure?"r couldnt believe what I was hearing.
Then another flash-a flashback to November 22, 1963. Most people
who were old enough at the dme remember rhis as the day John E
Kennedy was assassinatedand, ro a person, remember where they were
and what they were doing at rhar time. on that dayI was in the library ar
the Universiry of Caiifornia, Berkeley, completely absorbed in John
Simonds'sfirst edition of LandscapeArchitecture.Of course, rhe assassina-
tion of John F. Kennedy was an evenr thar touched everyone, but for me
personally the impact rhar event would have on my life and career was
clearlysecondaryto rhe one that John Simondst book would have on my
future and future generationsof landscapearchitects.

\7hen John first published LandscapeArchitecture in 1961, it was before

the digital revolution and modern methods facilitaring the pracrice of
the profession,including compurer-aideddesignand Geographic Infor-
mation Systems.However, what John presenredin the first and subse-
quent editions of LandscapeArchitectare is as applicable today as ir was
when first published. John's genius in communicating rhe principles
of landscapearchirecrural planning and design, rhrough his writing,
sketches,and sharedwords of wisdom of others, is indeed dmelessand
will no doubt help shapethe next cenilry as it has rhe last.

During the following months we exchangedideas and worked on the

fourth edition. John's role was to complete the revised manuscript
and mine was to review rhe manuscript, gather photographs-as John
described "Best in Show"-of works of landscape architecture and
related subjects to illustrate the book. He considered rhe wriring of
LandscapeArcltitectureas his most significant professionalaccomplish-
ment and, of course, working with John as coauthor has been one of
the great honors of my career.

ix
 .. 12 Lafl
'f call to
Lo be.
De. After
^rrer a ralr
fall and
and a brief stay ln
bnet stay in the
h.l
.. : : .:.: the hospital,
hospital, John
John
i :j : :'+aga.d
:'+qla.d home, wherehe passedawaynearfamily and friends.\when \7hen
toan qleo;ne
.::: .::! J.!i died;henad
had,already finishedthe
alreacly trnrshed rhe manuscript,
manuscript,leaving
leavinghis
his wife
wi Marj
;
4Scharge.of final editing. \fith renewed vigor and commitn
commitment to
- . trohrltJeg4cy-the legacyof one of the most influ.ntial landscapearchi-
tects of the nventieth century-my work shifted into high gear and,
Marj likes to say,"rhe rest is hisrory." "s

Barry'$?.Starke

Prologue
 t t3't..'

: :..'::"i i '.i i:.i't..::.i i :

. . . ! ! '- -' l" .tt'I
3tt.

: Fzaidfrerdi:;:
.

i i:.:ii
F .. f.ro a... aaa

aaaaaaaaaaaa

LandscapeArchitecture has been written in response to the need for a

book outlining the land-planning processin clear,simple, and practical
terms. In a larger senseit is a guide book on how to live more compati-
bly on planet Earth.

It introduces us to an understanding of narure as the background and

base for all human activities; it describes the planning constrainrs
imposed by the forms, forces,and featuresof narure and our built envi-
ronment; it instills a feeling for climate and its design implications; it
discussessite selectionand analysis;it insrructs in the planning of work-
able and well-related use areas;it considersthe volumetric shaping of
exterior spaces;it exploresthe possibilitiesof site-structureorganization;
it applies contemporary thinking in rhe planning of expressivehuman
habitations and communities; and it provides guidance in the creation
of more efficient and pleasantplacesand ways within rhe context of the
city and the region.

This book is not intended to explain all forms of the practice of the pro-
fessionor to explicatethe latest technology.Nor is it proposed that the
readerwill become, per se, an expert land planner. fu with training in
other fields, proficiency comeswith long yearsof study, travel, observa-
tion, and professional experience.The reader should, however, gain
through this book a keener and more telling awarenessof our physical
surroundings.The readershould also gain much useful knowledge to be
applied in the design of homes, schools, recreation areas,shopping
malls, trafficways. . . or any other project to be fitted into, and planned
in harmony with, the all-embracinglandscape.

This, at least,has been the expressintent.

XI
The work of the landscapearchitect
(architectof the landscape)
is to help bring people,
their structures,activities,and communities
into harmonious relationship
with the living gx1*r-
with the "want-to-be" of the land.
 TheHunferond the Philosopher
once there was a hunrer who spent his daystracking the wide prairiesof
North Dakota with his gun and dog and somerimeswith a small boy
who would beg to trot along.

soon to reappearwith cheek food pouches bulging.

towns near willow clumps, for theret where the owls or hawks will be

pound out of the north and west to leave the windward slopesof the
rises frozen solid will only drift loose powder snow or, ,oi of their
homes.

warmed by rhe sun, near ro rheir food and waret as far as they can get
from their enemies,and surrounded by all their gopher friends. yes, sir,
they sure have it all planned out!"

"Is our town built on a southeasrslope?"the small boy askedthought-

fully.

"No," said the hunter, "our town slopes down to the north, in the teeth
of the bitter winter winds and cold as a frosty gun barrel." He frowned.
"Even in summer the breezeswork against us. \(hen we built the new
flax mill, the only mill for 40 miles, where do you think we put it? Ve
built it right smack on the only spot where every breezein the summer-
time can catch the smoke from its stack and pour it acrossour houses
and into our open windows!?"
 'At
leastour town is near the river and warer," said the boy defensively.

"Yes," replied the hunter. "But where near the river did we build our
homes? On the low, flat land inside the river bend, that's where. And
each spring when the snows melt on the prairie and the river swells,it
floods out every cellar in our town."

"Gophers would plan things better than that," the small boy decided.

"Yes," said the hunter, "a gopher would be smarter."

"'When gophers plan their homes and rowns," the boy philosophized,
"they seemto do it better than people do."

"Yes," mused the hunter, "and so do most of the animals I know. Some-
times I wonder *hy."

XVI The Hunter and the Philosopher

 LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECTURE

1i.$$.*o1,.- {..-\*
people are animals, too. \7e still retain, and are largely motivated by,
I our natural animal instincts. If we are to plan intelligently, we musr
acknowledge and accommodate these instincrs; the shortcomings of
many a project can be traced to the failure of the planner to recognize
this simple fact.

T h eH u m o nA n i m o l
Homo sapiens(the wise one) is an animal (a superior rype, we commonly
assum,e,although neither history nor close observation altogether sup-
port this assumption).

A human standing in the foresr,with bare skin, weak teeth, thin arms,
and knobby knees, would not look very impressive among the other
creatures.As an animal, the bear with powerful jaws and raking claws
would clearly seemsuperior.Even the turtle seemsmore cunningly con-
trived for both protection and attack, as do the dog, the skunk, and the
lowly porcupine. All creaturesof nature, upon reflection, seemsuperbly
equipped for living their lives in their natural habitat and for meeting
normal situations.AII exceptthe humans.

Lacking speed, strength, and other apparenr natural attributes, we

humans have long since learned that we can best attack a situation with
our minds. Tiuth to tell, we have little other choice.
 'We
alone of all the animals have the abiliry to weigh the factors of a

Intelligence,by onedefinition, must be

rheabTtin n Tespond adaptiuelyto the
enuironient-that is,th'eabiiity n plan a
ofour species.
courseof action basedupon information
gained through tlte senses.
John Todd Simonds Our essentialstrength-the very reasonfor our survival and the key to
all future achievemenl-i5 6u1 unique Power of perception and deduc-
tion. Perception (making oneselfaware of all conditions and applicable
factors) and deduction (deriving, through reason'an appropriate means
ofplanning'
ofprocedure) are the very essence

Down through the dim, chaotic ages,rhe force of the human mind has
met and -"Jt.r.d situation after situation and has raised us (through
this planning process)to a position of supremacyover all the other crea-
tures of the earth.

'We
have,in fact, inherited the Earth. This vast globe on which we dwell
is ours, ours to develop further, as an agreeableliving environment.
Surely,we, with our rwinkling minds, should by now have created for
ourselvesa paradiseupon this earth.

Have we?\what have we done with our superlativenatural heritage?

n"+
f,*k- \7e have plundered our forests.
'we
have ripped at our hills and laid them open ro erosion and ever-
ThethoughtprocessesI percepfion-deduction deepeninggullies.
'we
ore in turnimplementeby thephysicol have befouled our rivers until even the fish and wildlife have
processes ol oction,reactton,csndtnteroctton. often been killed or driven offby the stench and fumes.
Thesefivedynomicdrivesformever-repeoting
cyclesond spinihe intricote webblngof oll Our trafficways are lined with brash commercial hodgepodge and
h u m o nl l f e crisscrossedwith senseless friction points'
\7e have built our homes tight row on dreary row, with little
thought for refreshingfoliage, clean air, or sunlight.

Looking about us with a critical eye,we find much to disturb and shock
us. our cluttered highways, sprawling suburbs, and straining cities
offend more often than they please.
And what is man?Amongstother thingshe is
'We
are the victims of our own building.\fle are trapped, body and soul,
in the mechanistic surroundings we have constructed about ourselves.
Somewherein the complex processof evolving our living spaces,cities,
exPress and roadways,we have become so absorbedin the power of machines,
oun records,and all mentalprocesses
this basicactiuity.Art and science,philosophy so absorbed in the pursuit of new techniques of building, so absorbed
and religion, engineeringand medicine, with new materials that we have neglectedour human needs.Our own
indeedall cultural actiuitiesare basedon the deepestinstincts are violated. Our basic human desiresremain unsatis-
orderingofexperienceand the exploitationof
the resubing design. fied. Divorced from our natural habitat, we have almost forgotten the
Lqncelot Low Whyre glow and exuberanceof being healthy animals and feeling fully alive.

2 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 Many contemporary ailments-our hypertensions and neuroses-are
no more than the physical evidence of rebellion against our physical
surroundings and frustration at the widening gap berweenthe environ-
ment we yearn for and the stifling, artificial one we planners have so far
contrived.

Life itself is dictated by our moment-by-moment adjustment ro our

environment. Just as the bacterial cuhure in the petri dish must have
its scientificallycompounded medium for optimum developmentand
the potted geranium cutting its proper and controlled conditions of
growth to produce a thriving plant, so we-as complicated, hypersen-
sitive human organisms-musr have for our optimum developmenta
highly specializedmilieu. It is baffling that the nature of this ecologi-
cal framework has been so little explored. volumes have been written
on the conditions under which rare types of orchids may best be
grown; numerous manuals can be found on the proper raising and care
of guinea pigs, white rats, goldfish, and parakeets,but little has been
written about the nature of the physical environment best suited to
human culture.

The naturalist tells us that if a fox or a rabbit is snaredin a field and then
kept in a cage,the animal'sclear eyeswill soon becomedull, its coat will
lose its luster,and its spirit will flag. So it is with humans too long or roo
far removed from nature. For we are, first of all, animals.

Euerythingwe haueto do to liue, nature mahes

us do with iust and pleasure.
Senecq

Human rea,onis rootedto the earth.

Kennefh Clork

We hoveleornedto unleoshthe owesomeoowercontoinedwithintheotom Now

we mustleornthe meonsby whichto controlit.

The Human Habitat

 We are creaturesof the meadow,the forest,the sea,and the plain' V'e are
born with a love of fresh air in our lungs, dry paths under our feet, and
the penetrating heat of the sun on our skin. \7e are born with a love for
the feel and smell of rich, warm earth, the taste and sparkle of clear
warer, the refreshingcoolnessof foliage overhead,and the spaciousblue
dome of the sky. Deep down inside we have for thesethings a longing' a
desire somerimes compelling, sometimes quiescent-but always it is
there.

It has been proposed by many sagesthat, other things being equal, the
happiest person is one who lives in closest,fullest harmony with nature.
It might then be reasoned:\fhy not restorehumans to the woods? Let
them have their water and earth and sky, and plenty of it. But is the
primeval forest-preserved, untouched, or simulated-our ideal envi-
ronment? Hardly. For the story of the human race is the story of an
unending struggle to ameliorate the forces of nature. Gradually, labori-
ously,we have improved our shelters,secureda more sustainedanclvar-
ied supply of food, and extended control over the elementsto improve
our way of living.

. . . and when he looked

At sleyor sea,it was taith
the tesringeyes
Of the man who hnotusthe
u)edtherunder his shin,
The man who smellsthe taeather
in the changedbreeze
And hastied hinself againsrir
and liued by it.
It is a raut look bur rhereis a
feedom in it.
Stephen Vincent Ben6t

Theseare the Four that are

neuercontent,that haueneuer
beenf.lled sincethe Dews
began.. .
Jacolai" mout/t, and the We oreiroppedin iheroodside of ourownmochinery.
workings
glut of the Kite, and
the handsofthe Ape, and rhe Eyes
of Man. tVhat alternatives,then, areleft? Is it possiblethat we can devisea v'holly
Rudyord Kipling
artificial environment in which to better fulfill our potential and more
"Jacola is the hyena. happily work out our destiny?This prospect seemsextremely doubtful.
A perceptiveanalysisof our most successfulventuresin planning would
revealthat we have effectedthe greatestimprovements not by striving to
Ecological design zi simply the ffictiue
adaptation to and integration with nature's subjugatenature wholly, not by ignoring the natural condition or by the
Processes. thoughtless replacement of the natural features,contours, and covers
Sim Von der Ryn with our constructions,but rather by consciouslyseekinga harmonious
Stuqrt Cowqn
integration.This can be achievedby modulating ground and structural
forms with those of nature, by bringing hills, ravines, sunlight, water,

4 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE

Thereis th,ztstupendousutholeof a
constructed' enuironment,uthich, lihefate,
enuelopscit,ilized hfe. It must not be alloued
to conflict seriousfuuith . . . natural kws.
The ancient idra of a world wiselyordered
tofunction afor* an ernotionalgratification
that hassltoutneminent and long tested
suruiual ualue.h is the inspirationfor all
planning and duigning.
Richord J. Neutrq
The basicpremiseof scienceis that the
physical world is governedby certain
predictablerules.
Genius of place symbolizesthe liuing ecological our children on their way to school must crossand recrossmurderous traf-
relationshipbetweena particular locationand
thepersonsu,hohauederiuedjiom it and
added to it the uariousaspectsoftheir
humanness.No landscape,hoieuer grandiose
or fertile, cdTt€xplessits full potential richness spacioussetdementsand the open countryside beyond.
until it bas beengiuen its myth fui the loue,
worhs,and arts of human beings.
Ren6 Dubos
plants, and air into our areas of planning concentration, and by
thoughtfully and sympatheticallyspacingour structuresamong the hills,
along the rivers and valleys,and out into the landscape.
6
6
=
Thevisuolclutterof strioroodsidedevelooment.
\7e are perhaps unique among the animals in our yearning for order and
beauty. It is doubtful whether any other animal enjoys a "view," contem-
platesthe magnificence of a venerableoak, or delights in tracing the undu-
'W'e
lations of a shoreline. instinctively seek harmony; we are repelled by
disorder, friction, ugliness,and the illogical. Can we be content while our
towns and cities are still oriented to crowded sffeersrarher than to open
parks? \X4rile highways slice through our communities? \7hile freight
trucks rumble past our churchesand our homes?Can we be satisfiedwhile
ficways?\Vhile traffic itself must jam in and out of the city, morning and
evening, through clogged and noisy valley floors, although these valley
routes should, by all rights, be green, free-flowing parhvays leading into
'We
of contemporary times must face this disturbing fact: our urban,
suburban, and rural diagrams are for the most part ill-conceived. Our
community and highway patterns bear little logical relationship to one
another and to our topographical, climatological, physiological, and
ecological base.\Wehave grown, and often continue to grow, piecemeal,
'We
haphazardly, without reason. \(e are dissatisfied and puzzled. are
frustrated. Somewhere in the planning processwe have failed.
The Human Habitat

Our planning profesionshauea commongoal
in their aim to determine,to neate, and then
heepcurrent optimum relationshipsbekueen
peopleand their enuironments.. . .
Lihe the modernmedicalpractitioner,we
seekto bring abour in ltumansa psychosomatic
balance,an all-luer heahh in the whole man.
This inuoluespsychologicalfactorsas well as
physicaland physiologicalones.. . .
The success of a work of designmay be
soundlyeualuatedonly by its ouer-alllong-
rcrm effict on the heabhy,happysuruiual of
humans.Any other eualuationof architecture,
landscapearchitecture,or citypknning mahes
linle if aryt sense.
Normon T. Newton
Our fiue sensestogetltergiue us an organ of
acquaintance,with whicb weperceiueand
experiencethe outer world.
Hqns Vetter
6 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
Sound planning, we can learn from observation, is not achievedprob-
lem by problem or site by site. Masterful planning examineseach proj-
ect in the light of an inspired and inspiring vision, solveseach problem
as a part of a total and compelling concept, which upon consideration
should be self-evident.Stated simply, a central objective of all physical
planning is to create a more salubrious living environment-a more
secure,effecdve, pleasant,rewarding way of life. Clearly, if we are the
products of environment as well as of herediry, the nature of this envi-
ronment must be a vital concern. Ideally it will be one in which tensions
and frictions have been in the main eliminated, where we can achieve
our full potential, and where, as the planners of old Peking envisioned,
man can live and grow and develop "in harmony with nature, God, and
with his fellow man."r
Such an environment can never be createdwhole; once created,it could
never be maintained in static form. By its very definition it must be
dynamic and expanding, changing as our requirements change. k'will
never,in all probabiliry be achieved.But striving toward the creation of
this ideal environment musr be, in all land planning and design,at once
'T*-
the major problem, the science,and the goal.
All planning must, by reason, meet the measure of our humanity. It
must meet the test of our senses:sight, taste,hearing, scent, and touch.
It must also consider our habits, responses,and impulses.Yet it is not
enough to sadsrythe instincts of the physical animal alone. One must
satisfr also the broader requirementsof the complete being.
As planners,we deal not only with areas,spaces,and materials,not only
with instincts and feeling, but alsowith ideas,the stuff of the mind. Our
designsmust appeal to the intellect. They must fulfill hopes and yearn-
ings. By empathetic planning, one may be brought to one'sknees in an
attitude of prayer,or urged to march, or even elevatedto a high plane of
idealism. It is not enough to accommodate. Good design must delight
and inspire.
Aristotle, in teaching the art and science of persuasion,held that
to appeal to any person an orator must first understand and know
that person. He described in detail the characteristicsof men and
women of various ages,stations,and circumstancesand proposedthat
not only eachpersonbut alsothe characteristics ofeach personbe con-
sidered and addressed.A planner must also know and understand.
Planning in all ageshas been an attempt to improve the human condi-
tion. It has not only mirrored but actively shaped our thinking and
civilization.
'Tianslationfrom manuscript
a in the possession
of H. H. descendant
of architects
of the imperial family.
 II
I

I
I

S o i r o ln e b u l o .

Noture
Nature revealsitself to each of us according to our interests.To the nat-
uralist, nature unfolds a wonderland of spiderweb, egg mass, and fern
frond. To the miner, nature is the tenacious yet prodigious source of
]\'ature is lnre than a banh of resources
to minerals-coal, copper, tungsten, lead, silver.To the hydroelectric engi-
draw on: ii ts the bestmodel we hauefor all
neer, nature is an abundant reservoir of power. To the structural engi-
tl:e designt,toblemstueface.
Sim Von der Ryn neer,nature in everyguise is an eloquent demonstration of the universal
Stuort Gowon principles of form creation to be understood and applied.

\fith our prodigious store of knowledgewe have it within our power to

createon this earth a veritable garden paradise.But we are failing. And

F o r m si n n ; t u r e

The Human Habitat


l of nature and nature's principles. The most significant feature oF our
DustBowl.
The Greehsand Romanshad neuerbotbered
about thefuture but had tried to establish
their paradiseright hereu?on the earth. . . .
Then camethe other extremeof the Middle
Ageswhen man buih himselfa paradise
beyondthe highestcloudsand turned tbis
world into a ualeof tearsfor high and lou. . . .
The Renaissance wAsnot a political or a
religiousmouement.It tuasa stateof mind. In
the Renaissance tnen no longerconcentrated
all of their thoughtsand their ffirts upon the
blessed existencethdt awaited them in Heauen. dable, yet beneficent setting for every project and plan. It is essentialto
Theytried to establishtheir paradiseupon this
planet, and truth to tell, theysucceededin a
remarkabledegree'
Hendrik vqn Loon
we will fail as long as our plans are conceivedin heary-handedviolation
o
o current society is not the scaleof our developmentsbut rather our utter
disdain of nature and our seemingcontempt for topography,topsoil, air
currents,watersheds,and our forestsand vegetalmande. \Wethink with
our bulldozers,plan with our 30-yad carryalls.Thousands upon thou-
sandsof acresof well-watered,wooded, rolling ground are being blithely
plowed under and leveled for roads, homesites,shopping centers,and
factories.Small wonder that so many of our cities are (climatologically
speaking)barren desertsof asphalt,masonry, glass,and steel.
For the moment, it seems,we have lost touch. Perhaps,before we can
progress,we must look back. \(/e must regain the old instincts, relearn
the old uuths. \7e must return to the fundamental wisdom of the
gopher building a home and village and the beaverengineering a dam.
\7e must apply the planning approach of the farmer working fronr day
to day in the fields, fully aware of nature'sforces, forms, and feal-ures,
'We
respecting and responding to them, adapting them to a purpose.
must developa deeperunderstandingof our physicaland spiritual ties to
the earth. We must rediscovernature.
To the physical planner, nature revealsitself asthe eternal,living, formi-
the successof our efforts that we come to know and understand nature.

Thefrst chart of the Gulf Stream wasprepared

about 1769 under the directionof Benjamin
Franklin while he wasdeputypostm/tster E
o
generalof the colonies.The boardof custzmsin o
o
Bostonhad complainedthat the mail pachets :
-
comingjiom England took tuo weehslonger to o

maleethe westwardnossingthan did the Rhode -

o
Island merchantships.Franklin, perp/exed, E

took theproblem to a Nantucketseacaptain,

TimothyFolger,u.,hotold him this mighr ueryt
well be true becausethe RhodeIsland captains
werewell acquainted with the Gulf Streamand
auoidedit on tlte u,estwardcrossing,whereas
theEnglishcaptainsuere not. Folgerand other
Nantucket whahrs uerepersonallyfamiliar
with the streambecause, he explained,"In our
pursuit of whales,tuhich keepto the sidesof it
but are not met u,ithin it, we run alongthe side
andfequently crossit to changeour side,and

aduisedthem to crossit, but thqt weretoo wise

to becounseledby simpleAmericanfisherman.
Rochel Cqrson Ropeby the excovotor

B LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE

well-being depended.
Moi-moi Sze
Kltoto,
Mountain Green,
And uater clean.
Sonyd Roi
Improbablctu it ma! sound,it is a fact that
th; contemporaryaichitect or engiieerfaces
feta problerusin structural designuthiih
nature has not alreadymet and solued.By our
own standards,her designsare snuctural/y
morefficitnt and esrhiticallymore
satisfactorythan ours.
IVesh i u td-n p araph rase that forthrigh t
pre- Ciuil V:hr oitic, Horatio Greenough-
learnfiom nature lihe men and not copyher
lihe apes.But the truth of the matter ii that
we haue only recentlyperfectedtlte means
wherebyher structurescan really be
understood'
Fred M. severud
instinctively seeksour shelter; and just as a sailor is at home on rhe sea,
readsthe shoal, sensesthe sandbar,interprets the sky, and observesthe
changing conformation of the ocean bottom-jusr so musr planners be
Set amidst a narional forest of pine and maple trees,Kyoro over-
looks a broad river valley in which clear mountain water slides
and splashesbetween grear mossy boulders. Here in ordered
arrangementare terracedthe stone, timber, and paper buildings
of the ciry eachstructure planned to the total site and fitted with
great artistry to the ground on which it stands. In this remark-
able landscape,each owner considershis land a trusr. Each tree,
rock and spring is considereda specialblessingfrom his gods, to
be preservedand developedto the bestof his abiliry for the ben-
efit of ciry neighbors, and friends. Here, as one overlooks the
wooded ciry or moves through its pleasantstreets,one realizes
the fullest meaning of the phrase"rhe srewardshipof land."
Kyoto, as an illusrious example of oriental land planning, was laid out
in accordancewith the preceptsof geomancy.These deal with the loca-
tion and designof land useparternsand strucrural forms in responseto,
and in harmony with, the paths of energyflow through the earth and the
atmosphere.
To the \(/estern mind, this practice may seem dubious. In the more
mature cuhures, its efficacy is unquestioned. Unfortunately its principles
have been veiled in religious mysticism and never clearly defined in tech-
nological terms. Let it be said only that historically architecrs,planners,
and engineers have expressedin their construcrions an intuitive feeling
for those geological conditions and natural forceswhich have shaped and
continue to govern the physical landscape and which have a powerful
influence on all elementsintroduced. Such pervasiveconditions include
surface and subsurface rock formations, srrata, cleavages, fissures,
drainageways, aquifers, mineral seams and deposits, and lines and
upwellings of electrical flow. They include also the air currents, tides,
variations in temperature, solar radiation, and the eafth's magnetic field.
The Human Habitat 9
 T h eN o t u r o S
l ciences
The landscapearchitect'sunique strength and contribution to the c:om-
prehensiveplanning processis a general knowledge of the natural sci-
.r,..r. Especiallyapplicableare geology,hydrology, biology, botany, and
ecology.These are in addition to such sciencesas chemistrl, Ph)'sics,
electronics,the humanities,and graphic communication.All are essen-
tial to sound landscapedesign.

Geology
To understand the topographical base for any building project it is
essentialto know the structure and soil type of the earth'ssurfacelayers.
The geologistlearns early on that the tops of hills and ridges are gener-
ally underlaid with the denser subsoil or rock-which make for solid
footing. They make excavationmore difficult and expensive,horn'ever.
This suggeststhe designof buildings without basementsor lower lcvels.
Such costly excavatedspace is replaced where feasible with on-grade
building units around courts, which also serve to block hilltop winds
and hold the warming winrer sun.

Sloping topography suggeststerraced structures, open to the outward

view and with low retaining walls. Except in regions of drought, lower
ground and especiallyvalley bottoms below vegetateduplands czLnbe
expectedto have deeper,moister, richer soils for crops and gardens.Here
basementsor deeperfoundations may be required to reach bearing, but
Volcono. Howoiion Volcono Observotory the digging is easy.

o
o
E

,f
o
o
o
o
O

j
j

o
;
F

o f g e o l o g i cm o p ,V e n t u r oC, o l i f o r n i o
Portion

t0 LAND SCAPEARCHI TECTURE


Ail organit t: turn energl and food into liuing
m,ztteruhi e producing uaste materialsof
uariouskin l:. This tuastemlttter becomes food
lirerally "decay
for legionstf saprophytes,
eAters."Tht;t decomposerg which outnumber
sp,:ciesof al other binds, include beetles,fungi,
nematodes,zqd bacteria. Throughtheir
comPlemen,ary metabolicpathways,they
rerurn both e.;sentialnu*ients and trace
m,:nerals to 1'tiu( circulation.
Sim Von der Ryn
Stuqrt Cowqn
I
t;\
I
,!
- . F l
. 'l
*l
7tl
o
The level site, as on the plain, suggestsan expandedbuilding plan form,
with wings to catch and check the breezeand courrs to protecr from the
wind and drift. The study of geologyalso makesone exrremelyconscious
of the deep-lying and shifting tectonic plates, the fault lines, volcanic
cores, and the potential hazardsof tornados and flooding. Or a more
modest scaleit teachesof the varioussoil rypesand their qualitiessuch as
erosion resistance,fertiliry and structural bearing. In land use planning,
theseareto be avoidedfor major transporration/transirways or settlements
where lives are endangered.They are better reservedfor welcome open
space-left natural or with limited use,asfor gamelands or recreation.In
storm-prone areas,early detectionand monitoring techniquesprovide for
early evacuation,savingthousandsof lives and untold destruction.
'litz ;-lydrologie* ' 7 U J !(-..r,
t Condenstlon
Inclouds
I
;
Waler Storaoe 6
in l@ and 8n@
{/ -\'-
E
Padplb$on 3
o
Phob3ynhesis
-oo
o
- o
coz
o
l
o
i
:
o
Water StoECe
ln O6an3
Thewotercycle.
Hydrology
Hydrology relatesto land and resourceplanning in the form of water
management.Those with an understanding of topography have learned
to developland usepatterns in which extensivedrainageinlets and deep
sewer mains are not needed. Instead, surfacedrainage,isconducted by
swalesto retention ponds or natural stream,f.NTastewateralso flows by
gravity in shallow lateralsto outfull mains which follow the slope of the
land. \Watermanagementhasbecomeincreasinglyimpoflant iri;regional
planning since potable water shortagehas become common. Irrigation
and the transmission to urban centers have dr'ained once-abundant
rivers and watersheds.Population growth along both coastshas drawn
down well fields to the point where saltwater intrusion is serious..This
problem can no longer be orrerlooked.Nor can the large sweeos'6flawn
irrigated with freshwaterbe allowed. Irrigation of lawns a-ndcroplands
'Wlth
will soon be treated by wastewater. dual potable and treatedwaste-
water systems,our freshwaterreservescan be replenished.
The Human Habitat il
 Biology
\With biology being the study of all forms of life and their interaction,
one would believe it to be central in all planning considerations.It is
not. Usually, more attention is paid to appearancesthan to people. It is
the biology-consciousdesigneror team member who testseachprc,posal
againstthe experienceof the users-who brings the project to life.

Botony
A first-yearbotanist has learnedthe value of vegetation.In the imrnense
cloud of carbon dioxide or exhaustfumes that surround planet Earth it is
only by the transpiration of vegetation that the essendaloxygen of the
fresh air we breathe is produced. Moreover, it is the eartht vegetation that
catches,transpires,and transmitsto the aquifersthe water on which all life
depends. If that werent enough, it is from the worldwide store of vegeta-
tion that we gatheran astoundingvariety of foods,fibers,and timber. This
knowledge should make conservationistsof us all. It may in time. Mean-
while, in most unmindful construction a first thought is to clearthe land.

In comprehensiveland planning the botanist will be quick to point out

the areasof natural cover that should be preserved.Costly clearing and

Botonicolspecimen

12 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 ground cover replacemenr will thus be precluded. In the landscapeplan-
ning processa botany doctorate is not needed,exceptin specialcases.It
is enough to know the local plants, their characterisrics,and the condi-
tions of growrh under which they thrive. \vhen existing plants are left
undisturbed they need little care. Exotic ornamenrals, needing more
attention, are to be used sparingly.

Ecology
Fcology is a relativelynew scienceconcernedwith the relationship of liv-
ing things and their environment. It has much to tell us in the pianning
of favorablegrowth and land use parrernsand the elimination of urban
sprawl.

Other
A generalized knowledge of the natural sciencesis the mark of a well-
schooledlandscapearchitect. No other professionis trained in this vital
aspectof comprehensiveland useplanning.

TheEcologicol
Bosis
From the time of Earth's beginnings there has evolved an interacting,
counterbalancing framework for all life.

Biosphere
This life matrix, or biosphere,born of earrh, air, fre,and warer, consdrures
the whole of our living environmenr. It is asvasr as the spaceberweenthe
basaltfloor ofthe deepestocean bed and the highest rarefied reachesofthe

Stonley Whire

The biosphereof rhe planet Earth is divided roaming elephant herd or the pod of sounding whales. The biosphere is
into severalmajor habirars:rhe aquaric,the
home aswell to all members of the human race.As yer, we have no other.
terrestrial,rhesubrerranean,and ihe aerial.

lnterdependence
Natural sysrems supply, transport, reat, and
store uater; modifi,the climate, oxygenateand % -: just beginning to learn the exrenr to which all organisms are
purifii the air; producefood; neat oi assimilate
interrelated and interdependent and the sometimes criticJ effects of
waste;buiLl land; maintain beacltes:and
prouideprorectionfom lturricanes.. . . almost imperceptible changesin the remperarure,chemisrry, moisture
.
If essentialcomponentsare destroyed, or if content, soil structure, air movements,and water currents on our habi-
tbe systemas a wholeis ouers*essed,'the proiess tat. The slightest change in the delicateweb of life may have repercus-
will breah down and the sy*em willfaii.
sions throughout the whole of a natural sysrem such as that of a marsh,
Alberr R. Veri et ql.
pond, watershed,or receivingocean basin.

As living, breathing human beings, inextricably related to all other

organisms and crearures,we are utterly dependent upon rhe life-giving
'ErnestBraun
andDavidE. Cavagnaro,
LiuingWater.

The Human Habitat t3

 Thereis a creaturendtiue to Kenya calledthe
flattid bug, and I was innoduced to it in
l{airobi, somelears ago, fu thegreat Dr. L. S.
B. Leahey.What Dr. Leakeyintoduced me to
wasa coral-colouredflowerof a racemesort,
made up of many small blossoms lihe the aloe
or hyacinth. Each blossomwas of oblong
shape,perhapslt centimetrelong, which on
closeinspectionturned out to be the wing of
an insect.The colonyclinging to a dead twig
comprisedthe wholeof aflower so real in its
seemingthat one could only expect/iom it the
scentof spring. . . .
The coralflower that theflatid bug
imitatesdoesnot existin nature. Theflaxid
bug hascreatedtheform . . .rto* eachbatch
of egs that thefemale lays rherewill always be
at leastoneproducing A creAtureuith green
wings, not coral,and seueralwith wings of
in-betweenshades.
I lookedclosefi.At the tip of the insect
flower wasa singlegreenbud. Behind it were
a half dozenpartially matured blossoms
shotuingonfitstrainsof cora/.Behind tlteseon
the twig crouchedthefull strengthofflatt;d
bug socie4t,all with wings ofpurest coral to
completethe colonl,ioeation and deceiuethe
eyesof the hungriest of birds.
Leahq,shooktheslicb. Thestartledcolony
rose/iom its twig andflled the air with All forms
of lifeoreinterdependent
withiheenvironment.
flutteringJlattid bugs.Thqt seemedno dffirent
inflight than any otherstudrmofmothsthat productiviry of the remaining un-built-upon landscape areas cf the
oneencounters in theAfican bush.Then thq, earth. Should their life-supportfunctions be diminished or disruptedto
returnedto their twig. Theyalightedin no
particular orc/erandfor an instant the nuig uas
the point that they fail, we would then ceaseto exist. Only very recently,
aliue tuith the linle crelturesclimbing ouereach in the faceof burgeoningpopulation growth, rising indicesof pollution,
otheri shou/ders in what seemedto be random and the rapid depletion of our land and water reserves,has such a catas-
mouement.But the mouementtDasnzt random.
trophe seemeda remote possibility.Today, however,those scientistsbest
Shortlythe twig wasstill and onebeheldagain
theflower. Thegreenleaderhad resumedhis able to assesstrends and conditions have this verv much on their nrinds.
bud-likeposition u,ith his uaricoloured
companions just behind.Thefullblou,n rank- What does all this mean to the planner, the designerof communities,
and-fle had resuntedits accustomed places.A
the highway engineer,or the builder of home and garden?Simpl,r that
louelycoralflowerrhat doesnot existin nature
had beencreatedbefore*' the integrity of the natural or cultivated landscapeand the qualiry of the
""iob""t Ardrey water within it and the air aboveit are to ways protected. Land

Noture'singeniousprocessof pollinotion.As the honeybeelondsond presses intothe blossomofternector,it triggersthe flower

siomen,forcingit down in on orc to mokecontoctwiih ond depositon the bee'sbody Beeflower,mechonism-whothovewe
h u m o n sm o d et o c o m p o r e ?

14 LAND SCAPE ARC H I TE C TURE


him inuentions,apparatuses, technical
appliancesu,ith out number.
Rqoul Frqnce
intensifed, n,otobliterated;and the ubimate
ltarmony shott/demergeas a blend in tabich the
natiue qualint of the regionand the spotstill
preuails. . . . T'hese"humanized" kidscapes are
to us the mostinaiting and behued,and we are
pleasedand tnspiredkrgely insofar as the uthole
structureanatsentimentof the landscape can be
preserued.. .
Therecart be no deuiationfrom the rule
that the neu)t,preparedlan*ca?e must
be . . . a distilkte or sublimation of the
original myriadforms if it is to be a work of
art in the sertse of a high artform, timeless
and historica,l.
Stonley White
(J
o through a process of adaptation. This process, if wisely continued,
z
g human-nature relationship is as old as humans themselves.In long-
3 rangeperspectiveit is probably still a very young science,but, everything
! considered,it is the most basic scienceof all.
o
E In our lifetime, we have for the first time scaled eaftht highest peak,
I
areascan no longer be treated aslittle more than pictorial sragesetsof for-
est, billowing grass,limpid water, or lavenderhills amid which construc-
tions can be blithely aligned or indiscriminately plunked. It is no longer
acceptablethat any land areabe consideredan isolated private domain, to
be shaped at will ro the heart's desire or carved up unfeelingly into cold
geometricpatterns.No smallestparcelcan any longer be consideredapart
from all other contiguous land and warer areas.For it is now well reiog-
nized that each draws upon rhe other and in turn affectsthem. Ecologi-
cally, all land and water areasare inrerconnecred and interrelated.
Nofuro/ Sysfems
It is fundamental to intelligent land and resourceplanning that the nat-
ural systemswhich protect our health and well-being be understood and
sustained. That those mosr sensitive and productive, rogerher with
naturet superlatives,may be preservedin their natural condition; that
protective support and buffer areasbe conservedand devoted to limited
and compatible uses;that the lesscritical areasselectedfor developmenr
be so planned as to do no significant harm to their environs; and that all
land use plans be so conceivedas to bring people into the best possible
relationshipswith each other and with the living landscape.
Eorthscope
\7e have come to learn through the centuries that the spinning orb on
which we live is a minor planet suspendedin limitless space-an infini-
tesimal speck of marrer in the universal schemeof things. Yet it is our
world-vast, imponderable, and wonderful to us, a world of marvelous
order and boundless energy. It is illumined and warmed in rhythmic
cyclesby the heat of our sun, bathed in a swirling atmosphereof air and
moisture. Its white-hot core is a seethingmassof molten rock; its thin,
cool crust, pocked and creasedwith hollows and ridged with hills,
mountain ranges, and towering peaks. The greater part of its area is
immersed in salrwaterseas,which ebb and flow with heaving tides and
are swept to their depths by immense and intricate parternsof currenr.
From the ice-sheathedpoles to the blazing equator,the earthscapevaries
endlessly.\(andering over it for something closeto a million years,rhe
human Earth dwellers have learned first to survive and later to thrive
should gain for us an ever-improving way of life. The study of the
'We
plumbed its deepest ocean trench, and penetrated outer space. are
tempted to believe that we have conquered nature. There are those who
hold that in the yearsaheadwe will finally subjectnarure to our control. Let
us not deludeourselves.Nature is not soon to be conqueredby puny man.
The Human Habitat l5

lgnoringnoturolprocesses
resultsin disoster
For centuriesEuropeanart ltas turned its back
on thefundamentalconception of naturein
art, andWesternman hasimagined himself
and nature as beingin antitbesis.In reality,
bis much-uauntedindiuiduali4, is an illusion,
and the truth which the Orient now reuealsto
him is that his identi4, is not separatef'om
nature and hisflllou-beings, but is dt one
with her and them.
Christopher Tunnord
I6 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
Conquer naturelHow canwe conquernature?We are-blood, bone' fiber,
and soul-averypart ofnature.'W'earespawnedof nature,rootedin rrature'
nourishedby nature.Our everyheartbeat,everyneural impulse,anil every
thought wave, our every act and effort are governed by naturds all-
pervadinglaw. Conquer nature!\7e arebut fleetingtracesof life in nature's
eternalprocessof evolvinglife and growth. Conquer nature!It is far better
that we turn againto nature'sway to searchout and developan ordf'r con-
sonantwith the universalsystems,that our living may taP the vital nature
forces,that our cultural developmentmay haveorientation, that our form
building, form organizing,and form ordering may havemeaning' t[at we
may know againthe rich, pulsing harmoniesof life at one with nature.
;
o
The history of our progresson this earth is the history of an increasing
understanding of naturek vitalities and powers.The wisdom of the wis-
est among us is no more than a comprehensionof the simplesttratural
principles.The knowledge of our most perceptivescientistsis gained
through a faint insight into the wonder of natural phenomena.
Our labored development is the development of those scienc(3sthat
revealto us a way of life more closelyattuned to nature'simmutable way.
Those of the forests,jungles, and seaare keenly sensitiveto their natural
surroundings and instinctively shape their living patterns to comply

Interaction betweenman and enuironmentin
the Westis abstract,an l-it rektionship; in the
Eas it is con.rfte, immediate,and basedon
an l-Thou retationship.Vesternmanfigbr
nature; Easternman adaptshimselfto Nature
and nature to himself Theseare bioad
enuironmentdeuelopand which are eachin its
otun right destinedto play itspart in the
transformationof thepresentand tbefuture.
E. A. Gutkind
Wildlifemonogement
oreo.
with naturet rhythms and cycles.They have learned that to do otherwise
is to court inevitable disaster.
Yearsago the urge ro wander to srrangenew lands led the coaurhor to live
for some months in lonely, exotic British North Borneo (sabah).There he
carne to be profoundly impressedby the ffemendous joy of the people in
simply being alive-exultantly healthy and happy sons and daughters of
nature. On the islands, all live not only close to nature but by narure.
Their whole life is guided day by day and hour by hour by the sun, the
storms, the sur{, the stars, the tides, the seasons.A full moon and an
ebbing tide give promise of successfulmilkfish spearingon the shoal.The
wheeling and screeching of the birds give warning of an approaching
storm. In the quiet freshnessof early morning, a hunter may draw his lit-
tle daughter to his side and, crouching, point a long brown finger to the
peak of Mount Kinabalu looming high above the palm fringe. "Tiba, lit-
tle Tiba," he may caution. "Look now at the clouds on the mountaintop.
Soon it will be blowing and raining there, and the streamswill be rushing
full. So stay away from the banks today and play at home with your
mama." On the islands, clearly, the closer one's life is adapted to narure,
the happier one'slife will be. But not only on the islands.This observation
is fully astrue of our life on our farms and in our suburbs and cides. Some-
times we tend to forget this salient fact aswe go about our living and plan-
ning for living. And often this forgetting is the root of much distress.
The Human llabitat 17
 limate is the averageweather condition at a placeover time.
f
\.J

If a central purpose of planning is to crearefor any person or group of

personsan environment suited to their needs,then climate must be a first
consideration.It is fundamental, firsr, in the selectionof an appro priate
region for the proposed activities and then, within that region, in the
selectionof the most appropriateproperry. Once a site has been chosen,
two new considerationssuggestthemselves.How do we best respond to
the climatic givens in rerms of site and srructural design, and by what
meanscan we modify the effectsof climate to improve the situation?

Climoteond Response
Perhapsthe most obvious facts of climate are the annual, seasonal,and
daily rangesof temperature. These will vary with changing conditions of
latitude, longitude, altitude, exposure,vegetarion,and proximiry to such
weathermodifiers asthe Gulf Stream,water bodies,ice masses,or desert.
The amount of precipitation in the form of dew, rainfall, frost, or snow
is to be recorded,aswell asseasonalvariations in humidiry. The duration
of sunlight in hours per day is of planning and designsignificance,asare
the anglesof incidence at prescribedtimes. The direction and velocity of
the winds and the date and path of violent storms are to be charted.The
availabiliry quantiry and quality of potable water are to be noted,
together with the depths at which it occurs.The geologic structure is to be

t9
 the existingvegetatlon
described,togetherwith soil rypesand depths and
the physical elementsas
and wildlife.iinally, the working together of all
of regionalclimate'
an ecologicalsystemis describedto to-plttt the story

Sociolmprint
affectedby cli-
The physicalwell-being and attitudes of people are directly
thesein t,-,ri pr.r.ribe the planning needs' It is well' therefore'
-"t",
".td and patterns
chonge
temperoture
ond seosonol
differentiols in the study of climatic ,.giorN to note behavioral reactions
to the climate
of commun ity organizatioi that are unique and attributable
dress,and the
or the weather.The specialfoods and dishes,the manner of
traditional customs are indicative. And so it is with the favored rypes of
factors
recreation,the level of education,and cultural pursuits.Economic
are to be noted.
such as agricultural yields and the production of goods
The form"sof government and political trends are analyzed,asare the gen-
eral stateof p,ibti. health th. incidence of particular health and safery
"nd
hazards of disease.A person'sheight, weight, circulation, respi-
"rriryp.,
ration, perspiiation,and dehydrarionhavea direct relationshipto climate,
do th. f".,orc of hardinessand acclimatization. It is no happenstance
", thin
that the birdlike form of the maidens of the high Andes, with their
of
ankles and capacious chests, differs from the squat and heary build
Eskimo *o-.r. There are sound climatological reasons.In short, what
one ears,drinfts, believes,and is, is climate-inducedand characteristicof
the region. Literature, art, and music all give illuminating insigtrts into the
.h"r"Jt., of the various regions and their inhabitants. Tiavel and direct
observation give even more vivid impressions, and if one is to work and
plan for the feople of any area,detailedon-site researchis essential.

t f p o l o ri c eo r e
o n dm e l o
T h ec y c l i cb u i l d u p
unpredictoble Theperlodicodvonceond
retreot of thepolorcopsos theyrespondto
solor forces in turnexerto mossive influence on
worJdweothercondiiions

Theoceoncurrents thesolor
helpto distribule
energyinputlo oll oreosof theglobe The
thermol of iheoceon,likefhecurrenis
currents
of thetroposphere, They
ore solor-generofed
sweepin counierroiory ond hep to
poiterns
iheeorih'sstoreof sunemitiedheol.
distribute lo climote
Regionoldressresponds

20 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 Accommodotion

cool-temperare, rhe warm-humid, and the hot-dry. North America pro-

vides examplesof all four. \while the boundaries of theseregions or zones
cannot be defined precisely and while rhere are within them considerable
variations, each has its distinctive characteristicsand its strong influences
upon any site development or srrucures to be planned. As in the two-
dimensional plan layout of farm, home, and communiry so it is with the
three-dimensional design of sites and structures within a region. Just as
the use atea or trafficway is oriented "into the breeze," "away from the
wind," or "acrossthe sun' in some instances,so are site and architectural
volumes shaped to afford exposureto the sun'swarmth and light summer
airs or protection from glare, oppressiveheat, or fierce winter winds. All
site and architectural spacesof excellenceare weather-responsive;their
form, materials of construction, and even colors are all climate-related.A
postcard received from any part of the world depicting people, their
dress, or their buildings will convey at a glance an informative story of
region. It is proposed that within each region there is, for a given clima-
tological condition, a logical planning-design response.The accompany-
ing examplesshow for various conditions an appropriare accommodation
in the shaping of community patterns,site plans, or building designs.

Air pollutioncontributes
to globolworming.

GlobolWorming
It should be noted that for the first time in the history of the earth, the
effects of living organisms (man) are changing world climate. The com-
ing of the Industrial Revolution and releaseof carbon and other green-
house gasesis causing an increasein Earths atmospheric temperature
which is widely believed to be changing world climate. The results will
have profound effectson the environment of entire regions and plan-
ning for human habitation.

Clirnate 21
Condition
1. Extreme winrer cold.
2 D e e ps n o w
3. Strong wrttds
4 High windchill {ictor
) LreePrrost
6 Scrub forest cot'et
7. Short winter da)'s
8. Long winters
9 Alternating fieeze and thaw.
1 0 . R a p i d s p r i n gm e l t

T h eC o l d R e g i o n

Community Site Buildins

1. Creation of enclosedcourts and sun traps;
1. Orientation to w'armlngsun
use of textured construction materialsand
2 Provisionfor snowplowing and snow storage'
warm, "primitive" colors.
3 Utilization of all protective ground forms and cov-
2. Use of short accesst'ays,grouped entries,
ers aswindscreensand soil stabilizers
raisedplatforms, and coveredwalks.
4. Crosswindalignment of trafficwaysand linear sire
3 Preservation or planting of windscreens;
use areas.
installation of snow fencing; use of low,
5 Reduction in size of plan areasro minimize costlv
strong vertical enclosure to brace for rhe
excavationand frostproof construction.
gale.
6. Preservationof all possiblevegetation,with the
4. Provision of intermediare points oF shelter
strong rvind-resistanredgesleft intact.
on a long traverse;placement of structures
7 Grouping of activitl' ateasto reducetravel time'
to block or sideslipthe wind
8. Provision of communiry recreationand cultural
5 . U s e o f p o s t , b e a m ,a n d p l a t f o r m c o n s t r u c -
centerswithin or uearconcentrationsofdwellings
tion to avoid the need for extensiveexca-
9. Alignment of trafficways to fall within shadow
vation and foundations Move with the
bands to precludeice builduP.
ground surfaceby the use of steppedhori-
10. Avoidance of low ground, natural drainageways,
zontal planes.
and floodplains
6. Clearing of small and clustereduse areas'or
"tooms," and meanderingpathsof inrercon-
nection within the scrub and tree growth
Developedareasshould be limited in sizeto
leavenatural growth undisturbed insofar as
possible
7 Maximum utilization of daylight; orienta-
tion of buildings toward sunlit spaceswith
views to the sky and sunlit hills
8 Utilization of the clustered-compoundplan
approach,which tends to engenderpleasant
communitv life and closesocialties
9. Use of decks, raised walkways, and flexible
g r o u n d ' u r f a c i n g . t o p r e c l u d ef t o ' r h e a v e
. n d k e e pp e o p l eo l t o f r h e . s l u s ha n d m u d .
10. Provisionof pobitivesutfage,drainale'tothe
' and capacitiesto facilitaterapid runoff.
natural lines of stbrm-y'ater flow, with che
. soils, graises,and other covers left undis-
turbed to prevent soil erosion.
1. Desigri of massive, low-profile, rvell-
insulated structures,with ma-ximtlm expo-
sure of walls and roof areasto tht sun and
minimum exposureto the wind; h,:atlossto
be reduced in all ways possible, Lncluding
limitation of the window area
2 Protection of approachesfrom sr,ow drift;
rhe raising ofentrance platforms aboveantic-
ipated levels The hazard of rooi collapse
mav be reduced by steep-roof-anrl-storage-
Ioft architecture
3 Placementof windows away frorn prevail-
ing winds; orientation of the lonp;building
axis into the wind and utilization cfall pos-
sible topographicshieldingand trce screens.
4. Location ofentrancesin the lee ofthe struc-
ture, with short protected passalieways to
limit the time of exposure
5 Reductionof building perimeteratrd ground
contact to reducefoundation problems and
heat Ioss.
6. Forestcoverpreservedand buildir,gsnesded
againstthe protectiveslopesand ttee masses.
7. Design of windows and living arersto exact
the full contribution ofthe sun.
8. Arteution lavished on comfort, architec-
tural interest, and detail. ln frigiC climates
'
particularly the "home is a castle
9 Vith condensation and ice formation a
problem, elimination of vulnerable joints
and hazardoussurfacesinsofar as possible
10. Use of steep roof pitches, deep rverhangs,
and exaggeratedstorm drainage gradients

22 LAND SCAPE ARCHITE C TURE

 o
o
o

Condition
1. Variable temperarures,ranging from warm to hot =
in rhe summer, cold in winrer, and moderate in
spring an<l f-all.
U
2. Marked scasonalchanse. o
3. Changing u'ind directions and velocities.
4. Violenr storms occur infreouentlv.
5. Periodsot drought, lighr to heavy rain and Frost
and snow:ray be expected.
6. Soi.lsare generally well drained and fertile.
7. Many streams,rivers, and freshwater lakes.
8. An abundant supply ofwater.
9 Land cove: yaries from open to forests with rich
vegetarrver'anery.
10. Topographicallyscenic,including marine, plain,
plateau, arrd mountainous areas.

TheCool-Temperote
Region

Communin Site Building

1. DefinitionoFland use and trafficway Darternsro
reflect local temperarure ranges and other cli-
matic concitions. Extremes suggestcompact plan
arrangements; more moderate conditions permit
dispersal.
2. Accommodarion. Communiry plans musr stand
the test of rirnction in all seasons.
3 AJignment of srreets and open spaces to block
cold winter winds and admit welcome summer
breezes.
4. Design of streets, utility systems, and drainage
channels rc, meet extreme conditions.
5. Considerarronofhigh winds, flooding, and occa-
sional snor,n'storms as important design factors.
6. Provision c,f extensive park and open-space sys-
tems as distinguishingamributes.
7. Incorporati,rn of the natural warerways into the
communin plan for rhe use and enjoyment of
the public.
8. lVidespread installation ofprivate and public gar-
dens as regi,rnal features.
9. Preservario;rofindigenous vegetationwithin the
open-spaceframework.
1 0 . P l a n n i n go e a c hc o m m u n i r y a s a u n i q u e e x p r e s -
sion of its sctring.
1. Possibiliry o[ and necessiryfor, wide variety
in the type and sizeofoutdoor activiry areas.
2. Dramatization of the seasonal variations;
consideration of spacesfor winter, spring,
summe! and fall activities.
3. Design recognition o[ the prevailing wind
and breezepatterns.
4. Consrruction to withstand rhe worst of the
storms.
5. Provision for all-weather durabiliry and
malntenance.
6. Protection ofprime regional forest and agri-
cultura.l lands.
7. Sensitiveplanning and zoning ofall warer-
related lands to preserve rheir scenic and
ecological values.
8. Use ofpools and founrains to enhance com-
munity parksand gatheringplaces.
9. Adaptation of community plan forms to
provide the best possible integration with
the naruralJandscape features.
10. Full utilization ofscenic possibilities.
10. Tieatment of each building site ro realize
1. Elimination, by design, of extremes of
demands for cooling, heating, and venti-
railng.
2. Considerationofthe specialdesignrequire-
ments and possibilities suggested by each
seasonrn tufn.
3. Archirectural plan organization and detail-
ing in responseto the cooling and chilling
effects oflocal breezesand winds.
4. Structural design to meet the most severe
storm conditions.
5. Consideration of shrinkage, swelling, con-
densation, fteezing, and snow loadings.
6. Expansion and exrensionofplan forms when
desirable, since excavation and foundation
construction are not generally a problem.
7. Full utilizat.ion of the recrearion values of
each site.
'Water
8. catchment and storageis not a prime
consideration.
9. Design of building areas and form in
responsero the ropography.
the full landscapepotential.

fr|:yrff*
Climate 23

Condition
1. Temperatures high and relatively constant'
2. High humidity.
3. Torrential rainfall.
4. Storm winds ofryphoon and hurricane force'
5. Breezeoften constantin the daylight hours'
6. Vegetative covers from sparse to luxuriant and
sometimesjunglelike.
7. The sun'sheat is enervattng
8. Sky glare and seaglare can be distressing
9. Climatic conditions breed insectsin profusion'
10. Fungi are a persistentproblem.
TheWorm-HumidRegion
Community
1. Spacingofhabitations in the dispersed"hunter"
tradition.
2 Adjustment of communiry patterns to channels
or areasof air movement.
3. Avoidanceoffloodplains and drainageways.Dis-
turbed areasare subjectto healy erosion
4. Location of settlementsin the lee of protective
land masses and forest and above the level of
storm-driven tides.
5. Alignment of streetsand placementof gathering
placesto captureall possibleair currents.
6. Avoidance of natural growth insofar as feasible.
Disturbance of the ground-cover subjects soils to
eroslon.
7. Use of existing tree massesand promontori€s to
provide a sunscreen to public ways and places
Supplementary planting of shade trees is often
desirable.
8. Planned location of settlementswith the arc of the
sun to the rear, not seaward,ofthe building sites.
9. Location of settlementsupwind of insect-breeding
areas.
10. Admittance ofsun and breezeto building areasto
reduce fungi and mildew.
24 LAND SCAPEARCHITE CTURE
Site
1. Design ofsite spacesto provide shade,venti-
lation, and the cooling effectsoffoliage and
water
2. Provision for air circulation and evaporation
3. Protection againstdriving rains and adequate
runoff capaciry.
4. Location of critical-use areasand routes in
unexposed places, above the reach of tides
and flooding.
5 Maximization, by exposure,channeling, and
funneling, of the favorable effects of the
breeze.
6 Use of lush foliage masses and specimen
plants as backdrop and enframement and
for the interest of form, foliage, or floral
display.
7. Planning of outdoor activity areasfor use in
the cooler morning and eveninghours. Heat-
of-the-day gathering placesshould be roofed
or tree-shaded.
8. Reduction or elimination of glare by plan
location and well-placedtree plantings.
9 Elevation of use areasand walkways by deck
and platform construction to open them to
the breezeand reduce annoyance by insects.
10. Use ofstone, concrete,metals, and treated
wood only in contact with the ground
o
o
o
Building
1. Induction ofcooling by all feasiblemeans,
including the use of open building plans,
high ceilings, broad overhangs, louvered
openings, and air conditioning of local
areas.
2. Provision of air circulation; perioclic expo-
sure to sunlight and artificial drying where
required
3. Architectural use of the colonnade, arcade,
pavilion, covered passageway,and veranda;
orientation of entranceways and windows
away from the path ofthe storm track.
4. Design ofwind-resistant structures or lighter
temporary and expendableshelters.
5. Design of rooms, corridors, balconies,and
patios as an interconnected systemofbreeze-
ways.
6. Utilization, indoors and out, ofindigenous
plant materials for the cooling effect of their
foliage.
7. Provisionofshade, shade,shade.
8. Positioning of viewing points away from
the glare and provision of well"designed
screenrng
9. Elevation of structures above the ground,
facing into the breeze,and insectproofing of
critical points and areas.
10. Provision of open, well-ventilated storage
areas;use of fungus-resistantmaterialsand
d r y i n g d e v i c e sa s n e e d e d .

Condition
1. Intense heat in the day.time.
2. Often inrensecold ar night.
3. Expansesare vast.
4 . S u n l i g h t. r n dg l a r ea r ep e n e t r a t i n g .
5. Drying r inds are prevalent and often raise devas-
tating dust storms.
6. Annual rainfall is minimal. Vegetation is sparseto
nonexistenr except along watercoufses.
7. Spring rains come as a cloudbursr, with rapid
runoff and hear.yerosion
8. \fater supply is extremely limited.
9. Limited agricultural producrivity necessiratesthe
importation offood and other goods.
10. Irrigation is a facr oflife.
The.Hot-Dry(Desertlike)
Kegron
Communi4t
1. Creation o{'cool and refreshing islands of use
within the parched surroundings.
2. Provision,fopportunities Forgroup activity. Chill
the desert, as on the tundra, suggest
il:T:;*jt"
3. Adaptatior of"ourpost," "fort," and "ranch" plan
Pattefns.
4. Vithin th.: dispersedcompounds the planning of
compact spaces with narrow passagewaysand
colonnades to provide relieffrom the sun.
5. Location c,fhomesteadsand trade centers in areas
of established ground covers; use of shelterbelt
tree plantations.
6. Protection ofall possiblenaural growth surround-
ing the de.,elopment.
7 Avoidance offlood-prone areas.Those who have
experienced desert freshets will keep well out of
their way.
8. Minimizat ion of irrigation requirementsby com-
pact planning and multiple use of planted and
seededspaces.
9. Location of settlements and community cenrers
close to transportation and distribution nodes.
10. Coordination of land useand traffic patterns with
existing and projected irrigation canal roures and
reservoir krcations.
Site
1. Amelioration of heat and glare by orienta-
tion away from the sun, by shading, by
screening, and by the cast-shadowparrerns
of well-placed building componenrs.
2. Adoption of the corral-compound (herder)
arrangement of homesteads and neighbor-
hood clusters.
3. Recognition of the auromobile as the cru-
cial means of daily rransport and a domi-
nant site-planning factor.
4. Screening of use areas and paths of move-
ment from the direct blast of the sun.
5. Protection of outdoor acriviry spacesfrom
exposure.
6. Preservation of native plant materials as
self-sustaining and handsome components
of the desert landscape.
7. Avoidance of arroyos and floodplains as
developmentrouresand sites.
8. Limitation in rhe size ofparks, gardens,and
seededareas
9. Use oftubbed and container-grownplants,
drip irrigation, and hydroponic gardening.
10. Incorporation of irrigation canals, ponds,
and structures as attractive site features.
I
Building
1 Architectural use ofthick walls, high ceilings,
wide roof overhangs, limited fenestration,
light-reflective colors, and a precise design
responseto the angles and arcs ofthe sun.
2 Exclusion of the chill night air by insula-
tion, reduction ofheat loss, and use oflocal-
ized radiant heat. The open fireplace is a
desert tradition for good reason.
3. Low ranch-type spreadsare a logical archi-
tectural expression of the hot-dry climate
and desert topography.
4. Provision of cool, compact, and dim inte-
rior spacesin conrrasr to the stifling heat
and brilliance ofthe great ourdoors.
5. Sealing of all buildings against dust and
wind. Airtight openings and skillful archi-
tectural detailing are required.
6. Grouping of rooms or structures around
planted and irrigated courts and patios.
7. Provision of spring rainfall catchment and
storage.\fater from roofs, courts, and paved
areascan be directed to cisrerns.
8. Recycling of wastewarer is prescribed The
tJpe of usewill determine the degreeof ffeat-
ment and purification required.
9. The provision ofFood and fodder srorageis
an important considerarion in desert build-
ing design.
1 0 . A d a p t a r i o no f i r r i g a t i o n r o i n t e r i o r c o u r t s
and garden spaces.The evaporation ofmois-
ture from paved surfaces, fountains, spray
heads,mulches, or foliage provides welcome
relieffrom the heat.
Clirnate 25
 I

6
o

to microclimote
Differentresponses

Microclimotology
Microclimatology is the study of climatic conditions within a limited
area.It is sometimesreferredto asthe "scienceof small-scaleweather." It
may be inferred that the purpose of the scientific study is to discover
factsand principles which may be applied to improve the human condi-
tion. This is preciselythe case.

An Exomple
As a hypothetical example, let us consider a small walled courtyard in a
hot-dry (desert)setting. It is proposed that by the application of'well-
known principles of microclimatic design,an ambient air temperatureat
a point 3 feet abovethe ground surfacecould be reduced by asmuch as30
to 40oF.This could well improve the existingcondition from an intolera-
ble situation to one of comfort and delight-all in all, a wofthy enterprise.
Ne,ll one^lnl,o,t
As a base condition, let us assumethe worst. Let us assumethat the
'\oet7=oil enclosingwalls are solid, admit no breeze,are high enough to provide an
E extensive sun-receiving, heat-radiating area, and are dark in color to
uJ,b+-J
maximize their heat absorption. Let us then compound the disasterby
Everyprope'ryhos lo sore degree o vor'e! of
flooring the empty courtyard spacewith solid concrete,thick enough for
microclimofesTheseore dependentupon massiveheat buildup and radiation and colored in a dark-red hue. To
o r i e n t o - i o ^w, i n d o n d b r e e z ed i e c t i o n ,L o n d complete our experimentalvolume, let us imagine the courtyard tc, be so
.^^l^r-^+i^^ ,a^af^l ^n .^il .]o^rh ^^.-l ^,^o.
oriented as to receivethe full force of the burning midday sun. It can be
moisture content-ondevencolorsSuchoff-site
conditioners os hilr, fo esls,rivers, wo'erbodes, seenthat a subject seatedon a metal chair in the center of this unfortu-
ond urbonizotion mokeo difference loo nate cube would be properly grilled, and that shortly.

26 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTUruE
 A s - h e d o y f i m e: u n h e o t st h e l o n d s u r i o c eo n d w o r m

l)
At rlg c r : r c i r f r o m t h e v e g e t o t e dl c n d m o s s
Tows l, e woler bod es
TI-.EDA Y LAND-WATERA R EXCHANGE
\ o t e : T h e 3 n p e r o t u r eo d v o n i o g eg o i n e d b y o e r t
s i t i n go n d l o r c ; c o p e i m p r o v e m e nm l o y s o m e l i m e sb e
wafting music, the oasiswould be complete.
m e c s u r e d n n ( I n o r el h o n o f e w d e q r e e s .B u to s i d e
fron the foctor : increosedcomfortihe sov nqs of en-
e r g y r e q u i r e di r < : o o l i n g
o n d h e o t i n gc o n b e s i g n i f t c o n t
The example is extreme, but ir servesto illustrate the possibilities of
small-scaleclimate improvement.
8
DesignGuidelines
\Thatever the climate or weather,when it comes to planning an agree-
able living environment there are many microclimatic principl.rlh",
can be applied to advantage.Among them are these:

Eliminate the extremesof heat, cold, humidity, air movement, and

exposure.This can be achievedby intelligent site selection,plan lay-

REI/T
/. SURFACE
TEMPERATURES

ZlJo; ^){oo.otlr.l
Ae^P. ze"
Pt+ )z/.

ore vr'cTmer

r"€"
--t-'-:\

B u t e x p o s u r el o : r > d w n d s c t t h e c r e s lm o y o f f s e tt h e
l e m p . r o l u r eo d ' .o n t o g e
T O P O G R A F -/i A F F E C T S T H EM 1 C R O C L I E Sunpocket.

Climate 27
 o.'
Evoporotivecooling
Slopeswith southerlyexposurerecervethe mosi
hoursond greotesiintensilyof solor heot eoch
doy Sprlngcon come weeks eorlieron the
s u n n ys i d e o f o h l l l
. Provide direct sffuctural protection against the discomfort of solar
c lr m st,c Lbl u i l d i n g tsr,e e so, r
T o p o g r o p h i cf o
otheroblecismoyreducethetoiolhoursof
d o y l i g h tD e p e n d i nugp o nt h ec l i m o t isci t u o l i o n ,
f uI s u no l l d o y m c yo r m o yn o tb e d e s i r c b l e
T h e s u n ' so r b i to n d o n g e o f i n c i d e n c ev o r y w i i h
t h e s e o s o n sB y o r i e n t o t i o ns,c r e e n i n go, n d
o v e r h o n gf h e o m o u n to f s u n l i g hot d m i t l e dt o t h e
inieriorcon be preciselycontro ed
28 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
out, building orientation, and the creation of climate-responsive
spaces.
radiation,precipitation,wind, storm, and cold'
Respondto the seasons.Each presentsits problems; eachprovidesits
opportunities for adaptation and enjoyment.
Adjust community, site, and building plans to the movement of the
sun. The design of living areas,indoors and out, should ensurethat
the favoredrype and amount of light are receivedat the favore<ltime.
Use the suns radiation and solar panels to provide supplementary
heat and energy for cooling energy.
Utilize the evaporationof moisture as a primary method of cooling.
Air moving acrossany moist surface,be it masonry,fabric, or fbliage,
is thereby made cooler.
Maximize the beneficialeffectsof adjacentwater bodies.These tem-
per the atmosphereof the warmer or cooler adjacentlands. Introduce
water.The presenceof water in any form, from film to waterfall, has
a cooling effect both physically and psychologically.
Preservethe existing vegetativecover. It amelioratesclimatic prob-
lems in many ways:
It shadesthe ground surface.
It retains the cooling moisture of precipitation.
It protects the soils and environs from the freezingwinds.
It cools and refreshesheated air bv evapotranspiration.

Theglorefromwoter,sond,or otherreflective
surfoces
cor increose
heotloods
Buildings
ore temperoture modifiersBy their
positioningos wellos by theirformond
choroctertheysuggestreloteduses
Abrupiformscouseunpleosont
oir turbulence
Smoothformsinducethesmoothflow of oir
Temperotures vorywitl^elevotion-byoboui3oF
for eoch I OOOfeetin thedoytimeNighttlme
.li{[^.-"+i^1. ^,a ^ra^rar
It provides sunscreen,shade,and shadow.
It helps to prevenr rapid runoff and rechargesrhe water-bearingsoil
strata.
It checls the wind.
Install new plantings where needed.They may be utilized for vari-
ous rypes of climate control. \Tindscreenr, ,h"d. trees, and heat-
absorptive ground covers are examples.
consider the effectsof altitude. The higher the altitude and latitude
(in the northern hemisphere),the cooler or colder the climate.
Reduce the humidity. Generally speaking, a decreasein the humidity
effectsan increasein bodily comfort. Dry cold is lesschilling than
wet cold. Dry heat is lessenervatingthan wet hear. Humidiry can be
decreasedby induced air circulation and the drying effectsof the sun.
Avoid winter winds, floods, and the paths of crippling storms. All
can be charted.
Explore and apply all natural forms of heating and cooling before
turning to mechanical (energy-consuming)devices.
Reduction of Heat Loss
. Avoid exposure to prevailing winds and cold downdrafts from upper
slopes.
. Avoid extremesin elevation.
. Avoid site areaswith wet, impervious soils,dead-airbasins,and frost
pockets.
. Provide wind shielding by ground forms and existing rree cover
(preferably evergreen).
. If exposure cannot be precluded, plan compactly and for'a slip-
stream effect, with narrow and solid building walls facing into the
winter winds.
a Protect the dwelling enffances.
a Orient building facadesto the east,southeast,and south and to the
high arc of the sun.
In cold climates, locate use areasand structures in the lee of wind-
breaksto utilize snow outfall for ground and building insulation.
Provide open spacearound buildings for air circulation and the play
of the winter sun.
Deciduous tree cover provides summer shade and casts shadows
while admitting winter sunlight.
Dig in. Partially buried structuresreceiveinsulation from the earth
and presenta lower profile.
Select construction materials, surface treatments, and colors that
absorb and radiate solar heat.
Reduction of Cooling Requirements
e Face use areasand buildings into the natural airstreams.
. Provide an overhead tree canopy.
. Utilize structural sun shields.Colonnades, arbors, wide overhangs,
and recessedopenings are familiar in hot climates.
Climate 29
A m i l ds u m m ebrr e e z ec o n b e o m p l i f i ebdy t h e
venturi effectof we -poced buildings, wolls, Windbreok
t e d g e so
. r n o s so l o ^ t r ^ 9 s
rc

S o l o ro r i e n t o t i o n

A breeze moy be chonneledond directedfrom

spoce to spoce

Overheodscreen. Flowingwoter.

A n o i r m c s sc o os o s i t i s d r i v e nu p o m o u n t o i n
slopeby prevoiling winds,oftento thepoint Compose buildings, ground forms, walls, fencing, and planting to
of precipiioting iismoisture content before
channelizesummer breezesthrough exterior and interior spaces.A
reoching thecresl.Thewindwordslopes
iherefore tendto be humidond heovLLy broad,dispersed plan arrangementis indicated.
Excavatefor foundations. Structures built into well-drainedslopes
are warmer in winter and cooler in the summertime'
wormsos it fo ls,tendto be hoiond orid To
o e s s eer x t e nol n yl o n d f o r ms,u c ho s o h i l,
Reach for the breeze.Utilize oPen planning, flying decks, and
islond,or forest,con hcveihesomeeffect conies.

3O LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE

Themorepe'pendiculoro slopeto theroysof
thesun rhe vlne' lhesrrfocelernperoture
S p r i n gC
: h i l c l r epnl o y i n gi n t h ef o u n i o i n .
Summer:Fourthof Julycelebrotion.
Promote ventilation by the use of breezeways,screenedpatios, lou-
vered walls, and fans.
Featurethe use of warer for its cooling effects.Utilize porous soils,
mulches, ground covers,and irrigation to promot. .rr"poti".rrpiration.
Use heat-reflectivematerials,rough texrures,and cool .olorr.
Uti lizati on of Natura I Thermodynamics
' con.srder energy generation by suchsourcesas wind power, falling
and flowing water, and solar panels.
' Maximize the warming effectsof the sun and the cooling effectsof
shade,air currents, and moisture.
useful observations. \Thatever the climate 61 v1s31hs1-in siting
land usesor structures,there are countlessphenomena to be learnedand
applied.The temperarureadvantagegained by alert siting and landscape
improvement may sometimes be measured by no more than a few
degrees.But asidefrom the increasedcomfort and pleasurederived, the
savingsin energy in cooling and heating may be a telling facror.
od o6
o
*
Foll:Eveningperformonce.
i
o o
d
o
= f
Winier:lce skoting
Climate 3l
 [l o* often in their ceaselesswanderings over the face of the earth
| | must men have pausedas they topped the ridge or gainedthe pass
to study the lay of the land?

Each topographic form had its message.Mountains were forbidding;

craggy ravineswere perilous; broad valleys,beckoning. Prairies,plains,
and savannasstretched to the far horizons to be laboriously crossedon
foot, on horseback,by travois,or by lumbering wagon trains.

4:
'Jl \Therever their urgings or headingsled them, our forebearsavoided the
t::
unfavorablesituation and sought those conditions within the landscape
best suited to their needs.Sometimesthesewere as immediate aswarer,
food, or forage,sometimesas permanentas fortification or homestead.
\X/ith the samearavisticinstinct, each of us by habit still
constandy sur-
veys the landscapeabout us to avoid areasof hazard or discomfort, to
trace the most favorablepath, and to attain the most suitable situation.
This feel for the land is inborn; it is in our bonesand blood.

H u m o nl m p o c t
For many thousandsof years,our predecessors have gatheredthe bounty
of the grasslands,waterways, and forests without causing significant
damage.As they fished, set their snares,or hunted game, they left the
land and watersasthey found them. Their canoesglided silently through
OD A Horchner/DesignWorkshop

33
 seswere tethered' and their h':rds
of the natural cover' Their earlY
Every day some 12 squaremiles of nd were soon overgrown' Even the
Americ"n farmland is usurPedbY ro the sloPesand water edgestvere
development'
of little ecologicconsequence'

of people'sworking lnave
As populations increased,however,the effects
have become roadvrays'
b..o*. more and more evident. Blazed trails
back the marsh and
Scattered.farms have been consolidated to push
woodland,sometimestoextinction.Theearlyvillagesonthebanksofa
banks of the nearby
stream have swallowedthe stream and usurped the
ourr'vardto
river. village and town limits havebeen extendedrelentlessly
and, often
be inte..oinected wirh additional roads and with railways
American landscape
canals.Within a few bustling centuries' our native
has been transformed into expanseof farmsteads,subdivisions,bur-
"i
complexes,and far-flung transPorta-
:sof wildernessleft are those isolated
eep in the ooze,too drY,or too close
ent.

rwhere the usesof land have been well suited to the sites,the restrlting
\7e
farms, roadways, and communities may be in all ways agreeable''
have flown over such settlementsthat seemnestledinto the countr"zside.
o

I
j
o
o
o

MountMoron,GrondTetons
'We
have traveled inviting roads that weavepleasantlythrough the land-
scape, introducing us to woodland, meadow, streams' well-ordered
fi.ldr, orchards,and abund"nt valleys.\7e have delighted in towns that
seemro have blossomedspontaneouslyupon the crown of a hilI or in
cities terracedgracefully down to the river edge or harbor.

34 LAND SCAPE ARC H I TE C TURE


Adapt to the landforms:
To diminish landscapedisruption
To reduce the costsof earthwork
To prevenr the wasting of topsoil
To preclude the need for erosion control
and replanting
To make use of existing drainageways
To blend into the natural scene
By meansof site reconnaissanceand soil
surveysthe most productive land can be
designatedftrr lawns,gardens,or crop
production or be preservedin irs natural
state.Areasofthin soil, poor or excessive
drainage,or underlying rock are prime
candidatesfor projected development.
Homes, roadways,and cities belong on
areasof low productiviw.
The natural ground forms are best accepted
as givens.They are the resolution of myriad
forcesat work over a long period of time. To
adapt to them is to harmonize with the
forcesand conditions bv which thev have
evolved.
\flell-suited developments intelligently planned can produce an integra-
tion of designed forms and modified landscape,up.rio, to the origiial.
The.best of the indigenous features can be preservedand incorporared.
or they may be conservedfor limited usesand to maintain the native set-
ting. The narural amractions may thus be enjoyed and appreciated daily
to enrich the living experience.Such installations convey of stabii-
"i.rr.
ity and fitness. They "sing" in the landscape,and they sing in harmony.
Existing topogrophicol profile-suggesting o
rich voriety of structurol forms conceived in
hormony with the noturql londscqpe
"ldeol" profile of rhe rypicql Americqn
builder
Thecodeof theAmericonsubdivider ond homebuilder {osit wouldseemto thecosuol
ooserverl
Axiomi Cleorthelond
Axiom2. stripthetopsoil(orburyit ond houlin new if thissovesoneoperotion)
Axiom3. Provideo "workoble" londprofile{thotis,os flotos possible)
Axiom4 Conductoll woterto stormsewers(or elseto theedge of the lot).
Axiom5. Buildo good wide rood-inexpensive butwide.
Axiom6 Setfhehousewell bock for o big lrontyord
Axiom7 Keepthefrontseven{thislooksneot)
AxiomB Holdto o minimum sideyord
Axiom9 Throwon somelown seed
TheAmericon suburbonitedreom{osseemingly inlerpreted
by thesuburbon builderond
by our presentbuildingreskictions)
A revisedtopogrophyby courtesyof the bulldozerond corryoll Thebouldersore
buried,thenoturolcoverstripped, thebrook"conioined" in stormseweror culvertThe
topsoilis redistributed
os o 4-inchskinoversond,cloy,or rock
Theresproutso new ortificiolfounoof exoticnurserystock
T h i s i s o r r r e n n s t r r r r t e dp o r o d i s e
A better
woyisbuilding withnotureondin compression,whichprovidesthehumon
scoleondchorm we findsooppeoling in iheoldercultures,
inwhicheconomyof moteri-
olsondspocedictoted o closerelotionship
of structure
ondlondscopeform.
'S7here,
however, the usesimposed are unsuited, where they are awlnvard
in plan or clumsy in execution, the result is distressingto both the eye
and the intellect. Moreover, the disruptive consequencesmay be costly,
even catastrophic. For the immutable forces of narure have a way of
rejecting those built intrusions which violate the land.
Land 35

Eachstare,country,or municipaliryhasas
a plan for
one of it's chief responsibilities
the conservationand bestuseofthe lands
within its iurisdiction'
As lonqas I hauethe land. ' . then Im a rich
*an. Ereryhing I need-my food. clorhes,
house,heat-it's all out there.
Aloskon Inuif, qs quoted bY
John McPhee
36 LAND SCAPEARCHITECTURE
uPOn us
If humankind is to thrive-yea, even survive-it is incumbent
bring our species
to study and apply those principtes by which we can
civi-
and nature into symbiotic balance.The problems of_encroaching
its care have
lization, the imperiled land, and the increasing need for
together become our heritage.
Londos o Resource
seepinto
Land and the warersthat lap its edges,flow acrossits surface,
ultimate
its upper soil strata, and move within its deep aquifers are.our
forever' and our national
,.ro,t-.r. Mismanaged,they may be lost to us
wealth and well-being proportionately diminished'
Before dividing our remaining land reservesinto fragmented ownership
parcels, it *o,id be good to look at rhem in their wholenessto seewhat
^frrrr.tion,
they now perform as farmland, forest' and open space'New
patterns for their pr.r.r.rr"tio.r, conservation,or thoughtfully considered
i.,n.lop-.nr can rhen be devised.It is a matter of priorities, of seeing
that each broad areaof land is devoted to its most reasonableusesand
that all land areastogether are formed into logical systems'
Perhapsthe most crucial function of our un-built-upon land areasis that
of topsoil reservoir.This vital substanceis the basis of all agrict'Jtural
productirriry. It occurs, where it still exists,as a thin layer of weathered
rock intermixed with organic marrer in depths ranging from a few
inches to a few feet. This rich skim overlaying the subsoilsand naked
rock may be thousandsof yearsin the making. once lost,it is gone for-
ever.\7e in the United Stateshave dissipatedin the span of five centuries
well over one-third of our vital topsoil endowment. It has been scooped,
()
z
j
:
E
F
Severesoil erosion
 hauled, or washed and blown away to the rivers and
thence transported
to the sea.This is a loss no nation can afford. The
disasrrousconse-
quencesof misuseand wasteof topsoil are to be observedin
most of the
arid regions of the world.

Productivify

Conseruationis a way of life which deats

wisely with all natuial irrourrrr, recognizinr
them to be . . . ineplaceable and esseitial ti
the welfare of maih;nd.
Worner S. Goshorn

An analogy: that in its land and resource

planning eachstatebe consideredas a
developing farmstead.An astute farmer
would studv the land until he or shecame
to understandit-its nature,constraints.
and possibiliries.
The farmerwould then so
lay our (anclcontinually adjust)the working
gomponenrs-living quarters,barn,pens, Hqbitot
fields,orchard,andlines of connection-as
The land is our terrestrialhome not only for the human speciesbut for
all living organisms,which rogetherconsdture the biomassof the planet
Earth.

spring, the drainageways,the soil, and the

natural covers.
Not only is such a farm (state)more
productive,
Not only is it more efficient,
Not only is it more agreeableas a place
to live and work,
It is also the best possibleinvestment for It is only within very recent times that members of the human race have
the farmer, the farmert spouse,and
their heirs.

Most such properry ownership demarcations have been made on a

A natural sy-stemis a co-relatedassemblage
of topographic, climatic, or ecologic
elementsinteracting in accordanci with
natural law.
\Tatersheds,wetlands, coral reefs,
meadows,and anthills are examples.
who^lly haphazard, geometric basis, without regard for topographic
conformation.
Reasonwould tell us that if land musr be parceledand subdivided (our
entire culture seemsnow ro be operating on this premise), new lines of

Land 37
 of
ownership should be brought inro consonancewith the boundaries
functioning land and water systems'

as
Not only should our remaining undisturbed land be so apportioned
but many of the
All of North America wasoccuPi(d'afier a . ,o ."pro, and accommodate the natural form order'
more log-
fashion,by Indians. whosehomeir wasand
'uho pr.r.rr,ly fragmentedlandholdings should be reassembledand
obtainedtheir liuingfom the land. i."lly defi.r.f,. Ci.y and counry limits are examples.Over the ensuing
The Indian concePtoflandott'nershiputas techniquesof surveying,land use planning'
combletelvdifferenrfrom that of the whites' 'ron th.o.rgh the emerging
y."rr,
rhi ndiarirgordr7land assimethingto be ng, ,.dIrr.lop-ent, reclamation, and resource management' the
usedand enioied,euento be defendedagainst mutillted landscapemay be restored to fairer form and to a healthful
ffesDassers,bit not tu be otanedexclusiuelyby
wholeness.
oni prrror, nlr net)erto be boughtand sold in
the commercialsense.
Vhen the white man soughtto buy land
from
-acceptIndians, the latter might agreeand LondGronts
a purchasepric, 1, gtf, Jet not
unierstind what the whirc man meant. [t tuas In the United States,rights in land have flowed to individuals, corpora-
ite men drouesbarP
tions, and agenciesmainly from governmenr-from colonial powers in
s renegedon bargains
wassomeof each;more earlier times and later by acts of Congress.
euerA genuxne
Through the century following the Louisiana Purchasein 1803, the
Mqrion Clqwson
Uniteistates disposedof almost 1 billion acresof land held in public
ownership.At first, the more important dispositionswere those made to
the statesin support of public schoolsand the land-grant colleges.Then
followed allotmints foi *"go.r roads, canals,and the building of rail-
roads. In the last-named case the entrepreneurs were usually given
alternate secdons within a broad swath contiguous to the railroad
right-of-way.The HomesteadAct of 1862 extendedrights in land to set-
tlJrs. Military bounties, Indian rights, and grants to encourage such
The United Statesowned a great deal of knd, activities as timber culture, mining, irrigation, and reclamation were to
public and priuate capital was in shortsupply, swell the dispositions to date to almost half of the total land areaof 50
and rhe needfor public improuementwas
great; uhy nit maheprblii land auaikble to states.
"frrontt
the consnuctionof neededpublic
'imDrouements?
This wasi sornd basicidea, In Alaska today, the land-granr sagacontinues. From the time of the
*iith orro*plished a great deal.t#t;r(_r:.
Alaska Purchasein 1867 until the Alaska Statehood Act of 1958, the
federal government owned almost the whole of the territory'

It can be seenthat from our country's beginnings to the Presenttime the

dynamics of land transfer,ownership, and use have had profound polit-
ical, social, and economic implications. The story of land exploration,
land hunger, Iand transactions,regulation, and use (and too often abuse)
is the stoiy of America. Land is our ultimate resource.\7e must plan for
its conservation,regulation, and development on a more scientific basis.
'We
must learn to use it more wisely.

LondRights
Once in private ownership, land can be readily used or sold as a valued
.o--odiry. A factor of use or saleis, of course,the ability to define and

38 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
Almost imperceptiblythe relationshipof
socieryto the land has changed,to a point
at which the public good now largely
transcendsrhe rishts of the individual.
prove rights of ownership by clear title to the property. Such proof pre-
supposesa suryey and the establishmenton the ground of stakes,mon-
uments, or other markings by which the properry boundaries can be
identified. Further, there must be a means by which a lot or parcel may
be so describedas to differentiate it from and relate it to all other land-
holdings. Finally, there is need for a systematicand orderly means of
recording land descriptionsand titles.

In the United States,by comparison,we are fortunate in our system.In

many Latin American countries, for instance, few of these conditions
pertain. There, accuratesurveysseldom exist; rights in land are often
clouded and in dispute, and the systematicrecording of titles is not yet
a fact of life. Much land has been preempted by squatters'now backed
by traditional sentiment in favor of the pioneer and against those who
own or believethey own supersedingrights to the land. Such vague and
chaotic conditions of property ownership lead to a lack of commitment,
investment, and improvement by those not certain of establishedrights
go! th and give force to a growing movement toward massiveland reform.
wilhin each region of lhe U S.
an east-west base line and norlh-
soulh pjngipgl4e!!!j9! have been
e s t a b l i s h € d ,a n d t o t h e s e a l l g u b -
s € q u e l t l a n d s u b d i v i s i o na n d l i t l e Surveying
d e s c r r p t i o n sa r e r e l a t € d
Townilrp! are numbered north
and south of lhe base line, and The original land survey has left an indelible mark uPon those Parts
!e!g!9 east and west of lhe
prlncipal meridian of the United Statesto which it was applied. There was much to com-
mend the system.As Marion Clawson has noted, we are a rectilinear
The princiPal unils ot land
wilhin counlie6 are l!1ry!gL!!!, slx
country, divided into squares and oblongs like a haphazatd checker-
miles on a side, comprised ot 36
,i!-SU_S_o9,
each app.oxlnately I board, with the lines running directly north-south and east-west.
dile square

Roads typically follow the surveyedsection lines even though this means
going up and down hills insteadof around them. Farmerstend to lay out
their fields parallel to the boundariesof their land even though this may
mean cultivating up and down the slope rather than along the contours.

TOWNSHI2 P SOUTH
R A N G E2 E A S T

Sections are further subdividedas shown

Lots or parcels are d€scrib€d by b€arings
and distances or'metes and bounds'from
statel reterence poinls wilhin a given area
ot the surveY grid

sEcrloN 2a

o f l o n ds u r v e y i n g
D i o g r o m m r rst yc s t e m Londdefinitionby tronsitond rod.

Land 39
 Tcrgets
overrondomfieldstokescon be plotted Much erosion has been caused or acceleratedin this way. Some land
by coordinoles
fromon oeriolphotogrid
experts,observing theserypes of bad land use,have been highly critical
of the rectilinear land survey and argue for modification.

Perhapsthe time has now come. The crude magnetic surveying insrru-
ments and need for rangelines clearedthrough forest and swampsmade
the mechanical grid quire reasonablein its time. But now, wirh the
/E- advent of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), photogrammerry,
lasersighting, computer techniques,coordinates,and electronic traverse
computation, it is time for a whole fresh look ar the processof land
description and measurement.A gradual land resurvey to follow and
respond to natural topographical conformation is clearly in order. Gov-
ernmental regulation could now require that future land surveys and
dispositions be based,as appropriare,on more logical parcel boundaries
to meet sound land use criteria.

Use
\7e Americans, with a seemingly inexhaustibleland reserve,have been
extremely wasteful. \7e have claimed, cleared,and too often exploited,
then moved on, to do it all over again. It is only now, with open land at
With photogrommelry evenfreelymeondering a premium, that we have begun ro undersrandthe need for husbandry.
linescon be plottedfor properlydescription
ond
recording-witho troceof thelineond coordi-There are many examplesof land well used-among them, New En-
noleson on oeriolmopfor lhe record
gland villagesfitted to the topography,the Amish farmsteadsof pennsyl-
vania, Florida citrus groves, \Tisconsin dairy farms, wheat and corn
needed fields of the prairies, ranch lands of the plains, and bean fields, vine-
yards, and orchardsalong the west coast-and acrossthe breadth of the
Meondering
properly
linesoreeosilyestoblished land, well-tended homesitesand gardens.

In the good examples,we may perceivethesesimple preceprsof sound

land management:

Weabuseland because ue regardit as a Learn to read the landscape,

commodi4tbelongingto us. rVhenwe seeland
to comprehend the grandeur of its geologic framework,
as a communiryro which we belong,we may
beginto useit-wirh loueand utpri. . . . to understandthe vital workings and interdependpnceof the
That land is a community is the basic land and water systems,
conceptofecology,but that Iand is to be loued to discern in eachform and feature the unique expressionof
and resPected is an extensionofethics.
naturet creativeprocess. :
Aldo Leopold
Let the land's narure derermine irs use. And so address.each
measureof the landscapeasto evoke,through our planning, use,
and treatmenr, irs highest qualities and potential.

The carrying capacity of land-water areais
the populadon or levelofactiviry that can
be sustainedfor a given length of time
without depletionof rhe resourcesor
breakdownof the biological (natural)
systems.
V4ren land passesfrom one ownership to another,,6ertainlegalrights are
transferredwith the properry. unless otherwise specifiedin the deed or
governing regulations, these include the right ro use, cultiv4te; mine,
perform earthwork, removethe soil or vegetariohfrom the land, or build
upon lr.

40 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
Plonto the cnd
Landowners havethe responsibiliwto use
their propcrryso asro prorecrits narural
valuesand :iruseno harm to neiehbors.
Running with the land are also certain responsibilities,many firmly
establishedby our land law tradition. It is unlawful, for insrance, to
causedamageby directing an increasedflow of storm-water runoff onto
a neighbor'sproperry. It is not lawful to alrer gradessignificanrly along a
properry line, or to createoff-site earth slippage,erosion, or siltation, or
to generate undue air, water, noise, or visual pollution. Other more
recent restrictions dealing with such matrers as wetland protection,
beach access,erosion control, and unregulated grading are still to be
fully testedin the courrs.
Sincemost siteswere acquired in the first placebecausethey were attrac-
tive or had other positive qualities, it might well be proposed as a gen-
eral rule that the lessmodification, the better.A fundamental principle
of landscapedesignis to'plan to the site," letting the natural contours,
conditions, and coversdictate the building and landscapeforms.
\x4rere for one reasonor anorher it may be desirableto alter the grades,
as to provide required use areasor to disposeof excavatedmaterials,the
topsoil on disturbed areasshould first be stripped and stockpiled. The
revised contours will then be reshapedto accommodate the proposed
uses,to expressthe meld of natural and constructed elements, and to
enhancethe building-site composition.
Land 41
 ree water is the shining splendor of the natural landscape.From the
f
I bubbling spring and upland pool to the splashing srream, rushing
rapids, waterfall, freshwaterlake, and brackish esruaryand finally to the
saltwater sea,water has held for all creaturesan irresistible appeal. To
some degree,we humans still seemto sharewith our earliestpr.d...rrorc
the urgent and instinctive sensethat drew them to the watert edge.

Perhapsat first they were drawn only for drink, to lave hot and dust-
streakedbodies,or to gather the bounry of mollusk and fish. Later, water
for the cooking pots would be dipped and carried in gourds, skins, hol-
low sectionsof bamboo, and jars of shaped,fire-baked clay. Perhapsour
affiniry for water has increasedwith the discoveryof its value in gardens
and irrigation and with the knowledge that only with moisture presenr
can plants flourish and animals thrive. It may be becausein the deep,
moist soils of the bottomlands the grassesare richer, the foliage more
lush, and the berrieslarger and sweeter.Here, too, the refreshingbreeze
seemscooler and even the song of the birds more melodious.

Woter os o Resource
In planning the use of land areasin relation to waterways and water
bodies, a reasonablegoal would be to take full advantageof the benefits
of proximity. These benefits would seem to fall within the following
categories.
TomLomb,LombStudio

43

In Florida at least65 percentof all marine
organisms,including shrimp, Iobsters,
oysters,and commercial and game fish,
spendpart oftheir life cyclein the brackish
waters of tidal esruariesand coastal
wedands.
'sfithin
the past century, over half of the
statet wetlands have been dredged, filled, or
drained.
The only way to protect fish and wildlife
is to orotect their habitat.
44 LANDSCAPEARCHI TECTURE
Wofer Supply,lrrigotion, ond Droinoge
\7hen theseare important considerations,the areaof more intensive use
will be located near the sources.Those site functions requiring the most
moisture in the soil or air will be given location prioriry. Usually gravit.'l
flow will have much to do with the plan layout.
Irrigated fields will be establishedbelow points of inlet where possible
and be so arrangedthat lines or planesof flow will slopegently acrossthe
contours to achievemaximum percolation and continuity.
Drainage will be maintained whenever possible along existing lines of
flow, with the naturd vegetation left undisturbed. It would be hard to
devise a more efficient and economical system of storm drainage than
that which nature provides. Runoff from fertilized fields or turf will be
directed to on-site retention swalesor ponds so that the water may be fil-
tered and purified before reentering the source or percolating into the
soil to rechargethe water table.
Usein Processing
tJ7hen drawn from surfacestreamsor water bodies for use in cooling,
water of equal quantiry and qualiry is to be
washing, or other processes,
returned to the source. Makeup water may be supplied from wells or
public water supply systems.
Tronsportation
tX/.henwaterways,lakes,or abutting ocean ar€ to be used for the trans-
port of people or goods,the docking installationsand vesselsare to be so
designedand operatedthat the functional and visual qualiry of the water
is at all dmes ensured.
Mi crocli mafe Moderofion
The extremesof temperature are tempered by the presenceof moisture
and by the resulting vegetation.This advantagemay be augmented by
the favorableplacement of plan areasand structuresin relation to oPen
water, irrigated surfaces,or water-cooledbreeze.
wildlife Hobitqt
Lakeshores,stream edges,and wetlands together form a natural food
source and habitat for birds and animals. \7hen flora and fauna are to
be protected, the indigenous vegetation is to be allowed to remain
standing whenever feasible,and continuous swaths of cover are to be
left intact to permit wildlife to move from place to place unmolested.
The denser growth is usually concentrated along water edgesand con-
verging swales.

More than two-thirds of the earth'ssurface
is submersed in saltwater.The balanceof
surfacearJa is generallyunderlaid with fresh
water that fluctuatesslowly in elevationand
flows imperceptiblythrough the porous
aquiferstor,r'ard
the wairing sea.
If thereis m"'gic on theplanet, it is contained as a shout of triumph or as a silent upsurge of the spirits. Not only the
in uater . . . its substancereaclteseueryultere; sight but aswell
ir touchesth, past and preparesrhefuiure: it
mouesunder thepolesand wandersthinly in
the heightsor air. It can assume forms of
exquisiteperfection in a snou,flahe,or strip
the liuing to ,esingleshining bonecastup by
the sea'
Loren Eiseley
Recreotionol
Use
Our streams and water bodies have long provided our most popular
types of outdoor recrearion such as boating, fishing, and swimming.
Along their banks and shoresis found the accretion of coftages,mobile
home parks, and campsiresthat attestto our love of water. It is proposed
that in long-range planning, with few exceprions,all water areasand
edgesto the limits of a 5}-year flood would be acquired and made part
of the public domain.
S c e n i cv o l u e .
Recreotion
volue
ScenicVolues
For most people, the glimmer of sunlight on open water is sure to elicit
an exclamation of discoveryand delight. The feelingsmay be expressed
the sounds of warer evoke a senseof pleasure.It would
seemthat we are so acutely attuned to the language ef vv21s1-1he trickle
and gurgle of ice melt, the splashof the stream, the lapping of water on
lakeshore,the surf crash,even the cry of shorebirds-rhat we can almost
seewith our ears.
A glimpse, a view, an unfolding panorama of the aquatic landscapeis a
scenicsuperlative.Streamsand water bodies are the punctuation marks
W'ater 45

The subsurfacereservoirof freshwater may
be tapped and usedfreelyas long as the
localsupplyis not therebydepleted.
Depletion is causednot only by overusebut
also,and more often, by destructionof the
natural ground coversand vegetation,which
would otherwiseretain precipitationfor
filtration to the aquifer.
46 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
in reading the landscape.They translate for us the landforms and the
story of their geologic formation. They set the mood; they articulate;
they intensify. They give the essentialmeaning. \What is a prairie with-
out its sloughs?A meadow without its meandering brook? A mountain-
side without its cascade?A valley without its river?
SiteAmenity
Fortunate is the landowner whose property includes or borders upon an
attractive stretch of water or affords eYen a distant view. In landscape
and architecturalplanning, a chief endeavorwill be the devising c,f rela-
tionships that exact the full visual and use possibilities.
ecosystems.
Submorine
A q u o t i ce n v i r o n m e n l
 Anribute
Most attributes of nxnrls-*re hills, rhe trees,the starlit sky-"r. ur,r-
ally taken for granted, but the value of free warer is not. \fhere ir exists,
asin the form of pond, stream,lake, or ocean,the adjacentlandholdings
are eagerly sought. They are prized as sites for parks and parkways, for
homes, institutions, resort hotels, and other commercial ventures. It
could almost be stated as a law of land economicsthat "the closera site
to open water, the higher its value as real estate."

Fromuplond
spring
to oceonoutfoll
theriver NOIUfOl SyStemS
bosin, river,ond oll itstribrrtories
ore nnrt nf n
unifiedsysten In the past, freshwaterin all its forms has been used,and too often mis-
usedor wasted,as if thesewere God-given privileges.Except in irrigated
lands, where water rights and supply are jealously guarded, there has
been little concern for what is happening upstream or downstream
unlessthe flow should be cut off or increasedto the point of flooding.

\Waterflows, inevitably, from sourceto receiving ocean basin.This con-

tinuity of rivulets, streams,and rivers can be readily observed.Not so
- t'
I obvious are the sequential and interacting relatiorrrhip, of the ponds,
r I €\
\ E V' lakes,and wedands.These, too, are links in the chain of flow. They are
\3p affectednot only by the things that happen ar their sidesbut by all that
\, r-'{rxw
:: A t a\ transpireswithin the upper watershedsor the subsurfaceaquifers that
'?u'g
qt"\ feed and help sustainth.-. Thesesamesubsurfacewarer-b."ring, warer-
trata provide, also,the groundwater essen-
I forest and to maintaining the level of the
rter suppliesare drawn.

and water areaswell used can benefit all who live within their
of influence. If, however,they are unwisely used, contaminated,
or wasted, dependent life is thereby threatened,sometimeswith minor

Water 47
 loss or inconvenience,sometimeswith major disaster,as by devastating
drought or overwhelming flood.
uni-
It is only recently that entire river basinshave come to be studied as
fied ani interreiated systems.Such a rational approach increasesrather
work-
than limits the possibiiitiesof fuller use and enjoyment and setsa
able framework within which all subareasmay then be better planned.

Any considerationof the flow of surfaceor subsurfacewater leadsone to

the obvious conclusion rhat only comprehensivewatershed manage-
ment makes any senseat all. A parcel-by-parcelapproach to the use of
river-basin l"ri, ."r only fracture the contiguous water-relatedmatrix
and disrupt the natural systems.

Problems
The problems to be precluded are those of overuse,rapid runoff, ero-
sion, siltation, flooding, induced drought, and contamination. Simply
stated,any use that causesone of more of theseabusesto any significant
degreeis improper and should not be condoned. It can be left to biolo-
gisis and l.g"l ."p.rts to define a significant impact. But it can no longer
6e left to indirridualsor groups to determine whether or not their activ-
ities may causeharm to their neighbors,no matter if the "neighbors"live
next door or at the river mouth 1,000 miles downstream'

\rhat happens in the wheat fields of North Dakota can have a telling
\What
.ff..t onihe working of the lower Missouri and Mississippi rivers.
happensor doesnt happen on rhe forest slopesof the upP:r JamesRiver
-"y d..i-ate the wildfowl yield of the distant salt marsh or contami-
nare rhe oyster beds of chesapeakeBay. In Florida a cloud of spawning
shrimp may die where the Apalachicola fuver debouches,becauseof an
oil spill on a tributary tlvo statesaway.

In most nonarid parts of our land it is assumedthat the supply of fresh-

water is limitless. It is not. It has recently been common for reservoirs
and wells to reach such low levels that whole regions are alerted and
rationed. Along much of our coasdine, the aquifers that.flow under-
ground to the o.."n, have been so lowered by drawdown that salfwater
intrusion for many miles inland has been a vexing problem'

The normal solution to such shortageshas been to extend aqueducts,no

matter how far, to tap additional sources.Seriousthought has even been
given to the massivemelting of the arctic icecapasa sourceof supply.This,
!,r.n ^ we are beginning to realize the disastrouseffbcts of global warm-
ing. Today the supply ofheshwater is not equal to our use (or misuse)and
demands.This has becomea major land planning consideration.

\flidespread irrigation and its exhaustion of the freshwater reservesis

believedto have causedthe demiseof the ancient Mayan culture. In the
United States in contemporary rimes it is not far from posing an
impending threat to our sryle of life aswe have known it'

4B LAND SCAPEARCH I TECT URE

 AVz^ wafa,
U)ell^l Du^L/*.4^
wi.{ln,.J
/
UVlo^J
Ten Axioms of'Water Resource
Management
Vithin each rationally defined
hydrographicregion:
o Protect the watersheds,wetlands,and the
banks and shoresof all streamsand water
bodies.
. Minimize pollution in any and all forms
and initiate a program of
decontamination.
. Gear land use allocation and
developmentcapacitiesto the available
water supply, rather than vice versa.
. Return to the underlying aquifer water of
quandry and qualiry equal to that
withdrawn.
. Limit useto such ouantitiesaswill
sustainthe local fiesh-waterreseryes.
. Conduct surfacerunoffby natural
drainagewaysinsofar as feasiblerather
than by constructedstorm sewersystems.
. Utilize ecologically designedwetlands for
wasrewarerrfearment. detoxification, and
groundwater recharge.
Promote dual systemsof water supply
and distribution, with differentiated rates
for potable water and that used for
irrigation or industrial purposes.
Reclaim,restore,and regenerateabused
Iand and \vater areasto their natural
healthful condition.
'Work
to advancethe technology of water
supply, use, processing,recycling, and
recnarge.
The irrigation of thousands upon thousands of acres of otherwise
parched semideserr,converting it into lucrative farmland, was a good
thing as long as rhe water was abundanr. Overuse, howeve! has dried
the beds of such rivers as the Colorado and lowered the levelsof water
tables nationwide. Recently, newly assembledmacrofarms with rolling
irrigation machines gush founrains of potable water sk).ward,while in
nearby homes, faucet flows have been reduced to a trickle.
Beyond and exceedingthe drain of agricultural irrigation, the sprinkling
of untold thousands of lawn areashas causeda ma)or depletion of our
nation's water supply. It is said that the vast nationwide acreageof lawn
under irrigation exceedsthat of all cropland in New England. These are
but examplesof our prodigious wasre.\7e think nothing of using 30 gal-
lons in the taking of a shower, while in many countries the daily water
consumption of an endre family is carried home from the srreamor well
each morning in a jar on the daughter'shead. It is time for planners to
adopt a new approach to water conservation, use, abuse, reuse, and
replenishment.
Clearly,the amount of water drawn from streams,water bodies,and well
fields must be reducedand brought into balancewith sourcesof replace-
ment. The area of irrigated agricultural land must be reduced-phased
out instead of expanded as presently.It is to be permitred only where
freshwateris abundant and can be used without depletion of local and
regional reserves.This must be a factor also in the allocation of develop-
ment sitesof all rypes.
Prioriry attention is to be given to reducing the vast areasof mowed and
irrigated residentiallawns. The American homeowner'sdream seemsto
be that of widely spacedsingle-family homes fronted or surrounded by
as much closely shorn and well-watered green lawn as possible.\With
both land and water now at a premium, we must look to smaller lots,
attached homes, and multifamily apartment living with lawn areascon-
fined to walk borders,game courts, and other specializedareas.
'$Vlth
wise land use planning and water resourcemanagement,we can
have in the United Statesan adequatesupply of freshwater for centuries
to come.
Possibilities
If there may be problems, there are possibilitiesalso.These include the
preservation of those areasof wilderness or wild river yet unspoiled.
They include the conservation and compadble uses of those water-
related areaswhich are rich in soils, cover, or scenic quality and which in
their natural or existing state are important contributors to our ecologi-
cal well-being. The possibilitiesinclude the restorationof depletedfarm-
lands and dilapidated urban wastelands to productive use by regrading,
soil stabilization, and replanting of eroded slopesand slashings.\Well-
planned agricultural districts, recreation lands, towns, and cities could
W'ater 49

Ecologically managedwetlands are rapidly
becomingan important alternativeto
conventionalwastewatertreatmentsystems.
Qc^ la|"l- ,a"l
neEt voi s+\djelnc
is &.c1nw1
l^'l'.J'
Avoidthewoter-edge rlngof roodsond buildings
thoiseoloff woierbodiesond limiitheiruse
Lo*es
By exponding thekoffic{ree io
lokeenvirons
includepork,wildlifepreserve,ond public
oreosos well os privolecoitogesond resorts,
theuseond enjoyment of theloke(ondsur-
roundingreolestotevolues) ore enhonced
50 LAND SCAPEARCH I TECTURE
then be clusteredwithin a green-blue surrounding of field, forest, and
clean water, linked with parklike transportation ways' Far more than
many may realrze,weare well on our way to such a concept' and
"1r."dy
ethic, of land and water management.
Proficient land and site planning will help solve the water-relatedprob-
lems and ensurethat the possibilitiesare fully realtzed.Thelevel of per-
formance should be continually improved in the light of increasing
public supporr and advancingtechnology.It is quite possiblethat within
ih. ,p"r, oio,rt lifetimes wide reachesof our land and waterwaysmay be
restoiedro the fairer form that our naturalist friendsThoreau, Muir, and
Aldo Leopold once found so exhilarating.
Monogement
In consideringthe site developmentof any landscapearea,afirst concern
is the protection of the surface and subsurfacewaters both as to qualiry
and as to quantity. Quality is maintained by precluding contamination in
for-, by the flow or seepageof pollutants, by groundwater runoff
".ry "s
chargedwith chemicalsor nutrients, by siltation, or by the introduction
of ,olid wastes.The assuranceof acceptablewater quantitJris largely a
matter of retaining surfacerunoff in swales,ponds, or wetlands to Pre-
vent rhe flooding of ,rr."rn, or water bodies, to sustain the level of the
underlying *"t.i table, and to replenishthe deep-flowing aquifers.
Utilize
since propinquiry ro water is so highly desirable,since there is only so
much water area and frontage to go around, and since the protection of
our water and edgeshasbecomeso critical in our environmentalplanning,
it would seem reasonablethat all water-oriented land areas should be
planned in such a way as to reaPthe maximum benefits of the water fea-
iure while protecting its integrity. This goal often resolvesitself into the
simple d.rri.. of expanding the actual and visual limits of water-related
l"rrJ to the reasonablemaximum. This is not as difficult as it might seem.
In practice, the rim of frontage is extended landward from the water edge
in such a manner as to define an ample Protective sheath.This variform
vegetatedband, at best following the lines of drainageflow and respond-
i.r! to the subtle persuasionsof the topography,will provide frontage for
compatible develtpme.tt and serveas accessto the water. The possible
variations are limitless, but the principle remains alwaysthe same.Each
variablediagram must stand the test of thesethree underlying conditions:
1. All related usesare to be compatible with the water resourceand
landscape.
2.The intensity of the introduced usesmust not exceedthe carrying
capaciryor biologic toleranceof the land and water areas'

As a breakthrough in the treatment of
wastewaterand toxic effluents it has been
discoveredrhat ecologically engineered
wetlands can be devisedto extract and
retain the contaminants while storing the
clarified water and providing habitat.
3. The continuiry of the natural and built systemsis to be ensured.If
these three principles are adhered to, it can be seen that all land-
water areas,from homesite to region, can be planned and developed
in such a way rhar both the scenicquality and the ecologicfunctions
are maintained.
Open water is fast disappearingfrom the American scene.Expanding agri-
cultural lands and development conrinue to follow the drainage ditches
and dle fields acrossprairie wetlands and everglades.The urgent compul-
sion to dredgeand fill, while slowedby recentconservationlegislation,con-
tinues to reclaim the marsh, the cedar bog, and the mangrove strands.
Rivers, lakes, and oceanfront are being hidden from public view and
shieldedfrom public accessby a rising wall ofapartments and office towers.
Is it not too late.
It is not too late!
Profecf
'W'ork
\7here water features exist, protect them. to preservenot only the
open water but the supporring watershed covers, the natural holding
ponds, the swampland, the floodplain, the feeding streams) and the
green sheath along their banks. To be protected as well are the coastal
wetlands, the landward dunes, and the oufward reefs or sandbars.
In the planning of every water-relatedproject site there is an opportu-
nity to demonstratesound managementprinciples. Each well-designed
example not only servesthe interest of the client but also standsas a les-
son to others.
Rediscover
Many water features of great potential landscape value have been
bypassedin the process of building or roadway construction. They
remain "out back" or "yonder," often in their natural state,more often as
silted or polluted drainagesumps or dump sites.They are waiting to be
reclaimed by the community as parkland or open spacepreserves.Pre-
served or modified, they may be rediscoveredand featured in new pub-
lic or private landscapedevelopment.
Resfore
Again, a spring, a pond, or a section of stream may have been enclosed
in a culvert or buried in fill. Or it may have been used as a dumping
ground and coveredwith brush and trash. Sometimes,to add to the dis-
grace,such water features have been shamefully polluted with oils and
chemicals and are coated with scum. In most urban and suburban
W'ater 51
Xeriscapelandscapeconstrucrion, planting'
and gardening is rhat requlrlng a mlnlmum
of irrigation.

wetlonds.
Conskucted

precincrsand often in the open countryside, there are to be found such

tmr..ogrrired landscapetreasureswaiting to be reclaimed'

Conserve
The alarming drawdown and depletion of our freshwaterreservesunder-
scoresthe need for new attitudes toward water useand resourcemanage-
ment. Even in times of moderate drought, many city reservoirs are
emptied. \rhile in most parts of the world water is considereda precious
commodiry and used sparingly,in the united Statesit is squanderedas
though the supply were unlimited. It is not'

To conserve our diminishing supply in the face of ever-increasing

demands,severalcoursesof action are proposed:

Limit consumPtion.
Regulatehour.hold use by sharply escalatingthe rates on a sliding
scalefor use abovea basic norm.
Precludeuse of well water for irrigation'

Recyclewastewater.In urban areasthis suggestsa dual :yttl- of water

supply-one for drinking, cooking, and bathin$, the other.for all other
p*por.r. Tieat and sanitire wasrewarer(at a much lower unit cost) to be
,rr.d .".l.rrively for irrigation, air-conditioning, street washing, and
industrial processing.

Rep/enish
In undisturbed nature, the subsurfacewater feservesare sustainedautomat-
ically-by the retention and soil filtration of precipitation. \fhen trees,

52 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 grasses'and other vegetative covers are removed-and especially
when
replacedby paving or consrru-ion-the warer tablesare thereby
lowered.

Three feasibleremediesare suggested:

. Protecr and replant the upland watersheds.

. Restorethe natural drainageways(to the 5}-year flood stage)to pub-
lic ownership or restrictedprivate use,and sheathethem in"veg.,",iorr.
' Require of new development that the srorm-water runoff be retained
in catchment basins,swales,or ponds, for percolation and aquifer
recharge.

Preplon
Sometimes in the necessaryprocessof mining or in the excavationof
open extraction pits, there exists the need to create new warer areas.

scapes,with free-form lakes, grassyslopes, and tree-coveredmounds.

This reasonablepreplanning approach,as a condition of obtaining exca-

Useof notivevegetotionconserveswoter.

W'ater 53
 into highly attractive and valuable real estate'

SiteDesign
Woter-Reloted
ln the development of land-water holdings, special care-is required in
the delineation of use areas,in the location of paths of vehicular and
pedestrianmovement, and in site and building design'

Nofuro/Sfreomsand Woter Bodies

learned,therefore,that a first considerationin the site planning ofwater-

relatedareasis to leavethe natural conditions undisturbed and build up
to and around them.

In their existing state, the banks of streams and rivers are lined by a
fringe of g."rs.r, shrubs,and ffeesthat stabilizesoils and check the sheet
inflJw of surfacestorm warer drainage.The bank facesare held in place
by stones,logs, roots, and trailing plants that resistcurrents and erosion.

Lakeshoresand beaches,armored with wave-resistantrock or protected

by their sloped edgesof sand or gravel, are ideally shaped to withstand
Forsofe!, o beochshouldslopet o depth
height(6 et plus)
the force and wasLof wind-driven waves.Even the quiet pond or lagoon
exceeding o swimmer's
beforereochingo deep-cutline is edgedwith reedsor lily pads,which serYea similar purPose'

,Wherea water featuresuch as a spring, pond, lake, or tidal marsh occurs

in nature, it is usually a distillate of the surrounding landscapeand a rich
'
: \'
(z#1
Conolsond lmpoundmenfs
Partsof the American landscapeare laced and interlacedwith a network
t3f-,+)g of canals.Some have been in operation since colonial times. Many have
been long abandoned. \When "rediscovered" and reactivated in rural
o, trrb"rr-r.ttings, thesewaterways,with hiking or biking trails along-
pitscon be reshoped
excovotlon by side, become treasuredcommunity features.All are to be preservedand
Rectillneor
groding
supplementory to freeJorm
creote lokes protected.

54 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE

Albert R. Veri er ol.
Often, and particularly in large parks and
nature pfeserves,the migratory aspectof
beachesand shoresis acknowledged,and
they are allowed full freedom to assumeand
constantly adjust their natural
conformation.This eminently sound
approachdeservesfar wider application.
The water in many ciw reservoirsis hidden
from public view. in its storageand
processingit could be usedto refreshand
beautify urban surroundings.
At a miniscale, a trickling rivulet can be impeded by a few well-placed
stones ro increaseits size and depth. By the construcdon of a prop.,
dam, larger and deeper pools can be creared for fishing, ,r"i--irrg, o,
boating or as landscapefeatures.
At a greater scale,huge reservoirs or lakes may be impounded for water
storage,flood control, or the provision ofhydroele.tri..n.rgy. provided
the drawdowns are not too severeor frequent, such large imfoundments
offer the opportunity for many forms of warer-rel"t.d ,..r."tion and
often become the focal artracrion for extensiveregional development. To
ensure their maximum contribution and benefits, all major reservoirs
and the contiguous lands around them should be preplanned before
construction permits are issued,with dedication provided for necessary
rights-of-way and for appropriate public and private uses.
From the smallestdam to the largest,the location must be well selectedto
ensure its stabiliry for a failure and surging washout can bring serious
'w'ater
problems downstream. levelsare to be studied in relation ro ropo-
graphical forms so that the edgesof the pond or lake may crearea pleasing
shapewell suited to adjacent paths of movement, useareas,and structures.
\flhere the feeding streamsare silt-laden or subject to periodic flooding,
upstream settling basins with weirs and a gated bypass channel will be
required.
Poths,Bridges,ond Decks
People are attracted to water. It is a natural tendency to wish to walk or
ride along the edge of a srream or lake, to rest beside it enjoying the
sights and sounds,or, in the caseof streams,to crossto the other side.
These desiresare to be accommodatedin site planning. Routesof move-
ment will be aligned to provide avariety of views and will in effect com-
bine to afford a visual exploration of the lake or warerway. It is fitting
that water-edgepaths or drives be undulating in their horizontal anJ
vertical curvature and consrructedof materialsthat blend into the natu-
ral scene.At points where water-oriented usesare intensified or where
the meeting of land and water is to be given more architectural treat-
ment, the shapes and materials of the pathways and use areas will
become more structural, too.
overlooks may be as unprepossessing asa bench in the widened bend of
a path. Or they may be decked,terraced,or walled, to bring the userinto
the most favorablerelationship ro the water for the purpose intended, be
it viewing, relaxing, fishing, diving, or entering a boat.
Bridges, too, are designedwith regard for much more rhan basic func-
tion. At their best they provide an exhilarating experienceof crossing.
W'ater 55

In the shaping of water bodies it is desirable
that the outline be curvilinear, rather than
angular, to reflect the undulating nature of
water.
Often, to provide more efficient use of
the bordering land, the pond or lake is first
excavated along straight lines, which are
often softened by curvature and by
rounding intersections.
Since"in most methods of excavation, as
by dragline or pans, straight, deep cuts are
-or. etottomical, the central body of a lake
is often a rectangle or a polyhedron in
shape, with a widened perimeter shelf
sloped to the deeper excavation pit and
trimmed to more natural form.
imagination. By this design device not only
is th"ewarer bodv made more appealing' but
lts aPParent slze ls lncreaseo.
56 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
Woter Edges
The meeting of land and warer presents a line of special planning
significance.
It has been noted that where the usesare mild and where the banks or
shoresare attractive, they are best left essentiallyundisturbed. As water-
related usesare intensified and the need for spaceincreased,the degree
of edgetreatment is correspondinglyincreaseduntil in some instancesit
may become entirely architectural.
edge.
Urbonwoter's
In water-edgedetailing theseare some of the fundamentalsto be kept in
mind:
'W'here
. Minimize disruption the banks or shoresare stable, the less
treatment, the better.
. Maintain smoothflotas. Avoid the use of elements that obstruct
currents or block wave action.
. Slopeand armor the bankt if necessary, to absorbenergJlwhereflouts are
swifi or waue irnpactsare destructiae.
. Prouide boat accessto zaaterofdesired depth by the useofdockl piers, or
ramps.
floax with self-adjusting
. Auoid the indisriminate useof ietties and groins or the diuerting of
strLngcurrents. The effectsareoften unpredictable and sometimes
calamitous.
 The qualiti :r.of water are infinite in their Design to tlte uorst conditions. consider recorded water levels and
varlet)..
In dep*, warer may rangefrom deep to
the height of wind-driven surf.
no m ) e than a film ofsurface Preclude flooding. Hold the floor level of habitable structuresabove
moisture. the 5O-year-flood srageasa minimum.
In moti< n, from rush to gush,plummet, Promote trftry Ol tlte useof handrails, nonslippauement, buoys,mark_
_ spurr spout, spill, spray,or seep. ers,and lights.
In sounc, from tumultlrott, ro". to
mufn [Lf. ue weather-and water-resistdntmaterials,
fastenings,and equipment.
E a c h a t t r i b r L t e , s u g g e s r sa p a r r i c u l a r u s e a n d corrosion and deteriorarion are consrant
iroblem"s th.'*"t.r-
applicarion
i r r l a n d s c a pdee s i g n . "lorrg
front.
Preuenttheflou ofpolluted surfacerunoffinto receiuinguaters. Such
runoff should be intercepted and treated, or filterJ by the use of
detention swales.

Pools,Founfoins,ond Coscodes
It is hard to imagine any planned landscapearea-patio, garden,or pub-
lic square-that would not benefit by the introductio., of *"r., in nat-
ural or architectural form. Its sound, motion, and cooling effectsgive it
universalappeal.

fi
6
! -
o
o
- j
rc
;-

;
o
o

!
o

I n s i d et h e c o , , c o d e

W'ater 57
 ..&.'
1'4+

ffiMx'.;*&I '-:,a:i'l;

F o u n t o i n so d d i n t e r e sot n d r e f r e s h m e n t

5B LA !,/)t)SCAPE A RCH I TE C TLI Rlj

\7'.ater.
has becomesymbolic. It connoresand promotes refreshment
and
stimulatesverdant growth. Its presencecan convert seemingdesert
into
seemingoasis.

W'ater 59
 ot many centuriesago, exceptfor the water bodies and windswepr
deserts,the whole of planet Earth above the level of the ,." *",
coveredwith vegetation.From the lichens, mosses,and sedgesat the
water's edge to the billowing grassof the prairies and plains. From the
lush foliage of the swamp and marsh to the sparsefringe at the moun-
tain timberline. In berween,the dunes,rolling hills, and upland slopes
were for the most part clothedwith a densegrowth of deciduou, shrubs
and treesor needledconifers.

TopsoilMontle
In the Americas,until the migrations acrossthe land bridge of the Bering
Sea (the latest some 10,000 yearsago), rhere were no living humans on
either the North or South American conrinentsto disturb oi destroythis
vegetativecover.As long as it remained inracr, the fertile topsoil manrle,
laid down by the ages> was secureand protected.This rich and loamy top-
soil substancewhich overlays the weathered subsoils and rocky earih
crust is the wealth of everynarion, for only where it remainsin place can
food, fiber, or timber be produced.'w4rerethe 'egetative growth has been
destroyedby overgrazing,by unsound tillage, or by the clearingor burn-
ing of timberlands, the vital topsoil is soon washed or blown away ro
leavethe vulnerable subsrraraor naked rock exposed.As noted, this has
been the casein many countriesof the Mideast, where much of the once
forestedland now resemblesa deeply eroded moonscape.
GrD A Horchner/DesignWorkshop

6t
 In the United States we've not been immune to such wanton and
\within the past century, with our Power saws'
destructive practices.
earthmoving .q.rip-.tt, carelessfarming, and lax developmental regu-
lations,*. h",r.lost a third or more of our topsoil heritageto the rvind,
storm-watererosion,and consrrucrion.

Aside from its protective function, the vegetation of the earth serr/esto
catch and ret"i.r precipitation. Its foliage and roots absorb and transpire
but a fraction of th. falling snow or rain, the dew or drifting mist' Iv4uch
of the rest is retained to filter through the soils to replenishthe unrlerly-
ing freshwatertablesor aquifer reservorrs.

P l o n t si n N o t u r e
The vegetalgrowth that coversmost of our globe occursin myriad Forms
that raige from the towering redwoodsof the Pacificcoastalforest to the
microscopic forms of algaeand plant diatoms of our streams'freshwater
bodies, and teeming salrwaterseas.This wonder world of vegeration
providesthe habitat and basic food supply of all living creatures.

P l o n t isn n o t u r e

62 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 Food Chqin
In the green^chlorophyll cells of planrs, and only there, the
energy of the
sun is transformed into the simpre srarchesat the base of
the liologic
sln food chain- In this processof photosynthesis,plants draw moisture
\
from
the air and soil and in the presenceof sunlig'hrconvert carbon
dioxide
into free oxygen and carbohydrates. It is in this vital miracle
of chem-
\t\ . /. istry that both the oxygen we breathe and the simpre starches
and sugars
upon which all life dependsare produced and repienished.

Some carbohydratesare consumed directly by humans, as in vegetables

F o o dc h o i n .
and fruits. Most reach our tables, however, thiough a complex spiral
that
begins with the lower forms of grazing organisis of lani and
sea and
through a succession of increasingiy larger and more complex
ToI.r
herbivores and carnivores. Finally, they becom.l,rr f"r. as fish,
gro.,
butchered livestock, or animal products. It can be seenthat as plait life
is diminished, life in all its varietiesis thereby diminished, too.

Tronspirotion
It is not only the free oxygen produced by plants that refreshesthe
air.
\rater drawn by the plants from the soil and water table is given off
by
folia^geas vapor through evaporranspiration.This cooling moisturiz-
ing function contributes to the growing conditions fo. otf,.,"rjplants and
to
creaturecomfort aswell. \fhere it is lacking, arid desert conjitions exist.

ClimoteConfrol
Plants ameliorate the climate in other ways also. They serve as buffers
against a srorm. Their foliage and mat of fallen leavesprorecr the soil
against drying winds and sun. Even in wintertime their branches, rwigs,
and stemsform a mesh to receiveand ffansmit solar heat and help pi-
tect soils from freezingtemperatures.

Woter Retenfion
Plants store the moisture that falls as precipitation-in the crevices
of
their bark, in the fountain of woody y.t cells that constitute
"q,r.o,,s
their internal sffucrure, and in the fibrous mat of detritus and roots that
Treerootshelpcontrolsoilerosion.
cover and peneffate the earth. \Vater retained is water allowed to cleanse
the. air_ or seep into the topsoil and subsurface aquifers. Runoff
uncheckedis erosion in the making, with siltation as a r.rult.

SoilBuilding
In the cycle of living and dying, plants return to the earth their decaying
fibers and cells to provide humus and deepen the film of topsoil. ihii
slowly accretingand vital subsrance,if protected from erosiorr,irr.r."r.,
available nutrienrs and moisture and the earth,sfecundiry.

Wgetation 63
 by
The fallen leaves,fruits, stems,and rotting wood that are not retained
systens to
the soil as humus are washed away in the stream and river
in turn
enrich the broth of the tidal estuaries.This organic material
shell and
becomesfood for aquaric plants and for oystersand spawning
fin fish.

Productivity

only within very recent times that we have pausedto- consider the conse-
q,.r.rr..r. More recently have we begun ro understand the direct relation-
Jhip, th"t exist within the whole biologic realm of animals and plants.

Plontldentificotion
To work with plants, one must come to recognizethem and be able to
describethem in terms rhar others can comprehend.Botany, as a field of

:
(J

'/",,,,.1/2,,,,,
//,i,','ti'0o1l,,

Botonicolprint.

64 LAND SCAPEARCHITE CTURE

 scientific inquiry has grown from the early classificadon of plants
and
their systematicstudy. Linnaeus,l sensinga need to better understand
the
relationships, establishedthe botanical oiders and introduced
the concepr
of standardized nomenclature. \With over 250,000 plant species
now
known ro exisr, it is doubtful that more than a f.* thour".rd yer
remain
u_nclassified.All plants (and other organisms) are given rwo
scientific
(Latin) narnes.one is for the gl9"p or genus;th. s..o-nd
is for the species.
The scientific narnesaregenerallydescriptiveof the plant characteristics
or
botanic significance. Latin is used becauseth. m."nirrg of Latin
words is
unchanging and universal.\fere it not for scientific claisification it
would
be impossible to identify a plant or describeir ro others, since the common
narne or name commonly used in a given localiry may differ from
place to
place-even within limited regions of the same country. In view of
the
international scopeof plant study and use it can be ,..n ,h", standardized
plant names are a great boon, even if they are in Latin.

PlontCulture
The rambling sorties of the first botanists have given way to well-
organized expeditions. In more recent rimes, plani explorers such
as
E.H. \wilson and David Fairchild have ranged the *orld, from the jun-
gles of Africa to the Mongolian deserts and the peaks of the iofty
Himalayas, in searchof specimensfor herbaria and botanic ga.den coi-
lections and for introduction to our gardensand farms.

Breeding
Early attempts at selective plant breeding and cross-pollination have
led to more sophisticatedtechniques of hybridization. Th. pioneering
feats of the plant breeder Luther Burbank excited enthusiasiic inrerest
and produced a tantalizing array of new and superior roses, poraroes,
oranges,plums, and other improved plant varieties.Today, plant selec-
tion, plant crossing, and seed radiation are creating ,r.iir"bl. cornu-
copia of hardier,more disease-resistant "
grains,more tscious fruits, more
nutritious vegetables,and more attractive ornamental plants.

Bioengineering
over the past decadeor so, rhe practice of bioengineeringhas emerged,
which essentiallyinvolves combining the DNA olot. lvlng thing'iith
that of another, thus creating a new organism. As pertains tJ phrrir, th.
object is to creare new plants with enhan..d characteristics such as
drought resistance,frost tolerance,longer blooming, and so on. How-
ever, many fear the unintended consequenc.r of this practice may
threaten natural systems,and this debate is still being played out as of
the writing of this edition.

rcarolusLinnaeus,
Swedish
botanist,r707-l77g,whowasthefirstnaruralist
ro clas-
sif' the plants of the earth in an orderly arrangement.

Vegetation 65
 Horticulture
The scienceof horticulture holds great promise' Yet, in our exuberant
vast
pursuit of new and improved plant varieties,we tend to ignore the

d'
A

Gorden.
Botonic
SontoBorboro

A Sunday afternoon visit to the botanical garden is usually sufficient to

awakenan interest in plants. As a start in attaining a broader knowledge,
it is well to learn to identi$' those plants within view of your residence
windows-by their form, bark, rwigging, buds, foliage,flower, and fruit.
The range .".r then be extended to yard and to neighborhoo_d.Beyond
the town or ciry limits, in the field or woodland, lies a wealth of plants
to be recognizedand admired in all seasonsof the year.Finally, for many
enthuriast-,the quest will eventually lead out along the streams and
rivers and into the wilderness.There, in undisturbed nature' is to be
found the realm of plants that were created.For those who understand
what they see,it is a profoundly moving experience'

66 LAND SCAPE ARC HI TE C TURE

 For the initiate, the simplestplant guide will suffice as a srart on
the trail
of exploration, but think twice beforescanningthe pages;they may
lead
you a very long way.

Introduced
Plontotions
's7ho
could it have been, in the dim and distant beginnings of human
developmenr,that on some daily food-gathering,o.I-rd firsi thought to
dig and transplant a tuber? or who consciouslygatheredand sowed the
first seeds,to watch with impatience and then-eiclaim at the wonder of
their sprouting?'whoeveq whenever,theseactswere the start of agricul-
ture and, together with fire and toolmaking, the start of civilization.
From that time, the culture of plants has become,in one way or another,
an almost universalenterprise.

The propagation and cultivation of plants for food and fiber are a logi-
cal extensionof the nomadic way of life. Naturet yield of forage,cereals,
vegetables,nurs, and fruits was often sporadic and ,.att.r.d.-The farm
field, orchard, and vineyard have increasedthe bounry manyfold, while
barns, silos,storagecellars,and bins have sustainedthe supply.

The pioneer farms of the early settlers-those of the rail-splitter and

horse-drawnplow-were fitted to the lay of the land. Streams,wetlands,
and the surrounding forest were left undisturbed. As homesteading
_
increased and the covered wagons rolled wesrward, the landscap!
changedwith the impact-with rutted trails, line fences,cleared*ood-
lands, plowed fields, and settlements.But the underlying topography
remained for the most part intact. The air was clean,and the ,rr."-, ."r,
clear to debouch into pristine lakes.

As centersof trade were establishedto servethe farmlands, as Dorts and

harbors were built, as first meandering rural roads,th.r, ,*..ping high-

Agriculturol
lond

Vegetation 67
 D i s o p p e o r i nf g
ormlond

ways and rranscontinental railways traced their paths acrossAnrerica

and cities formed at their crossings,the landscapeof nature gaYevzay.It
was a rapid and dishearteningretreat.

It is disturbing to look about us at most of our developmenl5-;11 ths

extent of the Jertru.tio.t of vegetation and the earth conformatio.n' the
degradation of lakes and waterways, the pollution of air and country-
side. It is saddening to envision the landscaPethat once existedand to
realizethe superbly agr.eable communities that, with intelligent plan-
ning, might havebeenbrought into being.

It is mainly in nineteenth- and rwentierh-century America, with our

mechanizedequipment and our pioneering"Clear the land! Drain the
marsh!" complex that we have wrought so much damageto the natural
landscapeanJ ecologicalmatrix. It need not be so. In the rural areasof
G.r-"rry, England, and Scandinavia,we find instructive examples of
agriculture, villages,and nature in symbiotic balance-with towns and
ci-tiescontained, farmland intact, forestswell-tended' and much of the
wildernesspreserved.

V o n i s h i nG
g reen
A new American landscapeis taking form. There are encouragingsigns.
we find in our rural, suburban, and urban areasmany examples6f land
well used and natural featurespreserved.Many farmsteads,home:s'and
communities have been planned in sympathetic responseto their topo-
graphical settings,and extensiveareasofopen spacehave been acquired
io .onr.r,r. scenic mountain slopes, riverbanks, and shores.lJrrfortu-
nately, however,the good examplesare far outnumbered by the bad.
'W'e
It is not a lost cause-far from it. have learned that the vranton
U r b o no g r i c u l t u r e destruction of our earthscapecan be precluded, that defilement and pol-
lution can be stopped, that eroded land can be healed, that towns and

68 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 cities can in time be rebuilt, and that the natural vegetation can be
restored. Moreover, we are learning much about o.r, ..ology, we are
developing a whole new scienceof ,.ro.r... management, we are
cgnstTf{ increasingour knowledge of communiry and landscape ".rd
plan-
ning. \within the next few decadesit will be well within o.r, .rp".iry
,o
preserveour natural systemsand reshapeour constructed enviionmenr
more responsibly.In this endeavor,the preservationand creativeuse of
plants will play an essentialrole.

Reestob/is
hment
Many of those who have witnessedthe slow degradation of the Ameri-
can landscape and the destruction of the vegetative covers have taken
stepsto reversethe trend.

concern for the vanishing upland meadows,mounrain and riverine foresrs,

prairies, and coastalwetlands has resultedin the setting asideof millions of
acresof state and national preserves.In addition, ,rr.t of cutover for-
est have been reestablished,and new plantations of "r.",trees (afforestation)
have been installed on depleted or eroded lands as watershedprotecrion,
wildlife managementpreserves,and shelterbeltwindscre..r, timber
and grain production. These commendable programs have ".rdfo.
received and
deservewide public suppon and are to be e"panded.

e
o
*
€
E
o

New community
preserving
open spoce.

Vegetation 69
 "nffiffi ,.
ffiy.#,*,*
 ooking down at the surfaceof our globe or moving in any direction
I
L acrossit, we find areaswhere there is an apparenrharmony or uniry
among all the natural slgrnsnl5-ground forms, rock formarions, vege-
tation, and even animal life. \7e may say of theseareasthat they possess
a naturally produced landscapecharacter.The more complete ani obvi-
ous this uniry the srrongerthe landscapecharacrer.

TheNoturolLondscope
Let us imagine that we have been dropped into the uplands of Utah's
great spruceforest.AII about us rise wild and rugged slopesof rock bris-

deep blue at its center, shading to pale green along its gravelly edges.
Here all is in harmony, all is complete. Even the brown bear lumbering
closeto shore is clearly native to this place.The leaping trout, the wad-
ing tern, the caw caw of the flapping crow are part of this scene,part of
its landscapecharacter.

G'; The blazing desert,the fetid mangrove swamp, the rockbound califor-
nix ge2s1-each has its own distinctive landscapecharacter,and each
evokesin the observera strong and distinctive emotional response.No
O D A Horchner/Desrgn

71
 matter what the natural landscapecharacter of an area and no rnatter
what the mood it produces in u5-3)*rilaration, sadness,eeriness,or
awe-we experiencea very real pleasurein sensingthe unity ancl har-
mony of the total scene.The more nearly complete this onenessand
wholeness,the greaterthe pleasureof the observer.

The degreeof evident harmony of the various elementsof a lanclscape

areais a measurenot only of the pleasureinduced in us but also of the
quality we call beauty. For beauty is "the evident harmonious relation-
ship of all the sensedcomponenrs." Narural landscapebeauty is of many
varying qualities,which include:

The picturesque The bizarre The delicate

The stark The majestic The ethercal
The idyllic The graceful The serenc

Natural landscapecharacter,too, is of many categories'including:

Mountain Lake Canyon Poncl

Dune Sea Forest Dese:rt
Prairie Stream River Plain
Swamp Hill Valley

o
E

o
o

Beoch.

Croggycoost

72 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTUKE
 Each of theseand other types may be further subdivided.

Aforest landscapecharacrer,for instance, might be one of the following

subtypes:

\X/hite oak Larch Cypress

Scarletoak Spruce Sabalpalm
Beech Hemlock Mangrove
Ash Vhite pine New Jerseycoastal
Maple Redpine New Jerseyriver
Aspen Jackpine New Jerseybarrens
Cottonwood Loblolly pine Rocky Mountain
Redwood Pinonpine Douglasfir
Eucalyptus Live oak Mixed hardwood

An area of land that has common distinguishing visual characteristicsof

landform, rock formations, water forms, and vegitative patterns is termed
a.klrdscape4,pe-Y/hen the major rype is broad oi dirr.rrifi.d, there may be
defined within it landscapesubtypesof significant differentiation.

of the myriad examples that come to mind, each is distinctive. The

more closely an areaor any object within it approachesthe ideal (or has
the most of those qualities that we associatewith perfection in a given
type), the more intense is our pleasure.

The opposite of beauty we call ugliness. ugliness results from a sensed

lack of unity among the components or the presenceof one or more
incongruous elements.since that which is beautiful tends to pleaseand
that which is ugly tends ro disturb, it follows that a visual harmony of all
parts of a landscapeis desirable.

Modificotion
vith only the visual aspecrsof sire character in mind, it would seemthat
in developing a natural areawe should do all that we can to preserveand
intensify its inherent landscape qualiry. \7e should therefoie eliminate
objects that are out of keeping, and we may even introduce obiects to
increaseor accentuate this native character.

fr#+*
The eliminotionof on incongruouselementwill
Eliminqtion
of lncongruousElements
In a{ planning, as in life, the elimination of an incongruous element
usually effects an improvement. Let us suppose, for example, that we
have wandered into a giant sequoia forest and stand in sileni awe of the
usuollyeffecton improvement.
tremendous upward thrust of the redwood boles and their imposing,
timeless grandeur. And then suppose that on the forest floor we should
happen to notice a neatly cultivated bed of pink petunias. The same
petunias in a suburban garden bed might make quite a pleasant splash.

Landscape Character 73
 I n c o n g r u o uesl e m e n tisn t h el o n d s c o p e

But to find them here in the redwood forest would first surprise and
then annoy us. They would annoy us becauseour experiencewould tell
us rhat in this natural redwood grove peruniasare not in keeping.They

character.

An incident from the coauthor's own experiencefurther illustrates this

point. As a small boy he spent summersin a camp on Lake George in
ih. b".k*oods of Michigan. At the lower end of this lake he found a

he visited his pond, lying hour after hour on a log, motionless,with a

whittled birch rod poised ready for a frog to surface. It was an idyllic
world of cedar smell, sunlight, patrolling dragonflies,Iapping water'
and contentment.

74 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 barrel. Yearslater, when he recollected the pond in rerms of its landscape
character,he realizedat last why the drum had to go. It was a disturbing,
inharmonious element in the miniature landscape,and it had to b1
removed. (Note: In later years he also came to realize that the lake bot-
tom was no place to leavea barrel.)

Accentuofionof Nofuro/ Form

If it is true that the elimination of certain elements from an area can

ing its positive qualities.

To improve a landscapeor land areaintelligently we musr nor only rec-

ognize its essentialnatural characrerbut also possessknowledge that will
enable us to achieve the optimum development of that charaiter.

During the Ming dynasry in china this art was so highly refined that
within a single garden of a few acresone might experience lofty moun-

matic as the major views themselves.

Moior Feotures
There are dominant natural landscape forms, features, and forces that
we can alter little, if at all. \7e must accepr them and adapt ourselvesand
our planning to them. These unchangeableelementsinclude such topo-
graphical forms as mountain ranges, river valleys, and coasral plains;
such features as precipitation, frost, fog, the water table, and seasonal
temperatures; and such forces as winds, ddes, sea and air currenrs.
growth processes,solar radiation, and gravity.

These we analsneto the extent necessaryto make an accurateassessment

of their influence and effbcts.Then, if wise, we will shapeour plans in
full awarenessof,,and responsero, the constrainrsand possibilities.such
considerationsare fundamental to the placing of cities, the zoning of a

LandscapeCharacter 75
 Denver,Colorodo'
RedRocksAmphitheoter,

communiry, the projected alignment of highways, the siting of indus-

tries, or the orientation and layout of a single home or garden.

The notable planning projects of any age demonstratewith clariry the

adaptation of a structure or activiry areato the landscapein such a way
that the best qualitiesof eachare made to complement the other. In such
works, not only the constructed elements but the natural elements as
well appear to have been designedby the planner, as in one sensethey
were, for all were consideredtogether as integral parts of the total con-
ceptual plan.

Minor Feofures
Taking a hill as an example,its landscapecharacter may be such that its
optimum yield or use is realizedif it is carefully preservedfrom change.
In its undisturbed stateit might better produce its crop of timber, maple
sap, nurs, or fruit. Throughout the United Stateswe find huge tracts of
land that have been set aside in their natural state as game Preserves,
parks, foresrs,or regional open space.In Japan many a village or rown is
nestled among hills or islands that have for centuries bedh left undis-
turbed by decree,in the best interest of the community.

of theNofuro/Form
Desfrucfion
A hill or knoll may be eliminated by grading; it may be split with a deep
highway cut; it may be inundated by an impoundment; or it may be
buried in consrruction. If any such treatment is proposed, its original
landscapecharacter need not be a consideration except as it poses a
physical problem.

76 LAN D SCAPE ARC HI TE CTURE

 Alteration of the Nofuro/ Form
The. native aspect of a hill may be altered or changed completely
by
-j{i&t"g its shape grading, construction, o, o,h., ,ypo
.through
of development. Such changes -"y t. detrimental and result in
a
denuded, eroded, or hacked-up mound, or they may effect an improve-
ment, as at the site of chicagot Botanic Garden, *L.r. an erodeJ farm
and polluted sump were converted to a whole new landscapeof hills.
sculptured slopes,freshwater lakes,streams,and lagoons a, ,.c.ptirr.
garden setting. "

lntensificotion
Alterotion
The essentiallandscapecharacrerof a hill may be intensified. Its appar-
ent height and ruggednessmay be increased to such d.gr..,'fo,
"
instance,that a small knoll may be made to appearprecipitous.
- , i ! : , ) !
-
Destruction
Let us assume,for example, that we are the owners of a resort hotel in
Thefourolternotives
in thedevelopment
of o hill New Hampshire to which summer guesrscome eachseasonfor fresh air,
rest, and exercise.\7e have noticed that many of the guests, for diver-
sion, walk the easypath to the top of a nearby rise from which they can
Ta<;ild view the counuyside. Ir occurs to us that the hill has becomean impor-
/\^t' tant part of the resorr life, and we decide during the oFseason ro
improve this feature by giving it more interest and affording more of a
J climb to its top.
c"l ^J l,ll
w balaq.e
First, by transplanting a patch of hemlocks, we block off the easypath
Leuat Use Ae4
that led toward the hill and break a new path to a spring that bubbles
/-
from the rocks at its base. From this spring a view i,
% the steepestfaceof the hill to a weatheredold pine, which "p."".d
up across
well-plagzJ iunl-al
hides the hill-
{n^ exav<l,im
ai* be 1vat2 dt axf. top. beyond..A rough trail leads up through a pile of richen-splotched
EXCAVITIoN AND GPJDING
rocks to a fallen rree trunk, on which the hiker can sit and rest. Already
th.ehemlocks and spring and rocks have given a new perspective to the
hill. the path winds easily down through a natirre birch clump to
^Next
pl^l;1 the far side of the hill, where the only way ahead leads steeply up the
roughest, wildest part of the hillside. up, down, the trail
"nd "ro,rrri
leads,from ferny ledge to fallen rree, to view, and finally
llet-sh^J;, to a point where
it breaksout on top. There we place a rough stone slab for a reat, in the
-rl'. shelter of a granite ourcrop.

J*
lha 44
Next summer, when our guestsleavethe porch and set our to walk to the
jEPR hilltop, they find themselveshiking and climbing over a beautiful natu-
ral terrain they have never seen before. Through tangled wild-grape
cover' around narrow ravines, pulling themselvesfrom rock to rock, they
carefully pick their way until they finally reach the summit. They have
made it! Nothing, they may think as they rest, enjoying the view, is more
exhilarating than mountain climbing. \flhile g00 feetiway and200 feet
below them, the oldsterssit rocking on the veranda,looking placidly out

Landscape Character 77
 ot
at the hill. For our purpose, we have eliminated the negativeasPects
our hill and accentuatedits positiYequalities'
The nolurol site Profile

Any area of the narural landscape-pond, island, hillside, or bay-can

be developedin this manner.

Early in his career the coauthor was engaged by the Michigan State
first
D.p"rt-.rrt of Parks in the planning of severalcamPgrounds.His
assignmentwas ro develop a site in northernmost Michigan as a state
"wilderness
p"rf, fo, tourists, who *ould come to experiencethe joys of
"Public
iirirrg." Upon arrival ar the park site, he found alarge white
park; sign^atthe enrran.. of farm road that led in through a flat field
"
Ihe essenceof londplonningfor ony proiect of wild carrorsto a trailer parking lot besidea muddy pond-not much
I Seekthemostsuitoble site of a wildernesscampsite.
2 LetihesitesuggestPlonforms
the[ullsitePoientiol
3 Exiroct
The planner'sfirsr step was to spend severalweeksexploring the tract to
b..ol. acquaintedwith all its natural features,good and bad. His aim
was to utilte these featuresto the utmost. He proposed, in short, to
,il}*yAb*L uisul gaet^ intensify the native landscapequaliry of the site'
@
6^J As a first step in the improvement program' the entrance road was
futqta
moved fro- t^h.open fielJto the thickest stand of balsam.Here a rough
bu;Ll;o
P14++d1^
trail was carvedthiough the rock and snakedup a ridge betweenthe tree
trunks, so rhat a camper'scar or trailer could just easethrough. The care-
taker's sagging clapbtard cottage with its red-and-white-painted win-
do* boxJs-wJsdemolished and replacedwith a rough-sawn slab cabin
We ae4s)
, near the base of a towering pine. This change was made becausethe
41 F qaP74bl
camper'sfirst impression of the campsitewould be of this venerabletree
,ldhz
CtuB, e+e.

th. cabin in its shadow, and first impressionsare usually the most
".rd
Iasting.

The site'smain attraction, a spring-fed pond, was drained, scoopedout,

tnh*l-nl1.t-- and developedas a natural swimming pool with a clean sand and gravel
bottom. Abolre it, a largeareaof water was impounded to form a settling
NoI*l'uL
<.loye.. basin, and here the marsh birds, muskrats, and other wildlife could be
seenfrom a timber bridge that was arched acrossthe dam. At the lower
€Ag'TT 5114P|NG end of the swimming pool secondbridge was built acrossthe waterfall
"
and spillway,where largespeckledtrout rolled and swam in the sparkling
water of the pool below.

Trails were slashedthrough the densest cover and between the most
jaggedledges.Every point of interestwas srrung on the new trail system
like an offset bead.

inhabiteda stream,
In one of the more remoteareas,a colonyof beavers
o humonbeingcon be wherethey had built a dam. Much thought
wasgivento the bestway of
In thenoturollondscope
on intruder displayingtheseshycreatures,apfrzein anypark.It wasdecidedthat to

7B LAND SCAPEARCH ITE CTURE

 view them the hikers musr find their way along an unmarked game trail
as it threaded tenuously through a deep cedar swamp until, from the
sloping trunk of a great fallen tree that overhung rhe pond, the hikers
could look down to discover the beaverworkings below them.

In the developmentof any land or water area,the landscapedesignerwill

focus on the essentialefFectto be conveyed(one inherent in the site). By
emphasis,by articulation, and by the creation of progressivesequences
of revealment,the observerwill be led to discoverrhe positive featuresof
the locale and thus exacrirs full pleasurableimpact.

T h eB u i l tE n v i r o n m e n t
Up to this point we have consideredthe natural landscapeas something
to be observed,as in some of our larger parks, for example, or along
scenic parkways, or at the better resort hotels. In such casesa person
becomesa microvisitor, permitted only to enter an areainconspicuously,
observe respectfully, and leave unobtrusively. But there are relatively few
areasthat can be preservedin their pristine stareor developedsolely for
the display of their natural beauty.

Use
\We generally consider land in terms of use. At this
point one is quite
likely
/ to ask: "\7hatt all this talk about beaury
" - * * " 1 and landscape character?
=

! \Mhat I want to know is, how can this properry be used?"

I
f,

the physical nature of the site and its extensionalenvironment before it

is possibleto:

Moni-Soint-r\\ichel,
Fronce,surroundedby its
rushingtidesond reochedonly by cousewoy,
is on ingeniousond powerfulodoptotionof
structureto noturolforcesond forms.
Recognizethose usesfor which the site is suited and that will utilize
its full potential.
a Introduce into the areaonly those useswhich are appropriate.
a Apply and developsuch usesin studied relationship ro the landscape
features.
Ensure that theseapplied usesare integrated to produce a modified
landscapethat is functionally efficient and visually attractive.
Determine whether or not a project is unsuited and would be incon-
gruous not only on rhe immediate site but in the surrounding envi-
rons aswell and thus appearto be misplaced,unfit, and (by definition)
ugly. Such an improper usewould be disturbing not only aesthetically
but practically, for an unsuitable use forced upon an unreceptive par-
cel of land generatesfrictions that may not only destroy the most
desirablequalities of the landscapeareabut preclude proper function
of the development aswell.

Landscalte Character 79
 Suitobility
Sincewe are repelledby disorder,the discordant,and that which is ugly,
since we are instinctively drawn to that which is harmonious and well
formed, and since most artifacts and developments are designed to
please,it follows that resultant beauty is a highly desirableattribute.

It is compatible; it seemswell suited to its place. It works well; there is an

efficient arrangementof all the parts. It looks good; it is beautiful; I like it.

Anything planned in the landscapeaffectsthe landscape.Each new plan

application sets up a seriesof reactions and counterreactionsnot only
about the immediate site but upon its extensionalenvironment as well.
This environment may extend a greatdistancein any direction and may
include many squaremiles.

In considering the development of any areaof the earthk surface,we

must realize that this surface is a continuous plane. A project applied
to this plane affects not only the specific site but all flow Past it.
Each addition or change, however minute, imposes upon the land
certain new physical properties and visual qualities. It can thus be seen
that the planner is engaged in a continuing process of landscape
modification.

Hormony
The untouched landscapeis in repose,a reposeof equilibrium. It has its
own cohesive,harmonious order in which all forms are an expressionof
geologic structure, climate, growth, and other natural forces. In the
primeval forest or upon the open plain, the human is an intruder.

If one penetratesthe wildernessby trail or road, one may either roll with
the topography and develop expressiveharmonies or buck the terrain
and generate destructive frictions. As human .aciivity in an area
increases,the landscapebecomesmore and more orgaitized-agreeably
if the organization is one of fitting relationships,disagfeeablyif the rela-
tionships are chaotic or illogical. The develoPment of any area may
entail a concentration of its natural landScapecharacter,.an integration
of nature and construction, or the creation of a wholly built complex of
spacesand forms. In any case,the commendablq plans are those that
eflect a resolution of all elementsand forces and createa newly unified
landscapeof dynamic equilibrium

\7e are all familiar with humanized landscapeareasin which everything

seemsto be working well together.\We recall pleasantstretchesof New
England farmland, western ranch territory, or Virginia plantation coun-
try. In ot near such areas,we experiencea senseof well-being and plea-

80 LAND SCAPE ARC H ITE C TURE

Structure
in hormonywith surroundings
CrosbyArboretum,picoyune,Mississippi.
surroundings.

The negative qualities of such places are those we would arrempt to

eliminate in any replanning process; the positive qualities are those we
would strive to retain and accenruate.It would seem to follow as a guid-
ing principle that tu preserueor credtea pleasingsite character,all thi uar-
ious elementsor pdrts must be brought into harmony.

r7e make much of this word harmony. Dowe mean to imply that every-
thing should blend with or get lost in the landscape as through pror..-
tive coloration or camouflage? No, but rather ihat the planner, in
addressinga land-water holding, from small plot to rr"r, will so
".r.^"g.,
integrate rhe structural and topographical forms as to produce the best

LandscapeCharacter 8r
 possiblefit. If the completed project seemsto blend with the landscape,
it is the h"ppy ,.r.rlt of inspired design rather than the mistaken aim
"n
of an uninspired designer.

Confrost
It is known that the form, color, or texrure of a handsome object can be

It is not yet conceiuablethat a well-designed

and *efl-plared building a bridgeor road'
,on be ai addition rather than a menacero stone?
the counfivsidc?
'
ChristoPher Tunnqrd

crossings.

In his bridge design, however, Maillart has simply and forthrightly

imposed a necessaryFunction-a highway crossing-on the natural

o
!

I
!
o

3
o
o

rc
o

RobertMoillortBridge.

B2 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
 Tb me the questof harmon! seemsthe noblest
oJhuman p,zsions..Bound/essas is thegoal,
for tt $ uastenoughto embraceeuerytthing,it
let remainsa definite one'
le co.b,r"ie,
landscape.He has expressedwith logical materialsand refreshingclariry
the force diagram of his struct,rr.r. Mor.ovet by sharply contr"sting
his
elegantlydynamic bridgesand the rugged mountain for.rt, he hasdram-
the highest qualities of each. The gorges seem more wild, the
7tn.ed
bridges more precise,more eloquent.

t
o
E

o
o

Follingwoter,
BeorRun,Pennsylvonio. Theprecisionond lightnessof the concrete
formscontrostbodilywith the noturolforms,colors,ond teituresof the site.yet the

Landscape Character B3
 o
o

od

o
o

Linesof movementgive shope to the built environment'

As another application of the principle of contrast,we may recall in color

theory that to produce an areaof greenestgreen,a fleck of scarletmay be
brought into juxtaposition. To make a spot of scarletglow with fire, an
artist brings it into conrrastwith the greenestpossiblebackgrouncl.

It follows that before introducing contrasting elementsinto a landscape

it would be well to understand the nature of the featuresto be accentu-
ated.The conrrasting elementswill then be contrived to strengthenand
enrich the visual imp"ct of thesenatural features.Conversely,to empha-
sizecertain qualities of the structure or component introduced, one will
searchthe landscapeand bring into contrasting relationship those fea-
tures that will effect the desiredcontrast'

A further principle in the use of contrast, as illustrated by the rvork of

Maillart, is that of rwo contrasting elementsone must dominate. One is
rhe feature,the other the supporting and contributing backdrop. Other-
wise, with two contrasting elementsof equal power, visual tensions are
generatedthat weaken or destroy,rather than heighten, the pleasurable
impact of the viewing exPerience.

84 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
 Consfruction
twe have
considered natural landscapeelemenrs and their importance in
the planning process.constructed forms, fearures,and linestf force are
major planning facrors,too.

As we look at any road map, we find it crisscrossedwith lines of various

kinds and colors that we recognize as highways, minor roads, streers,
railroads, ferryboat routes, and even subways.These lines seem innocu-
ous enough on paper. But those of us who have zoomed along with the
streaming traffic of a turnpike, or stood by the tracks as the Limited

transportation routes with the proper respect, or else we have nor yet
learned to design them with foresight andlmagination.

Peripheral streers
Valkway access
Adjacent structures to remain
Strucruresto be demolished
Subsurfaceconstruction
Energy sourcesand supply
Utility leads and capacities
Applicable zoning
Building code and regulations
Easements
Deed restrictions

This sampling may in itself seem formidable, but it does nor include
such additional considerarionsas neighborhood character,general site
aspects,mineral rights, amenities,public services,and so forth. Any one

Landscalte Character B5
S t c r n i e yW h r t e
of th.eseft.T"-r.r_might well spell the failure or successof an
enterprise.
The list will differ considerably, of course, with projects of such
rr".yi.rg
types as a residence,school, shopping mall, or marina.

Compotibility

Landscapeevolution is a continuing process.At its best it is an ongoing

exerciseby which compatible usesare brought into harmonious inrerac-
tion with our natural and built environs.

Landscape Character 87
,,,*q:."
,t\

9,.,--t-.o*.
 opography is defined as the art of showing in detail on a major map
the physical featuresof a place or region.

Land areasand the bottoms of water bodies are seldom level.They slope
up or down; they undulate; they sometimespitch precipitously ro grear
heights or depths, and are ofren creasedwith streambeds,ravines,or
seismicfaults.

Representotion
by Contours

monument with machined brass cap-its elevation recorded in hun-

dredths of feet above mean sealevel. Again, for a project of lesserscope
the bench mark may be no more than the top of a rock or a driven pipe
assignedan arbitrary elevation of say, 100.0 feet.
' *.-fl
Peter Wo ker & Portners

89
 o
E

')
t

Contourscon be thoughtof os edgesof ploteous

-Wherethe land gradient is mild, the contour interval or height diFferen-

tial may be reduced..where the land is rugged, as in mountainous coun-
try, the inte rval may be increasedto 10 feet, 100 feet, or more depending
upon the need.

It can be seenthat by contours alone the modulations of the Earths sur-

face can be graphicallyportrayed. In architecturalor landscapeplanning
a site plan pi.pat.d with a contour map as a basegivesan invaluable feel
for the land.

Figure 1 is the plan of a small land areaat scaleof 1 inch = 100 foot. The
doi ,.pr.r.nts a stoneor stake,the top of which hasan assumedelevation
of 100.0 feet.The X is a spot elevationusedto mark a high poinr, a Iow
point, or some other spot of relevance.The curving contours are Linesof
equal height at l-foot intervals above or below the level of the bench
mark (BM). The closertogerher the contours (asalong secdonA-A) the
steeperthe slope compared with B-B (a valley) or C-C (a ridge).

90 LAND SCAPEARCHITECTURE
 r03

t02

t0l

Fia"ra I

Amphitheoter
seotingon contour.

Topography 91
 p74zsry: tuE ;.":#'
-: I
1" *i
fufwrlat/ ,M'qXfuT \t
f#{r} .ftrr/
1t,
.fliAze -
.1

lllustrotive
section

Secfions
As a further aid, the contour map provides the opportuniry to plot sec-
tions whereveran accurateland profile is needed.In Figure 2, for exam-
ple, if section lines are drawn through any area of the map, as at lines
A-A, or B-8, a profile can be plotted and enlargedor reducedto any use-
ful scale.

2 4Z
Figure
2

Although Figure2 showsa largerland areaof more topographicdiversiry

the principleis the sameasin Figure1.A verticalmeasurementfrom the
intersectionof eachcontour with the baselinegivesa seriesof points
which,when connected,showthe land profileat linesA-A and B-B.

92 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
Terroceedgessimulotecontourlines.

Models
Even more graphic than plans or secrionsis a model preparedby cutting
and superimposingsheetsof matboard, plywood, or pl"rti. of tne appro-
priate thicknessalong the contour lines. By meansof such an exhibii the
surface conformation or modeling of the entire properry can be per-
ceived at a glance. Aerial or perspective views of the- model in photo-
graphic form are often used for ready reference.

Surveys
It is well to understand that surveying methods and maps are of many
rypesand must be suited to their purpose.As for methods, the compass

Topography 93
 and.chainis good enough for plotting logging roadsbut hardly suited to
precision -Jppi"g. Thi plane tablesurueymay be adequatefor a limited
,it. *h.r. preciselyaccurareproperry line descriptionsand elevationsare
r.rot r-re.dei. The Xadia surae! has long been the standard for accurate
topographic mapping, but has recently been supersededby the laser
tinJt. io, l"tg.i-".." .orr.r"g e, e photogrammetric surue! is usually pre-
scribed.This involves rhe piecing together of overlapping aerial mosaics
and the plotting of surfacefearuresby stereopticprojection. commonly
used in military reconnaissance, it yields a high degreeof precision.

To utilize land for most purPo ses,a toPograPhicsurueyis needed. Such a

map will show not only the surfaceconformation by contours and spot
elevations,it will also indicate the lines of properry ownership, surface
and subsurfacefeatures,and such other supplemental information as
may be specified. Some surveys give no more information than a
description in bearingsand distances(metes and bounds) of the prop-
erty perimeter. Often this is all that is required.

If contouring and spot elevationsare neededthey must be requested.\7ith

detailedsitelhnning to be accomplished,the topographic surveyspecifi-
cation -"y b. e*panded to include the location and description of specific
surfaceand subsurfacefeatures.Core borings or test pits may be required
and such elementsas the adjacent roadway or the nearestoff-site utiliry
leadsand projected capacities.\7hen a topographic survey is needed,it
is well to meet with the surveyor and review the requirementsin detail.
A specificationand work order can then be drafted for execution. For an
extensiveor complicated development project, the survey specification
may be many pagesin length. For a rypical residential homesite, how-
ever,rhe following samplespecificationshould normdly suffice.

- ograph i c Suruey SPecifi cation

Top
ir"p""ay, 1'n. properry to be surveyed is marked on the enclosed
location map (to be provided to rhe surveyor by the owner or
landscapearchitect).
General: Surveyor shall do all work necessaryto determine accu-
rately the physical conditions existing on the site'
Datum: Elevations shall be referencedto any convenient and per-
manenr bench mark with an assumedelevationof 100.0 feet.The
bench-mark location shall be shown orr the map.

Information required, , ,.
... ,,-

1. Title of survey, ProPerty location, ,."1., ,roi?, point, certification,

:: "- . :.
and date. -. t I

2.Tract boundary lines, courses,distances;and coordinates. Calculate

't
: . - :!'.t
and show
and acreage.
show acreage. ! - .:
3. Building setbact lines, easements, and rights-o wayJ,
';
4. Names of on-siteand abutting
ar
parcelqwnersi
\:-4

t .-,
I
I
94 LAND SCAPE ARCH I TECT URE i .-*pn"
 5. Names and locations of- existing streerson or abutting
the tract.
show right-of-way' rype, location, width of surfacing,
and centerrine
of gutters.
6. Position of buildings and other srrucrures,including
foundations,
piers, bridges,culverrs,wells, and cisrerns.
7. Location of all site consrruction, incruding walls, fences,
roads,
curbs, gutters, steps, walks, ffails, plr.d areas, and so
fri.vcs, on,
indicating rypesof materialsor surfacing.
_
8' Locations, ypes, sizes,and direction oiflo* of existing
storm and
sanitary sewerson the tract, giving top and invert .r.rr"tilor^
of man-
holes and inlet and invert .r.rr",ior* of other drainage
srructures;
locarion, ownership, rype and sizeofwater and gas-"iir,
manholes,
valve boxes, meter boxes, hydrants, and other
Loca_
"lpurr.rr"rrces.
tions of utiliry poles and telephonelines and fire-alarm boxesare ro
be indicated. For utilitie, ,rot tr",r.rsing the site, show, by key
plan if
necessary'rhe nearestoff-site leads,giving all pertinent information
on types, sizes,inverts, and ownership.
9. Location of water bodies, streams,springs, swamps, or boggy
areas
and drainage ditches or swales.
10. outline of wooded areas.\fithin areasso nored, show
all trees that
have a trunk diameter of 4 inches or grearer at waist height,
giving
approximate trunk diametersand common names of the
trees.
11. Road elevation.Elevationsshall be taken at 5O-foot intervals
and at
high or low points along centerlinesof roads, flow line of
gutter on
properry side, and tops and bottoms of curbs. The pertinent
grades
abutting streetand road interse*ions shall also be indicated.
12. Ground surface elevationsshall be taken and shown
on a 5O-foot
grid system as well as at the top and bottom of all considerable
breaks in grade, whether vertical, as in walls, or sloping, as in
banla.
Show all floor elevations for buildings. Spot elerrationl shall
also be
indicated at the finished grade of b"itai"g corners, building
entranceplatforms, and all walk intersections.In addition to the
elel

v'' vations required, the map shall show contours at

_-foot
intervals. All elevationsshall be to the nearesrtenth of a foot. per_
missible roleranceshall be 0.r foot for spot elevationsand one-half
of the contour interval for contours.
vertical

Supplementory
Doto
Aside from the basic topographic, or ,,ropo,,' survey prepared
by a profes_
sional surveyor or civil engineer and needed fo, -o.t p-1..,
i.sig.,
construction, there are other sourcesof useful -"p, "rrd
,.por,, available
".rd
at nominal cost. of thesethe U.S. Geological Survey (usGS)
maps war-
rant specid menrion.l Severalseriesare avairable, diff.r..r,
scal-es,but
"i
the one most often useful to the planner is the 7.5-minure series,in which

rU'S' Geological
Survey often be purchased
locallyat map or stationery
stores, or
r"pr_T"y
they may be ordered directly from the main distributior,
...rt., at USGS

Tbpography 95
 60 square
each map (or quadrangle,as it is called)coversan areaofabout
show most of
miles at a scaleof 1 inch to 2000 feet. These survey maps
areas'all
the pertinent topography of the area,including relief' wooded
bodi.s of water, transportation routes' and major buildings'

detail and acctracy.

U S G Sm o p

(http://geography'usgs'gov/
Information Services, Box 25286, Denver, CO 80225
shows for each state the quadrangle to
esic/to_order.html). If requested,an index map
be ordered for a particular location.

96 LAND SCAPEARCH ITE CTURE

 Planning_agenciesand highway departments are often
abre and willing
to provide survey information and reports for extensive
metropolitai
areas.This is especiallyuseful in large-scalecomprehensive
planning, as
for a campus, communiry river b"sin, or park op.rr_rp"'.. ryr,.-r.
"rrd
Otl-re1public agenciesalso^^canhelp with overall background
mapping
and data, which may be sufficient for site selection and"prelimirr"ryi"rrj
use diagrams. \7hen ir comes time, however, for detaired site
planning
and recording there is need for a certified topographic survey.

Computergeneroted
contourmodel.

A myriad of sources for topographic and other site information repre-

senting computer contour models is emerging from other government
and private sources.A searchof the Internei *ill lead ,o ,o.ri., of
avail-
able information.

Topography 97
 or every site there is an ideal use. For every use there is an ideal site.
f
I

ProgromDevelopment
A first step in the designof any architectural,landscapearchitecturar,
or
engineeringproject is to have a clear understandingoijust what
is being
designed.

a completed installation functions poorly or actually precludes

Y""y
the very usesfor which it was planned. perhap, i, *", doomed
because
it was forced upon an unsuitablesite or becauseit was not well
designed,
not clearly expressiveof its purpose. or its operation may be hampered
by the frictions it generates.Most often, however,the root of fhilure
lies
in the fact.that a program was_neverfully considered;the complete
proj-
ect with all essentialrelationshipsand impacts was never envisioned
or
thoughtfully conceived.

It is our tacit responsibiliry as planners to help carry each work

to suc-
cessful conclusion. To accomplish this ai-, io pl"r, a project intelli-
gently, we musr first understand its nature. It is essentialtir"t *e develop
a.comprehensiveprogram. By researchand investigation we musr
orga-
nize a preciseand detailedlist of requiremenrso.r *hi.h we can
bar. o.r,
design.To this end we might well consult with ail interestedpersons
SosokiAssociotes,
Inc
and

99

In defining the program fo1 a project we are
at this point lesJconcernedabout what it
will look like and more concernedabout
what it will be.
To dream soaringdreamsis not enough'
To have value, dieams and ideasmust be
translatedinto the hard reality offeasible
proposals.
Design asa form-giving process. is the
or artifactsto
.r.",iott ofplaces,-spaces'
servea predeterminedPurPose'
In every areaof human endeavor,the most
s.r.c.rrful projectsare thosebestplanned
and designed.
The responsibiliryof the planner is to
suide thoseinvolved to the bestsolution
ind to help ensurein all wayspossiblethe
projectt success.
Anv plan is essenilallythe scbedulingof specifc or collapse-all rooted
.iont to definire ends.. . . Any kind of
purpose.ine.
p lanning implies conscious
Bouer
r00 LAND SCAPE ARCH ITE CTURE
with
draw freely uPon their knowledge and views-with the owners'
of similar
potential ,rr.*, *ith maintenance personnel, with planners
who can contribute
und.rt"kings, with our collaborators,with anyone
\We will look to history for applicable.examples.
consrrucdv! thought.
\Wewill look aheJ to envision possibleimprovements basedon newly
developing techniques,new materials,and new conceptsof planning'
'we new.
will rry ro combine the best of the old with the best of the
work will be the physical manifestation of this
Since the .o-pl.t.d
imagina-
program, the program itself must be designed thoroughly'
tively, and comPletelY.
SiteSelection
or
If we as planners are concerned with wedding a proposed.structure
\we have
use to rit., l.t us first be sure that the parties are comPatible.
" their loca-
all seenbuildings or groups of buildings that seemforeign to
contrived
tion. No -".r.i hoi e"cellenr these structures or how well
their plan, the total result is disturbing'
It would seemobviously foolish, for instance,to situate:
A school fronting on an arterial trafficway
A roadsiderestaurantwith zero approach-sightdistance
A shopping center without adequateparking space
A farm without a sourceof potable water
A tavern near a ciry church
A fabricating plant with room for neither storageyard nor expansion
A new home at the end of a jet landing strip
A meat-packing plant upwind of a suburb
An b.tildi.tg 30 feet abovea mined-out seamof coal
"p"rt-.tt,
the
Each would seem,on the face of it, doomed to failure. Yet each, to
of
coauthor's knowledge, has been attempted. It is reassuringto those
logical mind to notJthat in the due courseof eventseach enterprise has
belensubjected to disrupting strains, scathing antipathies, bankruptcy,
in the choice of an inappropriate site for the
given use.
In far too many cases'a project has started with the unquesdoned
acceptanceof an unsuitable location. This is a cardinal planning error.
An i.rrport"nt, if not the most important, function of a planner is the
somerimesdelicate,sometimesforceful task of guiding an entrepreneur
to the selectionof the best possiblelocation'
AlternativeSifes
fu advisers,we should be capable of determining the requisite site
requirements for any given venture and be able to weigh the relative mer-
 its of alternative situations. First we must know what we are looking for.
\7e must thoughtfully, perhaps even tediously, list those site featuresthat
we consider necessaryor useful for the proposed project, be it a power
dam, a new town, or a frozen yogun ,r"nd. N.*, we should reconnoiter
and scour out the territory for likely locations. For this task we have a
number of helpful tools, such as U.S. Geological Survey (usGS) maps,
aerial and remote-sensingphotography, road maps, transportation maps,
planning commission data, zoning maps, chamberof commercepublica-
tions, plat books, and ciry counry, township, and borough plans.

SITES
LOCATION APPRAISAL
CHECKLISI

A CoDDar.tlv€ Analyst. ot
^tr.rnarve F€3id.nrial

I Sov€re lrnilailon

a Modo.ar€ con.rainr

a condilio. .xc€llent

SuoE6st€d oroced!r€:

A vr.il lo €acn .it. .nd

rocale l. e66€nti6l Photc
sr8ph. herp - a. do rotee
d.scribino in nor. d€tail
rh. i€y r.ar!16..rtod by
3ynbot on rh6 .ppr.t€al

By s!b!riluling nc6b€r€
tor.yhbor. Oron t0 to I
lor po.[iv€ v.t!63 and
rroh -l to -lO lor n€€.
rive v!lu.s, rhe arithn€tic

giv€ a Cenor.t Indic.

rre r6r.ilv. ov.r.ll r.ri.s
tr r. ro h6 r6.il2ed ho$

Thepurposeof thegame is to improuethe a.lnqre .ev€re con6Urinr

or .up6dativo r.at!.e
enuironmentutheneuer
you do anything to nighr s€il oterehcrm
sr.risrica.nd
rhe
become thc

changext'
Gqrrett Eckbo l')soclat nir
Archit€cto6t
a.d co..erns
qu.tity
L€ver ot n.int€noo..
Freedon fion polluflon
ParI!,.ocr€6iton .nd

If a client makes the wrong planning
decisionin sireacquisitionor otherri'ise,and
hasfirsr advisedthe planner,the fault lies
not so much with the client aswith the
planner, who has failed to presenta
persuasivecase.
Given the facts and a full understandine of
the alternatives,reasontends to orevail."
\7ith maps or orher materials as a guide, we will visit the most likely
places and explore them. Such scouting parties may be launched by
automobile or plane o! even better, helicoptel which not only offeis
immuniry from barbed-wirefences,cockleburs,and no-rrespassingsigns
but also gives an ideal overall perspective of likely properties. Much ian
be noted from an automobile, especiallythe relation of proposed sitesto
adjacent developmenr pamernsand approaches.But ,oon., or later, to
be effective,we musr get up off the seat cushions and cruise about the
property on foot.
Having narrowed our choice ro severalalternative tracts of land, we will
then analyze them in detail. The favorable and unfavorable aspectsof
each will be carefully noted and assayed.Sometimes we will discussthe
comparative analysis of the various parcels informally with the client.
Again, we may preparea well-documented reporr for presentation,as to
a board ofdirectors, an authoritf, or aciry council. such a report, oral or
graphic, may list the sitesin order of suitability. often, however,it is bet-

Site Planning I 01
 rer to present only the relative merits of the alternative sites, in clear,
concise terms, and leave to the decision makers the businessof dis-
cussingpros and cons and making the selection.

Our primary work asplannersis to help
fit human attiviriesto the "want ro be" of
the land.
Theldeql Site
\We all know of planned developments that seem to be natural out-
growrhs of their sires: a home rerraced down to a fronting beach; a
subdivision artfully fitted to the contours, vegetation, and other topo-
graphical featuresof a pleasantvalley; a school with its playground in a
p"ttlif. setting placed at the communiry center and aPproachedalong
safe and inviting pedestrian Paths; a factory with ordered production
units, ranks, storage areas,and shaded parking space all planned in
admirable relationship to approach roads,trackage,or piers.
'W'e
must determine those landscapefeatures, natural and built, best
suited to our needs and then searchfor a site that provides them. The
ideal situation is the one that, with leastmodification' most fully meets
the project requirements.

SiteAnolysis
Now that we have selectedthe location, what is our next concern?At
the same time that the program requirements are being studied and

Existingoff-sitefeoturesmoy guideor evendictotehow the siteis developed

102 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 refined we musr gain a thorough understanding of the site and irs
sur-
roundings: not only the specific area contain.d *irhin the properry
boundaries, but the total site, which includes the environs to the hori-
zon and beyond.

Graphic survey information and supporting referencedata are essendal,

but they must be supplementedby at leastone, and preferablyrepeated,
visits to the site. only by actual site observationcan we ger tl. r.et of the
property, senseirs relationship to the surrounding areas,and become
fullyaware of the lay of the land. only in the field c-anwe gain an under-
standing of the sitet bounding road, the lines of pedestiian approach,
the arc of the sun, rhe prevailing breeze,the good ,ri.*r, th. views,
the sculptural landforms, the springs, the tries, the usable "giy thor.
featuresto be preservedif possible,and those to be eliminated. "r!"r,
In shorr,
only on the ground can we come to know the site and its character. 'w'e
must climb from hollow to hill, kick at the sod, dig into the soil.'we
must look and listen and fully sensethose qualities ih", peculiar to
this specificlandscapearea. "r.

Beoutiful ook grove-on

neighbor's property

Dog ond cot hospitol

I 0-foot utility eqsemenl

I 2-inch h i s h pressure go3
4-foof bury

Theextensionol
ospecls
of o site

\(/hatever we can seealong the lines of approach is an extensional aspect

of the site.\fhatever we can seefrom the iite (or will seein the prob"bl.
Vr<;i! future) is part of the site. Anything that can be heard, smelled, or felt
q-ap'l|iEs
from the properry is part of the prope*y. Any topographical fearure,
natural or built, that has any effect on the properry o, ii, ,.rr. must be
hne,-
o-q Milzs considered a planning factor.
siE
In our presenr power-happy and schedule-consciousera, this vitally
The siteond itsextensionolenvirons important aspectof developing a simpatico feeling for the land and the
total project site is too often overlooked.And too often our completed
work gives tragic evidence of our haste and neglect.

.|03
Site Planning
 ply," said the architect. "If designing, say,a residence,I go each day to
ih. pi... of land on which it is to be constructed. Sometimesfor long
ho.ris with a mat and tea. Sometimesin the quiet of evening when the
shadowsare long. Sometimesin the busy part of the day when the streets
are abustle ^.rd th. sun is clear and bright. Sometimesin the snow and
even in the rain, for much can be learnedof a piece of ground by watch-
ing the rainfall play acrossit and the runoff take its course in rivulets
along the natural drainagewaYs.

fortheproiect.
conbe thereoson
Sitefeotures
.,I
go to the land, and stay,unril I have come to know it. I learn to know
its-badfeatures-the jangling friction of the passingstreet,the awkward
anglesof a windblown pine, an unpleasantsectorof the mountain vieq
the lack of moisture in the soil, the nearnessof a neighbort house to an
angle of the property.

land. I senseperhapsthe deliciously pungent fragranceof the deeply lay-

ered cedarfronds asthe warm sun plays acrossthem. This patch I know
must be left undisturbed.

"I know where the sun will appearin the early morning, when its
warmth will be mostwelcome.I havelearnedwhich areaswill be struck

104 LAND SCAPEARCHITE CTURE

 by its harshly blinding light as it burns hot and peneffating in the late
afternoon, and from which spots rhe sunsetseemsto glow the richesrin
the dusky peace of evening. I have marveled at rhe changing dappled
light and soft, fresh colors of the bamboo thicket and watched for hours
the lemon-crestedwarblers that have built their nestsand feed there.

"I come to sensewith great pleasurethe subtle relationship of a jutting

granite boulder to rhe jutting granite profile of the mountainside across
the way. Little things, one may think, but they tell one, 'Here is the
essenceof this fragment of land; here is its very spirit. Preservethis spirit,
and it will pervade your gardens, your home, and your every day.'

"And so I come to undersrandthis bit of land, irs moods, its limitations,

its possibilities.Only now can I take my ink and brush in hand and start
to draw my plans. But in my mind the strucrure by now is fully visual-
ized. It has taken its form and character from the site and the passing
street and the fragment of rock and the wafting breezeand rhe arching
sun and the sound of the falls and the distanr view.

"Knowing the owner and his family and the things they like, I have
found for them here a living environment rhat brings them into the best
Tbus we seel,,tuto ualuesin euerykndscape: relationshipwith the landscapethat surrounds them. This structure, this
lne, ty'reexpression dthe natiui quatity if the house that I have conceived,is no more than an arrangementof spaces,
landscape,tl,e other, the deuelopmentof
open and closed,accommodating and expressingin stone, timber, tile,
maximum human liuability. . . .
and rice paper a delightful, fulfilling way of life. How elsecan one come
Siteplanning must be thought of as the to design the best home for this site?"
organiz,rttionof the total land.areaand air
spaceof the sitefor bestuseby thepeopleuho
There can be no other way! This, in Japan as elsewhere,is in simplest
utill occupyit. This rneansan integrated
conceptin which buildings, engineering terms the planning process-for the home, the communiry the ciry, the
construction,oPensPaceand natural materiab highway, or the national park.
arep/anned t,gdher at one tirlte 'neft
Eckbo

A thoroughunderstonding designresponse.
of the siteis necessoryfor o successful

.|05
Site Planning
 o
o
o
s

C o m p r e h e n s ilvoen dP l o n

environs.\Thether for a home garden,

obiectives)
2. Procurementof topographicsurvey
3. ProgramdeveloPment
4. Dala gatheringand analYsis
5. Site reconnaissance
6. Organizationof referenceplan set
and file
7. Preparationof exploratorystudies
8. Comparativeanalysisand revis.ionof
studies,leadingto an aPProved
conceptualplan relationships.
9. Developmentof PreliminarY
developmentPlansand estimate
of costs o n dP l o n n i n g
10. Preparation of constructionplans, C o m p r e h e n s iL
ve
specifications,and bidding documents

The comprehensive^p.lanning processis a

systematic means of determining whereyou
ar., *h.re you want to be, and how best to
get there.

should,and mustbe.

I 06 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE

The bestsoulceof designcriteria is field
oDservatron.
o
o
!
o
Regionolinfluence.
In building a cabin in the forest the native instincts of the pioneers as
they felled the treesand clearedthe land may havebeen good enough. In
contemporary times howeveq with land reservesreceding so rapidly and
with building sites under such stress,every development is subject to
new planning factors. The larger and more intensive the project, the
greaterthe consequencesand the greaterthe need for care and concern.
This has led to a processknown as comprehensiveland planning. It is a
systematicapproach especiallysuited to developmentsof greater scope
or sensitivity.
Even in single-home construction it is incumbent upon the planner to
organizea file of background informadon. This will include the govern-
ing zoning maps, codes,and other pertinent regulations.Ciry plans and
street maps will show the location of communiry schools,parks, shop-
ping areas, and other amenities to which the residence will relate.
Needed also is a thorough investigation of all that transpireson, con-
tiguous to, or beneath the building site-including such potential sub-
surfacesurprisesasmine workings, high-pressurefuel transmissionlines,
or buried cables.
Site Planning 1O7
 with an investigation
comprehensive land planning is usually initiated
vicinity and its
of th. region .mbraci.rg the p"rojectsite. The immediate
is given more thor-
int.rrelaiionships withih. p'opttty to be developed
to gain the full
o.rgh ,..rdy. fin"lly, th" p,ojttt site itself is analyzed
.rt"d.rrt"tding so essentialto landscapeplanning'

s Guidelines
SiteAnalysi
systematic
The following procedure is suggestedas a guide to
analysis:

o.# a o ro 2go

SUFVEY
TOPOGRAPBIC

CHAMBERS FARM PROPERTY TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY

wEgT!AtDfowlStslP' PA. (HYPOTHETICAL)

r08 LAND SCAPEARCH ITECTURE

 ?r,e*;l;qk
* ,&J,
(o

6llpQs4*n tat
vti (na",J/r'i: wb"l[
41641
e'Q2.
al-ltaJda\ 0a
EM t41t,+trt< " [,lsa" F;d.
urll'exk-d z'
loz-4.4d la wol- u'l+;
gfulw,lh"u+ ruome *uor 2 2lr ,.9,;ll
ET 4 zll onncl

tvTiLIe-,
,tIlvlat'
full?hdtr *
6"t"ii;,'
'+oE "I
A,q,tp;l
of4u94.
=;aLl(;is
+
-&e
dbd"J
Jsuis
, n.p1

bT*. *
"ou"r

! uill r
dUC,
o ao 60 200
SITE ANALYSIS MAP

tion network, recreationalopportunities, and employment, commercial,

and cultural centers.Together theseestablishthe extensionalsetting ro
which the proposed project will relate.

The Project Site. Before design studies can be initiated, the planner
must be fully conversant with the specific nature of the 5i16-i15 66n-
straints and possibilities. This knowledge is obtained mainly by means
of a topographic survey and site visitation.

Topographic Survey. The basic topographic survey is customarily pre-

pared by a registered surveyor at an engineering scale (1 inch = 20 fee,
50 feet, or 100 feet, etc.) This scaleis predetermined to be the one best
for the projectt planning studies.A survey specification describing the
information to be provided by the surveyor and the form of presentation
is the responsibility of the planner.

SitePlanning 109
 Map.oneof'n' -;;',:tT:lJ,'.T'trJ
Analysis
Site ;,i$;l:t;:t :
rgraphicsurveyfurnished by the sur-
,m actual site observationadditional
the Planner's own sYmbols' These
:scribeall conditions on or relatedto
rning. Such supplementaryinforma-
tion might describeor note:

as sPrings,Ponds, streams' rock

og ,hrtb"-""t', a"d established
insofar as Possible
seruAtion,conse'uation'and deuel-
opment(PCD) areas
structuresor dele-
*.g"ai r. site featuresor hazardssuch as obsolete
vegetation' nox-
..ril.r, materials to be removed, dead or diseased
evidence of landslides'
ious weed infestation, lack of topsoil' or
subsidence,or flooding
traffic flow on approach
Directions and relati rJvolumes of vehicular
bikeways' and rid-
.o"dr; points of connection to ped'estrianroutes'
ing trails
o Logical points of site ingressor egress
a Polnti"l building locations, use areas'or routes of movement
-Co*-andirrg
a obl*"tion points, overlook areas'and preferredview-
ing sectors
screened'
Bit,ri.*r, to be featured, and objectionableviews' to be
together with a brief note describing each
breezes
a Di"r.ction of prevailing winter winds and summer
a Exposed,*indr*.pt thoseprotected by nearby topograph-
"i.", ""d
ical forms, groves,or structures
a Off-site attractions and nuisances
property and
a At ..ological and microclimatic analysis of the
environs
planning
Other factors of specialsignificancein the project

the field, further data

In addition to such information observed in
map or included
gl.;J i-_ researchmay be noted on the site analysis
might include:
3.f"r",.1y in the survey fiie' Such information

a Abutting landownershiPs
"of
a Names utility companieswhose lines are shown' comPany
addresses,phone number, engineers-
a Routes d"," on projected utiliry lines
"nJ walks
a Approach Patternsof existing -roads,drives' and
a Reiative abutting roadway traffic counts
setback
a i""i"grestrictiJns, builiing codes,and building

1 IO LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE

Perhapstbeplanningprocesscan bestbe
exphined as a seriesof subconscious
conuersations.. . . -the question?osed,the
factors weighed,and then the recorded
conclusion.The morelucid the thinking, the
morecoherenrthepowersof idea
communication. . . the beneris tbeplan.
B. Kenneth Johnstone
a
Mineral rights, depth of coal, mined-out areas
a
\(ater qualiry and supply
a
Core-boring logs and data
a
Basemap
It is helpful early on in the planning processro prepare a basemap which
setsthe format for all sheetsto follow. Drawn on drafting film or stable
translucent paper to give clear reproduction, it setsthe trim lines and
tide block with project name and location, ownert and planner'sidenti-
fication, north point, scale,and dateline. Aside from the properry lines
and coordinates, it will show only that information to be carried forward
to all derivative sheets.
Most site and architecturalstudies,conceprualplans, and working draw-
ings will be preparedon reproducible prints of this basemap.
Plan Set and Reference File. As the surveys, basesheets,overlays, sire
analysismap, and other background data are developed, they are assem-
bled as a coordinated referencefile-together with suppoming plans,
reports, and correspondence.All are to be kept complete and updated
throughout the planning process.\With the application of computer
techniques,the preparation, maintenanceof, and accessto the reference
files can be streamlined and expedited.
The material in the reference file will vary for each project depending
upon its sizeand complexiry. For more extensiveplanning-as for a hos-
pital, stadium, or new community-the file may include such back-
ground data as:
. Regional and local master plans
. Zoningandsubdivisionregulations
. Projected highway network
. Regional water management program
. Airfields and flight zones
. Tiansmission lines and smtions
. Utiliry systems
. Fire, police, and ambulanceservices
. Flood and storm records
. Air and water pollution sourcesand controls
. Demographic data and user profiles
. Schools
. Recreationfacilities
. Cultural amenities
. Economic statisticsand trends
. Thx rates and assessments
. Governance
SitePlanning lll

There is an areaof the conceprualand ^
Formingprocessthat is common to the four
maior ihvsical planningdisciplinesand
oft.tt to othersaswell' This is the
formulation of the basicplan conceptby
which, in sketchor diagram,the useareas
and plan forms are conceivedin harmony
*ith the natural and constructedforms,
On largercommissionsthe landscape
architeit often servesas a member of a
closelycoordinatedprofessionalteam,
which includesarchitects, engineers,
112 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
Plon
TheConceptuol
receptivesite will
A seedof use-a cell of function-wisely applied to a
to the nat-
be allowed to develop organically,in harmonious adaptation
ural and the planned environment'
'w'e pro-
have by now developeda comprehensiveProgram defining the
its resonance within
posednature of our proje.t.'w'e ha-vebegun to sense
been one of
the total environs. Up io this point, the planning effort has
perhaps tedious' but
researchand analysir' k h", been painstaking and
which
this phaseis of vital importance b.c".r.. it is the only means by
which our design will be
*. .", achievefull command of the data on
based.From this point on, the planning Processbecomesone of integra-
tion of proposed uses,structures'and site'
PlonConcepfs
If structure and landscapedevelopmenr are contemplated, it is impos-
sible to conceive one without the other, for it is the relationship of
structure to site and site to structure that gives meaning to each and
to both.
This point perhaps raisesthe question of who on the planning team-
architect, l".rdrc"pe architect, engineer,or others-is to do the con-
ceiving. Strangely,this problem, which might seemingly lead to warm
debate-,seldom arises, fo, effective collaboration brings together
"r,
experrs in various fields of knowledge who, in a frce interchange of
ideas,develop a climate of perceptiveawarenessand know-how. In such
a climate, pi"r .or..pts usually evolve more or less spontaneously.
Since the collaboration i, and administered by one of the
"rr"nged
principals (who presumably holds the commission), it is usually this
t."m l."d.r who coordinatesthe planning in all its asPectsand gives it
expressiveunity. It is the work of the collaborators to advance their
tasks and to aid in the articulation of the main design idea in
"rrigrr.d
all ways possible.
Sife-Sfrucfure Diog ro m
lWhen planning a project or a structure in relation to a land area,we
first consid", th. various usesto be fitted together and accommo-
"il
dated. For a high school, for instance,we would determine the approx-
imate architectural plan areasand their shapes-the general plan areas
required for service, parking, outdoor classrooms, gardens, game
.o,.rrrr, football fields, track, bleachers, and perhaps future school
expansion. over a point of the topographic survey (or site analysis
-"p) *e would then indicate, in freehand line, use areasof logical size
rh"p. in studied relation to each other and to the natural and built
".ri
 itt'
,.-.

TOPOSEAPHS
I CU R V E Y

C H A M B E R SF A R M P R O P E R T Y SCHEMATIC PLAN
o 4o ao 200
W E A T L A RTD
O W N S H I PP, A . ( S I T E - S T R U C T U RE )

landscapefeatures.Having thus roughed in the site use areas,we may at

last block in the architectural elementsof the project. The result is the
site-structurediagram.

ConceptuqlSife Plon
+dal The balanceof the planning processis a matter of comparativeanalysis
\]wae

AoAi-letu- and refinement of detail-a processof creativesynthesis.A good plan,

(C4k+pt4
t^d<n) reduced to essentials,is no more than a record of logical thought. A dull
5a1\tic€
plan is a record of ineffectual thinking or of very little thinking at all. A
brilliant plan givesevidenceof responseto all site factors,a clearpercep-
FIexJJ ?IAG'.AU
tion of needsand relationships,and a sensitiveexpressionof all compo-
Flow diogrom nents working well toBether.

Site Planning I l3
 *" in a"

"ii

SITE PLAN
0 ao ao 20o
(CONCEPTUAL)

Anitude
ThePlonning
In his admirable treatise on the Laws of JapanesePainting Hemy
Bowie haswritten:

one of the most important principles in the art of Japanese

painting-indeed, a fundamental and entirely distinctive char-
acteristic-is that of living movemenr, sei do . . . it being, so to
say,the transfusion into the work of the felt nature of the thing
to be painted by the artist. \Thatever the subject to be trans-
lated-whether river or rree, rock or mountain, bird or flower,
fish or animal-the artist at the moment of painting it must feel
its very narufe, which, by the magic of art, he transfersinto his
work to remain forever, affecting all who see it with the same
sensationshe experiencedwhen executingit'

114 LAND SCAPE ARC H ITE CTURE

 And again:

Indeed, nothing is more constandy urged upon his artention

than this grear underlying principle, that it is impossible to
expressin art what one does not feel.

And so it is with planning. \7e can creareonly that for which we have first
developed an emparhic undersranding. A shopping mall? fu designers,
we must feel the quickening tempo, the pull and attraction, the bustle,
'We
the excitement of the place. must senserhe chic boutique displays,
the mouthwatering sights and smells of the bakery shop; we musr seein
Jocob Bronowski our mind the jam-packed counter of the hardware store and the drug-
store with its pyramids of mouthwash, perfume, nail polish, hot-water
bottles, and jelly beans.\7e must seein the market the heaps of grape-
fruit, oranges, rhubarb, brusselssprouts, bananas; whiff the heady fra-
grance of the floral stalls; picture the shelf on shelf of bargain books, the
bolts of cotton prints, the sloping trays of pepperminrs and chocolate
creams.\(/e must feel the brightness of the sunshine on the sidewalksand
the coolnessand protection of shaded doorways and arcades.\(/e must
feel crowds and trafiic and benchesand ffees and perhaps the sparkle and
splash of a fountain or two. And then we can start planning.

A childrent zoo?If we would design one, we must first feel like one of the
flocking children, the gawking, clapping, squealingkids; we must appreci-
ate the delight, the laughter, the chatter, the confusion, and the rollicking
thrill of the place. \7e must feel the diminutive, squeal<ycutenessof the
mouse town, the bulk and immensiry and cavelikehollownessofthe spout-
ing whale with its dimly illumined interior. \7e must know the preening
strut of the elegantly wandering peacocks,the quack, quack, quacking of
the waddling ducls, the soft furry whiteness of the lop-eared rabbits, and
Meaningful design is far from an exerciseinthe clop, clop, clopping and creaking harnessand the awed delight of the
graphicexposition.It is an.empathetic pony ride. As we make our plans,we must, in our minds, be at the childrent
-Drocess-a crearlveact of the intellect. zoo, andwe must seeit, hear it, feel it, and love it asa child would love it.
Design beginswith a conceptual
determinationof the desirednature of space
'what
or object.This shall it be" aspecrmay Are we to design a parhnray,hotel plaza, terminal, or bathing beach?If
be focalizedby a flash ofintuitive genius,by we would create them, we must first have a feeling for their nature. This
a methodicalanalysisof possibilities,or by self-induced sensitiviry we might call the planning attitude. Before we
logical exrensionand improvement upon
mature as planners, it will be intuitive.
pastexamples.
The visual aspectsof superiordesignare
marked by a clear and direct expressionof lmpoctAssessmenf
idea,time, place,materials,and technology,
coupled with a fine instinct for three- It has been proposed that no development should be permitted il all
diminsional Form. things considered,it were to do more harm than good. But how is this
to be ascertained?Until recently this might well have been a matter of
hotly debated opinion. \flith the advent of the federally mandated Enui-
ronmental Impact Statemenr,however, there is now the means of making
a fairly rational appraisal.

The chart that follows provides a checklist of environmentd and perfor-

mance factors to be consideredin large-scale,comprehensiveplanning.

Site Planning 1 15
 1. Identify all proposed uses ot actions that would
have a sig- Environmental impact assessmentchecklist
niffcant impact upon the environment'
- i" ti"
z. frame of the matrix place a square {or a
"ppt"priate
;.;;;;"'i-pact and a circle for one that is seen to be bene-

l:
!t-
itF

decision factor.
un-
4. In text to accompany the completed chart discuss any
in-
usual, potent, hazardous, or lasting impact or impacts
herent in the Project.
s i;;6;;;1";;6tions describethose meansbv which in the
proieit planning and design.the ^negative consequences
irarr. b.".t mitigated and the benefits tlryE!

Sedimentation

movement

Ecologlcal systems
vlsual continuity

Kate

Birds

Fish and
Rare or
chalns

use Wi

Forestry, grazrng or
uses

Institutional uses
Commercial uses
lndustrial uses
U

Visual and Scenic quality

human interest Landscape character
iews end vistas
md
Consewation

Social factors

Buildings
environment structules

zatlon

systems
Waste disposal facilities

1r6 LAND SCAPEARCH I TECTURE

 An official Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), as is required on
most federally aided projects, is governedby a pro forma set of instruc-
tions. Essentiallythe statement is to describe:

All significant negative impacts to be expectedfrom the proposed

development, and the means by which the planners have amelio-
rated them as far as feasible.
All positive values created by the project, and the means by which
they have been enhancedin the planning process.
The rationale for proceeding with construction. Only with rare
exceptionsis approvaljustified unlessthe long-term negativefactors
are outweighed by the benefits.

tVhen such environmental considerations are defined and explored

early, they become not only a useful test but also a sound basisfor the
evolving studiesand resulting planned solution. The negativeimpacts of
the project can thus be reducedand the attributes significantly increased
during the planning process.The many benefits of such a systemaric
approach cannot be overemphasized.

ComputerApplicotion
The advent of the computer, the Internet, and other cyberspace-
related advanceshas altered the planning/design processimmensely-
yet fundamentally has changed it not at all. The goals and procedural
steps of planning remain the same.As a means of attaining the goals,
however, the computer has opened up an intriguing range of pos-
sibilities. Together with its accoutermentsit has provided a whole new
array of bright and radiant tools. It is important that in our fascination
with the tools we are not distracted from the task to be accomplished.

Copobility
The function of computer technology is to access,store, manage
(manipulate), and display information. As to access,once the planner
has developed the project program and decided upon the background
material needed,the computer can searchthe vast Internet storehouseof
facts and graphic examples and file them for easy reference. Even sur-
veys,plans, and photographs can be scannedand computerized-to be
recalledon the screenand enlarged,reduced,or edited at will.

As schematicstudiesprogress,they too can be recordedfor comparative

analysisand optimization. The evolving schemesand resulting concep-
tud plan can be projected three-dimensionallyfor viewing from various
Computer-o
ssistedrenderi
ng angles.If so desired,the imagesmay be modified by the planner to efFect

Site Planning 117


The shill of draruing,that beautiful
coordinationbetweenthe hand, eye,and
mind, is as crucial to mahinggood useof
com?utergraphicsas it has always beento the
designprofessions.
Williom J. Johnson
ilB LAND SCAPE ARCHI TE CTURE
I
5
C o m o u t e rv i s u o l i z o t i o n .
improvement. Or they may be supplementedwith overlaysshowing per-
spectiveviews of the actual project site and environs, along with design
featuressuch aswalls, paving, lighting standards,ancillary structures,or
planting. Concurrently with the visual comparison, the computer can
provide running data on land and building coverage,area of various
types of paving or ground covers,cubic yardageof masonry,soil, and so
on-and thus the basisfor comparativecosts.
The advantagesof computer useare manifold: not only in time-cost sav-
ings but aswell in the scopeof researchmaterial made availableand the
abiliry to organizeand store it for rapid retrieval; not only in the abiliry
to project, compare, and.modi$' the schematicstudies,but to test them
for relative cbst; not orily to display the various proposalsby screen,but
to selectthe'viewing points and to visualizethe plans and spacesas by
sequentialmovement through them.
In the recording of survey information and in the dimensioning of'con-
struction drawings, the.useof coordinatesfor properry corners,outlines,
and locations savesendlesshours of calculation and drafting. Computer
imagery precludesthe need for slide preparation and projection-and
makes obsoletethe clumsy presentationboardsand easelsset up at pub-
Iic meetings.The printout of plans and text in various sizesand forms,
with easeof revision, is another obvious advantage.As if these advan-
tagesweren't enough, new capabilities and refinements are constantly
becoming available.
Limifofions
'il/hat, then, are the limits to design by computer?
The fact is that the
valued computer cannot designat all. It is incapableof either perception
or deduction. Ir cannot discern the personaliry of the client, cannor
sensethe characterof the site, cannot know the feel of srone,wood, or
water, cannot apprehend the wonder of a view. It cannot learn from
experienceor apply ro the planning process the lessons of travel and
observation.

Some would-be planners have become enslavedby computer technol-

ogy. For them to sit before screen or keyboard is to go into a rapturous
trance. It is to be hoped that with time they will recognize the com-
putert role for what it is-the esreemedand highly efficient servanr, but
never the intuitive master.

Site Planning I r9
-rrrIIl]lJ]-lu

I !1*
 he product of the site planning processis a conceptual plan. This is,
in effect, a diagram of fitting relationships-of areasto srructure, of
area to area, and of all to the lay of the land. The land usesand their
relationship have grown out of the program and site analysis.They
have been explored in a number of quick schematicsuntil the best fit
is achieved.The plan has been tested and adjusted to minimize its neg-
ative impacts and to provide the most of those features that are
desired.

The conceptual plan is a preliminary drawing-the concept without

details or fixed dimensions, intentionally so, for in its detailed devel-
opment, perhaps in phases,it is subject to change, refinement, and
improvement.

Upon its approval by the client or other decision makers,it becomesthe

referenceguideline in the preparation of detailed (working) site develop-
ment plans and specifications.

re Expression
Site-Structu
If to design a project or a structure in harmony with its total site is a
valid objective, it follows that the design expressionwould vary from site
to site in accordancewith the variation in landscapecharacter.

121
 vacation lodge' If lluilt
To illustrate, Iet us consider a summer weekend
northern Maine, its abstract
on a sheltered,rock-rimmed inland lake in
it would have if lo<'ated
d.rign form would vary greadyfrom the form
itr the
along the *ini-*nipped coastof Monterey' California'
"Mo,r.rt"ir-rr,
"n1#n.r.
smoky ozark o' i lorida's shell-strewn captiva Island, or
Indiana' Forget-
th. lazily winding MississinewaRiver in central
"lo.rg the moment the implications of a specific property' we can see
Interployof horizoniolond veriicolspoces ting"for
own intrinsic design
that each of the varying locations suggestsits
response.

a site according to
it might therefore be a helpful procedure to classi$.
characteristicssuggested'Let us consider
ryp. ;nd determine the design
they elicit'
fo.r, typi."l building sitesand the design featuresthat

A City Lot
necessiry.Spaceis
Area is at a premium. The plan will be compact, of
the apparent
Iimited. Plan forms will probably be contrived to expand
spaceby the multipl. ,rr. of and the interplay of volumes' Through
",."s
ingenious pl"r even the smalleststructuresare made to feel
"rr"rgement
soacious.

Conslder lhescoleof obiects

corefully
introduced

Thefeelof thecityloi

Cifysite.
C i f i e sw, i t ht h e i r : o n c e n t r o l oi of nm o s o n royn d

The city environs impose a senseof confinement and oppression.Per-

"deseri"climotecon be omelioroted by the
ciry dwellerswill wish to entrench, dig their cave' or
provision of open-spoce preserves,porks,sfreel haps here embattled
p l c n i i n go,n d p rv o t eg o r d e n s brrild th.i, fort and feel secure.But more likely they will seekrelief and

122 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 releasefrom pressure.If so, in their dwellings and gardens the hard, the
rigid, the confining forms will give way ro the light, the nebulous, the
transparent, and the free.

Areasand spacesare minute in scale.scale, both induced and inducdve,

is an important design consideration.An object well suited to the open
field could be overwhelming in rhe ciryscape.A giant tree, for.*"-p1.,
might dwarf an urban complex, while a dwarf tree could give it increased
and more desirablevisual dimension.

ln theci1y,o rock,o tree,or o singlepotted City streetsand pedestrianwalks are dominanr lines of approach,obser-
plontmoyrepresent oll of noture. vation, and access.They are elemenrsmost strongly relating the dwelling
to the communiry. The driveway throar and front entrance will nor-
mally be designedto convey a receptivecove qualiry.The relationship of
the structure to the insistent lines of the ciry sfteet becomesan impor-
tant consideration.

A city should be buih to giue its inhabitants

securitYand haPPines
Aristotre

wall, hcdle
uJ yh^4e '{.p^"v,d.
d.y1| ^t 3aa6

ba

P"vy
=b,'"*

Fls

Design
fordepthodjocent
lo sireet

The city street is a source of noise, fumes, and danger. Plan elements
adjacent to the street may well be contrived to provide noise abatement,
depth, privacy, and security.Perforatedvisual screensor studded sound
barriershave useful application.

Lrvrngspoce in lhe cily moy extendfrom propertyline to propertyline

Site Deuelopment 123

 desertof pavementand masc'nry'
The city is, climatologicallyspeaking'a
A city is often -"ny"d"g""i hotttt in the summertime than the sur-
use of breeze'
.""ii"g .orr.ttryrii.. dt'ig" an oasis;make maximum
and the refreshingqualities of water
shade,shadow p",r.r.t,,
""tl"t"'' The climate may be further modified by
in fountain, pool' o, i.i 'p'"y'
pierced-or baffled screellsor
air movemen, f"nn.i o' di"tttd through
surfaces'In cool weather'
acrossmoist fabric, gravel,or other tt"po'"iit"
or by warm water circulated
h.", -"y be int.odticed in radiant elements
in fountains or Pools.

rocks' and water--are

Natural features-trees, interesting ground forms'
meaning. They are no longer
scarceand therefore have increased"vilueand
to be treateclin a
;;"i
'*or. the natural scenebut are now isolatedobjects
design them inro the
,rylir.d way. utilize natural featuresto the full,
in the city may well be
,.h.*., orient to them. Earth, plants, andwater
in the ciry all materi-
,,."."d assculpturalor architecturalel.ments. Since
materialsare appropriate'
als appearto be introduced, exotic plants and

Courtyordgorden

Ilecause
Ciry materials tend to be lessrustic and more sophisticated.
refinement of
sizesand quantities are limited, richnessof material and
detail gain in imPortance.

of the commu-
Surrounded by neighbors, one becomesan integral part
of the whole'
niry' a unit in a g'o"p of related units' an important PTt
social
Neighborhood Jh"r".ter cannot be blithely violated.without
a measure
,.pic,rrriorrs. \(e are tacitly obliged ro conform. To achieve
of individualiry and
od.orrfor-ity while designinga resid.nti"l complex
Their
distinction ii a difficul,-"r,, L"r,.red long ago by the Japanese'
mats are arranged
modular homes of stone, wood, tile, and woven

124 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 tighdy along their ciry streetswith an anistry that producespatterns of
infinite variery yet great harmony.

encasedin a membrane of delicateveining and fitted to the smooth inte-

rior chambers.Finally, the ivory-white kernel itself is a marvel of beauti-
ful sculptural form. \7e may seein this example an inward progression
from the unostentatiousto the highly refined.

A ciry properry has a fishbowl quality resulting from the proximiry of

neighbors.Privacyis a tacit designrequirement in a ciry dwelling. A log-
ical orientation of such structuresis inward, to private gardens,p"tior, o,
courts.

Ruro/Site

Ample o'eo D,.).Tirs

on erploded plon, eoch
elemenibeing rr:lotedto ihe mostcompofible
topogrophicferolures Rurolsite.

Site Deuelopment 125

 Freedom,with open view of fields, woods, and sky, is the essentialland-
scapequaliry.'we may logically orient our plan ourward to embracethe
total site'sbest featuresand to command the best views'

The choiceof a rural sitewould indicate a desireto be at one with nature.

Make nature appreciation a design aim and theme. Insofar as possible,
the natural environment will be disturbed or modified only to improve it.

The major landscapefeaturesare established.Build to them, feature the

best, screenout and de-emphasizethose that are lessdesirable,and con-
trive structural forms in best relation to the natural forms.

The landscapeis dominant (in characterand mood). Presumablythe site

Rurolpropertyho on exponsive leel.Streoms, was selectedbecauseof its qualities. If the existing landscapecharacteris
groves, hil
dlstont , oll of
feotures thelondscope
desirable,it may be preservedand accentuatedby the site-structuredia-
ihol.on be seen r sensed, ore o portof the
site
exiensionol gram. If alterations are required, we may modi$' or completely change
ihe site aspect,but only in such ^ way as to take fullest possibleadvan-
tage of the existing features.

Earth and ground forms are stfong visual elements.A structure con-
ceivedin studied relation to ground forms gainsin architecturalstrength
and in harmony with the topographical features'

The pleasantlandscapeis one of agreeabletransitions. In the planning of

transitions between structure and site, intermediate areasrelating struc-
feotures
Moior londscope b u i l d ture to the land are of key importance.
ore estoblished;
t o , o r o u n do, n d o m o n gl h e m

Structuresbecome elementsimposed on the landscape.Either the site is

consideredbasicallya setting for a dominant structure, or the structure
is conceived as subordinate to the landscapeand designed to comple-
ment the natural contours and forms.

The rural landscapeis a landscapeof subtleties-of foliage shadings,sky

formsconceived
Structurol with
in sympothy tints, and cloud shadows.Our planning will recognize these qualities
groundformsborrowpowerfromond return and treat them sympathetically,or they will be wasted.
powerto ihe londscope
In a rural site, one is more exposedto the elementsand weathel-12|n,
storms, sun, wind, snow, frost, winter cold, and summer heat. The site-
structure diagram and architecture should reflect a thorough under-
standing of adaptation to the climate.

A rural site implies increasedland areaand greatermaneuverabiliry.The

automobile and pedestrian approaches, important elements in our
design, may often be so aligned within the property boundaries as to
revealthe best site and architectural features.

The indigenous materials of a rural site-ledge rock, fieldstone, slate,

ls outword
On theslopingplone,orienlotion gravels,and timbers-contribute much to its landscapecharacter.The

126 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTUKE
 use of such natural materials in buildings, fences, bridges, and walls
helps relatesrrucruresto their surroundings.

'
The essenrialqualiry of the landscapeis the natural and the unrefined.
our structural materials may well reflect this naturalnessand foreqo
Useof thesl,.rpe
for protection
high refinement.

SteeplySloping Sife:lJnobstructed
lnclinedPlone
contours are major plan factors. contour planning (the alignment of
plan elementsparallel with the contours) is generallyindicated.

Cr o slopinc .ir--rhs lsvgl plone is ocnieved

lmposedstrucues moy tug ine slope

resion o plotfrrm,

or siondcomple,iely
free

The areasof relatively equal elevation are narrow bands lying perpendi-
cular to the axis of the slope. Narrow plan forms such as bars or ribbons
are suggested.

Sizablelevel areasare nonexistenr.\(/here required, they must be carved

out of or projected from the slope. If they are shapedof earth, the earth
must be retained by a wall or by a slope of increasedinclination.

A s r r u c t l r ei m r : s e d o n o s l o p i n gs i t eb e l o n g s The essenceof slope is rise and ftil. A terracedschemeis suggested.Lev-

the sky os wel os io the eorth els may separatefunctions, as in split-level or multideck srrucrures.

SiteDeuelopment 127
 )-poseJ we;oLl The slope is a ramp. Ramps and steps are logical -plan elements' The
J ' o +{ , t l slope grade is perhaps too steep for wheeled traffic. Access is easiest
dorrg lorrto.'rrr.Thir f"ct dictatesa normal approach from the sides.
\=- dA+;^'
The pull of gravity is down the slope. our design forms not only must
r;!1. pV.A a at '^.li^.. prar,,
l-al Ja"-J Ji*lae+ne^* have stability, th.y must expresrrt"biliry to be pleasing.An exception,of
course,*o,rid be those structuresin which a feeling of daring or condi-
tioned exhilaration is desired.

A slope inherently emphasizesthe meeting of earth and air. A level ele-

-..r, i-posed on a sloping plane often makes contact with the earth or
rock at the inner side and is held free to the air at its outer extremity'

a)eAal +,ll
n^al<nl"l pVccJ
ih ce?\.H ldlut

turlhnu<# w)-<roL). lo.{Jl,

can be , place,J, ^ '<oipo.l=J la1-s
n 4 sE?p€e. Dase p16.4€.

1lLE @IJ'T"'U(IION OF A TABLE FILL

of steepslopes.
Development

I28 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 Ca;l6ll tuak
,lef{ n"u4h - w,fl".F* b.a+
& 6erth<6J
a44te4aE 1e,l-e.
?.en{oA-
a1a+
iilf^1

- ?-p"s..
+?q(Jv;

PaAq..elr.
wiJA +I*e
- t" la - Pt'i-
avlp a
+r.^i N.* s,la7e

?sa f;ll Helopod creoted on steeo site.

o I ?a{a")" )
4.";
- I ,
\fhere the element makes contac with the eafth, the jointure is to be
'\V'here
1. n^q,
"l
sl"pc sloL,l,ulo clearly expressed. the leading edge flies free, this airy union of
mtll ol's weluJes .
structure and sky should also be given design expression.

The top of the slope is most exposedto the elemenrs.The planner rr,ay
exploit or createa land profile similar to rhe military cresrof rhe artillery
m2nual-an adaptation or modification of the slope to preserve or
enhance the view while affording increased protection from winds and
storm.

A sloping site affords interest in views. Site development to createrich-

nessof landscapedetail may be minimized, for when a sloping sire com-
mands a fine view, little elseis required.

The slopeis oriented outward. Plan orientation is normally ourward and

4a.-:,44|,L6 down. Sincethe view side is exposed,the plan relation ro sun, wind, and
o( Utin,t ratsh
CaEias
storms is of increasedconsiderarion.

Ti,,#),fui,
'^-*age' ^.s#--
,* A sloping site has drainage problems. Groundwater and surfacerunoff
from above must be intercepted and diverted or allowed to passfreely
under the structure.

ur*F A slope brings out many of the most desirablequalities of water. The
play of water in falls, cascades,spouts, trickling rivulets, and films is an
SLoPE 9T4gt LrzA.1-rON obvious plan opportunity.

Site Deueloprnent 129

 o
o
I
l
o

o
-
o
d

6
t-
la
tl o:
t>

Woter providesthe mostlevelsite

o
I
o
o
6

o
o

the levelsite
Horizontolwollsoccentuote

LevelSite
A levelsiteoffersa minimum of plan restrictions.Of all siterypes,the level
site bestlends itself to the cell-bud, crystalline,or geometricplan paftern.

A level site has relativelyminor landscapeinterest. Plan interest depends

upon the relationshipof spaceto sPace'object to space'and object to
The levelsiteodopis itselfto the cell-bud, object.
c r y s t ol i n e ,o r g e o m e t r i cP o n

objectsmay be seenor acrosswhich shadow patterns may be cast''

A flat site has no focal point. The most visually insistent element placed
on this sitewill dominate the scene.

Lines of approach are not dictated by the topography.The possibiliry of

approachl-- side makesall elevationsimportant. Lines of exterior
"ry
int.rior circulation are critical design elements since they control
"ni
the visual unfolding of the PIan.

The dome of the sky is a dominant landscapeelement of infinite change

and beauty. \we may well feature the sky through the use of reflecting
O n f h el e v esl i f e i,h ep i t ,t h em o u n do, n d t h e
s i g n icf c n c e
v e r l l c oo s s u mtee l l i n g basins,pools, courts,patios,and recessedopenings.

I 30 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURL
 I The sun is a powerful design factor.'W'emay use ir as a sweepingbeam
\
]:( or flood and design in rerms of light and shade. \7e may explore the
1.,.. I r,-.-:11-
-J(llL | | myriad qualities of light and utilize the most effective in relation to our
forms, colors, textures, and materials. \7e may dramatize cast shadow-
solid as from a wall, moving as from watet sculptural as from objects,
dappled as from foliage, or as a dark background and foil for luminous
objectsdisplayedagainstit.

A level site has a neutral landscapequaliry. Site character is createdby the

elements introduced. Bold form, sffong color, and often exotic materials
may be usedhere without apparenrviolation of the narive landscape.
Cn thescoleesslevelploin,scoleis whotone
mokesit
The site offers little privacy. The creation of privacy is a function of the
plan orientation. Privacy may be attained by the focus of spacesroward
screening elemenrs,inward to enclosed courts or outward to infiniry
from viewing points on rhe periphery.

Third dimension is lacking. Third dimension in the ground plane may

be achieved through the creation of earth or architectural platforms or
Thehorizontolrn hormony,
theverticolin pits. Slight rises,drops, and stepsassumeexaggeratedsignificanceon the
dromoticconlrosi level site.

The flar site offers no obsuuction to lateral planning. An expandedscheme

with connective passagewaysor elements is a logical plan expression.

Exisfing ond unsuitoble

fill os mounds for screening ond interelt

TT*- aa

lf we mustuseoureorthmovers
to creoleo new londscope {ondsometimeswe must), let
ususethemlo creoteo londscopeof topogrophicol
interest
ond pleosontond usefulforms

Site Deueloltrnent I 3l
 A flat site tends toward monotony. Since interest is in structure rather
and
than in the natural landscape,the structure should be enhanced
dramatrzedin all ways Possible.

The horizon is an insistentline. Striking effectsmay be achievedthrough

the use of low, horizontal forms (complementary) or incisive verticals
(contrasting).

Where floinessequolsmonotony,moximize
Flat landscapeunder the open sky is often oppressiveand lacking in
every topogrophicoloPPortunilY
human scale.scale is therefoie easilycontrolled, from the intimate to the
monumental. Human scale,if it is to exist, must be consciouslycreated'

Other Sites
This sameprocedure of determining (bl Perceptionand deduction) the
abstractd.rigtt characteristicssuggestedby a given landscaPetype may'
of course,be applied to sitesof many varieties,including:

The mountainous The lakeshore

The windswept The island
The snow-covered The estuarine
The forest The oceanfront
The streamside The resort
The boulder-strewn The suburban

! o

o
f
o
o
o
I

Theinnercity. Themountoinresort.

o
o
o
j

l
o
-o
j
o o
!
o
o

o
o

Theurbonwoterfront.
voterfront. Thelokefront Theforest.

132 LAND SCAPEARCH ITE CTURE

 The pastoral The institutional campus
The pond The businessdistrict
The waterfall The industrial park
The river edge The heavy industrial

In planning any developmenr or designing any structure in relation to a

given site, it is helpful first to deduce the general design characteristics
dictated by a thoroughgoing analysisof the existing landscape.

Site-Structure
PlonDevelopment
It can be seen that the forces, forms, and features of the total site exert
both a powerful and often subrle influence on the schemaricplan. In the
refinement of the plan and the designof eachcomponenr, their relation-
ship to all aspectsof the environs is to be further studied.

Oufword ond lnword Plon Progression

\7e must considereachfunction from the innermost point of generation
to the off-site terminus. In the designof a home, for example,we would
be concerned with the roure of the small-fry not only from bed to bath-
room to breakfast table but also from breakfast table to the nearestdoor,
to play areas,to pathway, 16 56[sel-all in a natural and pleasanr pro-
gression.Or, in more prosaic rerms, we would plan the route of refuse
from kitchen to serviceareato refusetruck to s116s1-all with inconspic-
uous convenience.The relationship of dining table to window ro view
involves enframement and developmenr of the view to the properry lim-
its and, in most cases,beyond.

Conversely,each element or area must be designed as the logical conclu-

sion of a function originating ar the exrremities of the site environs. Any-
one approaching your property to make a delivery is subtly directed to the
servicedrive, the parking spacefor the delivery truck, rhe servicewalk, the
serviceentrance, and the storagecompartment. By design, guestsarriving
for the evening are alerted and invited in, welcomed to the approach
court, directed to the parking bay, andguided to the enrrancedoor, where
they enter to the vestibule and the hospitaliry of the inner home. This
sameinward and outward progressionis applicable to the planning of any
project, be it a sawmill, a recrearion park, or a worldt fair exposirion.

Expansion-Contrqction
of PlonConcept
Most site-planning problems can be fully solved only by expanding the
areasof consideration to the farthest extensional aspectof the site and by
contracting each problem to the minutiae of human experienceand irre-
ducible detail. For although it is true that an object or element must be
judged in relation to all other elementswith which it is allied, it is also
true that objects can be fully appreciated only when they are experienced
one at a time, in depth, and at the living moment.
,|33
Site Deuelopment
 SotellitePlon
total site, so must
As a total structure is conceivedin harmony with the
harmony with
each element or area of the structure be conceived in
we would plan
related site areas.In an elementary school, for instance,
gate all as
the kindergarten, its outdoor play lot' garden, and entrance
equip-
one. The glmnasium *. *ould coordinatewith the game courts'
and playfields.\7e would consider the boiler plant together
-..r,
"r.i,
with its serviceand storageareas.The auditorium with its approaches
outdoor
and parking compound, the classroomswith their related
asan
,p"..i, each-elementwith its extensionalsite areaswould be treated
thus
integrated plan complex. The overall scheme in diagram would
,.r.tbl. iolar systemwith sun, planets,and satellites'
"
'o
\o

tnfi o
tu€t
lga

o
o
o
;
*t
t? I
I)
6

&.
plon.
Integroted

The best site plan is that which yields the
greatestlong-term benefit with the least
total cost and stress.
lntegrolPlonning
-When a structure is imposed on a site, certain changesin landscapechar-
acrerare effected.It is important that thesechangesbe controlled by the
planner. Our elementaryschool is not just plunked dow-1in a ciry block
or in the midst of a suburban community. Rather, ideally, it is fitted to
the properry and conceivedin harmony with the communiry with such
skilithat .h. ,r.* landscapecreatedis an improvement over the original'

For a lesson in relating architecture ro sire we may well look to the

Renaissanceplanners. In the building of the magnificent Piazza San
Marco in Venice, the architect commissionedto design the cathedral,or
the campanile, or the Doge's Palace,or the memorial columns at the
water gate never conceivedof his building or columns as design entities-
,olely.lnstead, he instinctively consideredhis works as integral parts of
the piazzain terms of his proposed structure, which he conceived'from
btoad plan to most minute detail, in terms of its impact on the Ptazza
and vice versa. Each planner not only designedthat for which he was
commissionedbut redesignedthe entire Prazzaand, in doing so, his city
of venice. Thus, and only rhus, was he fulfilling his obligation to his

134 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 client and his ciry. The secret of much of the charm and great beauty of
European towns and cities lies in the consciousapplication of this plan-
ning axiom. Much of the hodgepodgeand helter-skelterappearanceof
the American scene results from planning with seeming ignorance of
and indifference to the existing environs.

Provingthe Plan
How do we know whether our proposed installation is well relatedto irs
site?There is one surerestwe can apply.\7e can experienceit vicariously
through the sensesof those who will seeand use it. At any stagein the
creative process,from rough sketchesto final drawings or model, we can
by our imagination lift ourselvesup and look down at the project with a
'We
fresh perspective. can bring it alive in our mindt eye.\7e can say,in
effect, aswe look down at the plans for a church:

"I am the minister. fu I drive by my church or approach it, does it

Rihiu uas u'atchinghis son Shoanas he
sweptand tzateredthe gardenpatb. "Not
cleanenougl,,"said Rihiu, when Shoanbad
finished his iash, and bade hirn try again.
After a wearyltour the son returnedto Rikiu:
';Father,
theiieis nothing rnore to be done. The
stepshaue beenuashedfor the third time; the
stonelanter/tsand neesare all well sprinkled
with water; rytoss and lichensare shining with
a fresh aerdure; not a twig, not a leaf haue
I lefi on theground." "Youngfool,"chidedthe
teamaster,"that is not the way a gardenpath
should be swept."Sayingthis, Ribiu stepped
into thegaralen,shooha treeand scattered
ouer the garden gold and uirnson leaues,suaps
of the brocadeofou**''*,,kuzo
okokuro
expressthose inspirational qualities to which I have dedicatedmy
life? As I enter my study, do I sensethat this space is remote
enough to give me privary for study and meditarion, yet accessible
enough to attract to its doors those who need help or counsel or
those who come on church business?As an office, is it so located
that I can direct and overseechurch activities?Does this church
that I am to administer have an efficiently organized plan?"
"I am the janitor. As I come to work in the morning, where do I park
my car? How do the barrels of cleaning compound get moved
from the servicedock to the storagearea?\flhere do I store my lad-
ders and snow removal equipment? Did someone in their plan-
ning think about me and my work?"
"I am a Boy Scout coming to troop meeting. Are the walks planned
to take me where I am going, or do I cut acrossthe lawn? Some
friends of mine are waiting outside. Do we have a place where we
can rip around and blow off steam and maybe shoot a few bas-
kets? tVhere do we put our bikes? \7here do we ser up pracrice
tents?\7here do we . . . ?'
"I am a member of this church, and I am coming to worship. Does
my church invite me in? Am I able to drive closeto the entry on
a cold, rainy day?'Wheredo I park?Is there ample room?After the
service,is there a pleasantspaceadjacent to the doors where we
may linger and greet our friends and welcome visitors?"

All thesethings areapart of church life and need to be arrangedfor in

its planning. The function of any project and the relationship of build-
ing to site may thus be testedby an imaginary introduction to and walk'
through by people typical of those who will see,service,and/or use it.

The process of site-structure plan development is a search for logical

progressionsand best relationships.

Site Deueloltment 135

 Unity
Site-Structure
\7e have discussedthe importance of developing responsivesite-project
relationships. Let us now consider other means by which we may
achieve site-structureuniry.

'We
may design the structural elements to utilize and accentuateland-
forms. A lighthouse, for example,is an exrensionof the jutting promon-
tory. The ancient fort or casdeextended, architecturally, the craggy top of
\Vheresite and structuremeetwe may utell a hill or mountain. Our modern municipal water tanks and transmission
"structure"the siteand at the sametime
"wash"the landscapeouerand into the
structure'
Hideo sosqki

Terracedski lodgesstepping down the snowy slope of a mountain, float-

ing structureson water, light, airy structuresfixed againstthe sky, mas-
sive structuresrooted in rock-each draws from its site a native power
\X/hole cities have been
and returns to rhe site this power magnified.
imbued with this dynamic quality-saigon overhanging its dark river
and slow-flowing tributaries, Lhasabracedproudly againstits mountain

I 36 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 wall, Darjeeling extending its timbered mountain peaksand towers inro
the clouds.

A structure and its site may be strongly related by architectural ffeat-

ment of site areasor elements.Clipped alldesand hedges,warer panels,
preciseembankments and terraces,all extend the limits of design con-
trol. Many of the French and Italian villas of the Renaissancewere so
architecturalin their treatment that the entire properry from wall to wall
became one grand composition of palatial indoor and outdoor rooms.
These grandiosegarden halls were demarcatedby great planesor arches
of shearedbeech,of masonry and mosaic, rows of plinths, and elaborate
balustraded walls. They embraced monumenral sculptured fountains
and parterre gardensof rich pattern or mazesof sharply trimmed box
hedges.The integration of architectureand site thus becamecomplete.

lJnfortunately, the results were often vacuous: a meaninglessexercisein

applied geometry-the control of nature for no more reasonthan for the
sakeof exerting control. Many such villas, on rhe other hand, were and
still remain notable for their great symphonic beaury.In rhese,without
exception, the highest inherent qualiries of the natural elementsof the
site-plants, topography, water-were fully appreciated by the planner
and given design expression.Seldom, for instance,has water as a land-
scapeelement been treated with more imaginative control than at Villa
d'Este in Tivoli, where a mountain torrent was diverted to spill down the
steepvilla slopesthrough the gardens,rushing, pouring, gushing, foam-
ing, spurting, spewing, surging, gurgling, dripping, riffling, and finally
shining deep and still in the stone reflecting basins.Here at Villa d'Este,

wc ter disploys-VilloD'Este.
Ingenious

Site Deueloltment 137

 water,slopes,and plant materialswere handled architecturallyto enhance
both the structure and the site and superbly unite the two'

Alternatively, the landscapefeaturesof the site may be embracedby the

dispersion of structural or other planned elements into the landscape'
The satelliteplan, the buckshot plan, the finger plan, the checkerboard
plan, the ribbon plan, and the exploded plan are typical examples'

America controlled
Justasthe earlyFrenchand English explorersin North
vast tracts of land by the strategicplacement of a few forts, so can the well-
placedelementsof a schemecontrol a given landscape.Such is true of our
national parkswith their trails, lodges,and campgrounds sited to uniold to
the user ih. rnort interesting featuresof the park. Such is true, in linear
plan expression,of anywell-planned scenicdrive or highway extendedinto
Sotellire
ih. .o.r.rrryside. our military installations are often, in plan, scattered
over extensiveland areas,each function-be it rifle range, officers' quar-
rers,tank proving ground, rent sires,or artillery range-relating to those
o
topographical featuresthat seem most suitable. For this same PurPose,
o Oo O
-""y of our newer schools are exploded in plan. unlike the old three-
o-o story monumental school seton the land, the newer schools of which we
Buckshot
speak are planned tu the landscape, embracing and revealing its more
pleasantqualities with such successthat school and landscapeare one.

The site and the structure may be further related by the interlocking of
common areas-patios, terraces,and courts, for example.A landscape
feature displayedfrom or in such a court takeson a new aspect'It seems
singled out. It becomesa specimenheld up to closeand frequent obser-
vation under varying conditions of position, weather,and light. A sim-
ple fragment of rock so featured acquires a modeling and a beaury of
form and detail that would not be realizedif it were seenin its natural
state.As we watch it from day to day-srbaming with rain, sparkling
with hoarfrost or soft snow, glistening in the sharp sun and incised with
shadow, or glowing in subdued evening light-we come to a fuller
understanding of this landscapeobject and thus of the nature of the
landscapefrom which it came.

The landscapemay be even more strongly related to structure by the ori-

entation of a room or an areato some feature of the landscape'asby a vista
or a view A view or a garden may be treated asa mural, a mural of constant
changeand variety of interest, extending the room areavisually to the lim-
its of the garden (or to infinity for adistant view). It can be seenthat, to be
pleasant, the scale,mood, and character of the landscapefeature viewed
must be suited to the function of the areafrom which it is observed.

To the foreign visitor in a traditional Japanesehome, one of the most

appealingfeaturesof many is the useof smoothly sliding screensof wood
Exploded and paper by which the entire side of a room may be opened at will to
bring into the spacea cloudlike flowering plum ffee, a vigorous composi-
Dispersionor plon elemenis tion of sand,stone,and sunlit pine, a view through tiered maple branches

I38 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
to the tiered roof of a distant pagoda, or a quiet pool edgedwith moss and
rippled by lazily fanning goldfish. Each feature viewed is treated with
impeccableartisrry aspart of the room, to extend and unite it with the gar-
den or landscape.The Japanesewould tell us that they have a deeperpur-
pose, that what they are really rrylng to do is to relate people and nature
completely and make nature appreciation a part of their daily lives.

To this end they introduce into their dwellings the best of those objects
of nature that they can find or afford. The posts and lintels of their
rooms, for instance, are nor squared and finished lumber but rather a
trunk or limb of a favorite wood shaped, tooled, and finished to bring
out its inherent form and partern of grain and knotting. Each founda-
tion stone, each section of bamboo, each tatami (woven grassmat) is so
fashioned by the artisan as to discover,and revealin the finished objecr,
the highest natural qualiry of rhe material that is being used. In the
Japanesehome one finds plants and arrangementsof twigs, leaves,and
grassesthat are starding in their beaury. Even in their art forms the
Japaneseconsciously,almost reverently,bring nature into their homes.

In such wayswe, too, may relateour projectsand structuresto their nat-

ural setting. \7e may use large areasof fenestrarion. \We may devise our
approachesand paths of circulation to achievethe most desirablerela-
'W'e
tionships. may recall and adapt from the landscapecolors, shapes,
and materials. \7e may make further ties by projecting into the land-
scapecertain areasof interior paving and by extending structural walls or
overhead planes.Nfe may break down or vignette our structures from
high refinement to a more rustic qualiry as we move from the interior
outward. This is a reverse application of the qualiry wabi mentioned
before. This controlled transition from the refined to the natural is a
matter of great designsignificance.

If a building or plan areaof any predetermined characteris to be imposed

on a landscapeof another character,transition from the one to the other
will play an important role. If, for example, a civic plaza and art museum
are to be built at the edgeof a city park, all plan elemenrswill becomemore
"civic" and sophisticated as one leavesthe park to approach the plaza,
Lines will become more precise.Forms will become refined and architec-
tural. Materials, colors, textures,and details will become richer. The natu-
ral park characterwill give way gradually, subtly, to an inrensified urbane
character consonant with the planned expressionof the museum. Con-
versely,if a park or wooded public garden is planned in a highly developed
urban district, plan forms will relax and be freer and more natural as one
approachesthe open space.Such controlled intensification, relaxation, or
conversion of plan expressionis the mark of skilled physical planning.

SiteSystems
As a logical extension of the principles of site-project unification the
concept of site slstemsdeservesspecialattention. The term implies sim-

Site Deuelopment 139

 ply that all site improvements are conceivedto be constructedand func-
tion in a systematicwaY.

Droinoge
\With few exceptionsthe natural site provides for storm runoff acrossits
surface*ithout causing erosion. The ground-stabilizing roots and-ten-
drils of living plants knit the soils and absorb precipitation. The fallen
rwigs and l.",r.t also form an absorptivemat to keep the soil moist and
cool the air. The natural swales,streambeds,and river gorges of the
undisturbed landscapeprovide for the most efficient storm-water flow,
while marsh.r, po.rdr, lakes provide the ultimate storage and
"rd
rechargebasins.Any alteration to this establishednetq.ork is both dis-
ruptive and costly. \rhen rhe movement of materials is required, new
,ror- drainagewaysmust be shaped,and often extensiveartificial storm-
,.*., ,yr..*-r. Usually, with the installation of roofs, paved ateas,and
sewerpipe, the amount and rate of runoff is increasedto the detriment
of the project site and downstream landowners'

Experiencewould suggesrthat artificial drainage devicesbe minimized

and that th. ,r"t,rr"[ drainagewaysbe preserved and utilized to the
utmost.

Movemenf
Planned paths of pedestrian and vehicular movement that oppose the
existing ground forr
slope retention, inte:
establishment of ne
instead to rise and fz
and ravines,or to rracea cross-slopegradient that requiresno heavy cuts
or fills, they not only are more economical to build but are also better to
look at and more pleasantto use.

\Well-designedwalks, bicycle trails, and roadwaysalso provide intercon-

necting networks of movement that ensureregional continuity; they are
parric;larly suited to the rype of traffic to be accommodated and take
into account factors such as safery,efficiency, and landscapeintegriry'
Materials, secrions,profiles, lighting, signing, and planting are coordi-
nated and designedas an integrated system.

Lighting
Site illumination does many good things. It provides safety in traffic
movement and crossings,it warns of hazards,and it servesto increase
securityand reducevandalism.It interprets the plan arrangementby giv-
ing emphasisto focal points, gathering places,and building entrances.It
demarcatesand illumines paths of interconnection, serving as a guide-

140 LAND SCAPE ARC HITE C TURE

 Properlightingenhoncesthedesign

on. \With accent lighting, fine architecture or site areasof exceptional

significanceor beauty can be brought into visual prominence.

\fell-conceived lighting gives clarity and uniry ro the overall site and to
each subareawithin it. However, poorly conceivedlighting can be dis-
cordant with a design,become a sourceof light pollution, or even creare
hazardousconditions.

Srgns
I
BAY Graphic informational systemsare closely allied with site illuminarion,
st+o?E
CI+APFL since the rwo are usually interdependentand complementary.Streetand
route lighting obviously must be planned rogerherwith the positioning
of related directional signs. Often, light standardsprovide supporr for
ord'
tLbo signsand informational symbols. Signs,like lighting, are besrdeveloped

,F
Lilhl
"+ oa,(

&$if:r

Unilywiih diver,;ilyis the key to idenlificotion

signs Shopes,';izes,ond letterforrrs moy vory
with 'he inforrr:-ionto be conveyed Moteriols
mountings,on<J:olors cre usuollystondordized lmproperhghtingis offensive
ond hozordous.

Site Deuelopment 141

 color' and
as a hierarchy, each sign being designedin terms of its size'
purpose and all existing together as
placementto best ,"ru! ir, p"rii.,rl"t
the
,.l"t.d family. \flhen the system is kept simple and standardized'
" pattern
signing givesiis own senseof order and clariry to the trafficway
and the landscapeplan.

Plonting
planting excellenceis also systematic.It articulatesand strengthensthe
or semi-
site hyJut. it developsan interrelated pattern of open, closed,
enclosed spaces,.".h ,h"p.d to suit its planned function. Planting
free-
extends topographical forms, enframes views and vistas, anchors
standing b,ritdingr, and providesvisual transitions from object to object
plrl. to p1".".. It s.ives as backdrop, windscreen, and sunshield. It
".rd casts
.h..L, winteiwinds. It catchesand channelsthe summerbrceze.It
the air,
shadow and provides shade. It absorbs precipitation, freshens
and modifies climatic extremes.

Aside from serving thesepractical functions, plants in their many forms

and varieties are also pleasing ro the eye. But even their beauty is
increasedif there is an evident reasonbehind their selectionand use'

Fine plantings, like any other fine work of design, have a fundamental
simplicity dir..rnible order. Many experiencedlandscapedesigners
"n-d

siteloyout.
orticuloteond strengthen
Plontings

142 LAND SCAPEARCHITECTURE


Edgingstrips
Povedmowingstripsof concreie, setbrick,
or stoneot low' edgescorrythewheelof on
e d g e ro n d e l i m i n o theo n dt r i m m i n g
From small-homegroundsto campus,ro
park, to large industrialcomplex,site
installationand maintenancecostscan be
reduced and performance improved by the
standardizationof all possiblecomponenrs,
materials,and equipment.Use only the
affordablebesu therein lies qualiry and
economy.
limit their plant lists ro a primary rree,shrub, and ground cover and one
to three secondary trees, shrubs, and supplementary ground cover-
grasses'herbs,or vines,with all other supporting and accentplants com-
prising no more than a small fraction of the total.
Except in urban serrings,the large majority of all plants used will be
native to the region and will thereforefit and thrive without specialcare.
Essentially,each plant used should serve a purpose, and all rogerher
should contribute to the function and expressiveness
of the plan.
Moteriols
Just asthe palette of plant materialsis limited in the main to thosewhich
are indigenous, so is it also with the marerials of consrruction. \fall
stone from local quarries seemsmost appropriate. Crushed stone and
gravels exposed as aggregare,bricks made of local clays, lumber from
trees that grow in the vicinity, and mulches made of their chipped or
shredded bark all seem right in the local scene.Even the architectural
adaptation of the natural earrh, foliage, and sky colors relatesthe con-
structions to the regional setting.
The reduction of the number of materials used to a small and selective
list lends simpliciry and uniry ro rhe planned development.
Operations
All projects must be planned to work and work efficiently. Each build-
ing and each use area of the site must operatewell as an entiry, and all
together as a well-organized complex. This can be achieved only if all
components are planned together as an integrated system.
Moinfenance
To be effective maintenance must be a consideration from the earliest
planning stages.This presupposesthat all maintenanceoperarionshave
been programmed. It also assumesthat storagefor the required materials
and equipment is provided, that accesspoints and ways are strategically
located, that convenient hydrants and electricaloutlers are installed, and
that maintenanceneedsare reduced insofar as practical.
It dso means that the number of construction materials and compo-
nents and thus the replacement inventory of items that must be kept
stocked are reduced to a workable minimum. This requiresstandardiza-
tion of light globes, bench slars,anchor bolts, sign blanks, curb tem-
plates, paint colors, and everything else. Usually, a reduction in the
quantiry of items stocked can result in improved qualiry at significant
savings.This is possible only if the maintenance operarion is planned
from the start as an efficient system or is converted to one.
Site Deuelopment 143
\A/hen the settlersbeachedtheir rough landing boats on our eastern
V V shores,they brought with them the carefully tended seeds,roots,
and cuttings of our first gardens.Our gardensnow stretch from seato
sea.For most Americans, rhe love of plants and gardening is inherent.

Those of us whose work it is to help plan our living enyironment can

learn from this. It is our hope that this feeling for plants and their care
may extend to the care of all vegetation and rhe waters and soil which
support it; that the bestof our wildernessand wild rivers may yet be pre-
served;that our vulnerable watershedsmay be reforestedand protected;
that essentialmarshesmay be restoredand reflooded; that our remain-
ing dunes may be replanted to bearberry and juniper, to fox grape and
pine, or reseededto their cover of seaoats; that our clusteredcommuni-
ties can be planned within and around an all-embracing open-space
framework of farmland and forest; and that our homes and schoolsmay
be planned as gardensand our ciries as garden parks.

Purpose
Many involved in land planning think of plants asno more than horticul-
tural adjuncts to be arrangedaround construction projects which are oth-
erwisecomplete. Nothing could be further from the ffuth. Vegerationand
existing ground cover are in fact one of the primary considerationsin the
selectionand planning of most properries.To a largeextent they establish

145
 provide wind-
the site characrer.They hold the soils, modify the climate,
use areas.
break and screen,and often define the conformation of

plants in the landscapeare either those existing in their natural habitat

plants by the
or those which have been introduced' Since established
very fact of their existencehave proved themselvesto be suited to the
the need for
,i.e it would seem logical ,o p..,."" them, at least until
who have had
their removal has beeri thoughtfully determined. Persons
know the
occasion to replace ,r.g.,",iorr, often carelesslydestroyed'
problems and costsinvolved.

care-
\rhen, however,new plantings are Prescribed,they are to be given
the
ful considerarion,fo, a singleinappiopriate plant can alter or destroy
visual qualiry of a landscapeor disrupt its ecologicalbalance.

an oth-
conversely, well-conceivedplantings can do much to transform
erwiseduil and barren site into a more useful, comfortable, and pleasant
place to be.
Slope ond wotershedProtectlon

Process
Each and every plant installed should servea predetermined purpose.It
is to be selectedasthe best of the availablealternativesto suit the specific
growing conditions and the precise design requirements, for planting
design of excellenceis a blending of scienceand art'

Windscreen
BoseMop
For overall landscapeplanting, asfor a residentialsite, school ground, or
hospital, a basepl"" the scaleof 1 inch to 10 feet, 20 feet, or 30 feet
"t
i, re.om-.nded, with I inch to 40 feet as a maximum. For detailed or
limited areas,as for a flower bed or kitchen garden, a scaleof 1 inch to

ond conopy
Overheodspocedefinition
paved areas,and existing plants to remain.

PlontSelection

Enfromemenl

eral knowledgeof its cultural requirements,including its hardiness,

preferredsoil type,acidityrange,and moisturecontent;its tolerancefor
Bockdrop sun,shade,and exposure; or its needfor Protection.

146 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURL,
 Some gardenershave an intuitive feel for such things, but for mosr the
green thumb comes only with yearsof hands-on experience.

In plant selecdon, guidebooks and catalogsare useful, but there is no

substitute for visits to a nursery or saleslot. A drive round the neighbor-
hood is helpful, roo, for it showswhat does well and looks best in vari-
ous locations. Foftunate are those who have gardening friends to whom
they may turn for counsel.

Instqllqtion
'wlth
or without a planting concept in mind, if the initial installation is
to be sizableit is usually wise to call upon the servicesof an experienced
professionalgardner or landscapearchitect for a detailed layout. There
Shcde are then severalcoursesof action. The owner may do the planting at his
or her leisure,or it may be installed in one or more phasesby a gardener
or selectedlandscapecontracror.If the installation is to be let out ro bid,
as in sizableoperarions,a complete set of plans, details, specifications,
and bidding documents will be needed.

Groundspoce,
definition Guidelines
In preparing the planting layout for garden, campus, industrial park, or
.A
new communiry the approach is much the same.The aim is to enhance
e: in all ways possiblethe routes of movement and the usableareasof the
o site. The following time-tested principles are offered as a guide.

Preseruethe existingaegetation. Streets,buildings, and areasofuse are to

be fitted amid the natural growth insofar as practicable. The landscape
continuity and scenicquality will thus be assured;the cost of site insral-

Plonreinforcen
,-nt

, 4 =,
,, ",

Scoleinductior

Crnomenlotion Preserving
noturolvegetoiion

LandscapePlanting 147
 Tne.7 \el7 r'{.tl;rl^
P€dzstnta^
*lz

Treescon define o spoce or frome o view.

lation and maintenancewill be reduced; and the structures' paved sur-

faces,and lawns will be richer by contrast'

Selecteachplant to serueitsintendedfunction. Experienced designersfirst

prepare io.rgh conceptual planting diagram to aid in making detailed
"
pl".rt ,.l...ions. The di"gr"- is usually in the form of an overlay to the
,i,. .orrrrr,rction drawings. on it are sketchedout, areaby area,the out-
lines, arrows,and notes to describewhat the planting is to achieve,asfor
example:

Light shadehere.
Screenunsightly billboard.
Cast tree silhouette on wall'
Reinforce curve of approach drive.
Use ground cover and spring bulbs in foreground'
Plant specimenmagnolia againstevergreens.
Enframe valley view.
Shield terracefrom glare of athletic field lights.
Provide enclosureand windscreen for game court'

The more complete the conceptual diagram and notes, the easierthe
plant selection,and the better the final results.

148 LAND SCAPE ARC HI TE C TURE

 Treesare the basics. If tree selection and placemenr are sound, the site
framework is well established.often, little additional planting will be
needed.

Group treesto simulate naturdl stan^. As a rule, regular spacing or geo-

metric patterns are to be avoided. Tlees in rows or grids are best reserved
for limited urban situations where a civic or monumental character is
desired.

Ue canopytreesto unifi the site. They are the most visible. They provide
the dominant neighborhood characer and identity. They provide sun
filter and shade and soften architectural lines. They provide the sparial
sl+El,o.5 roof or ceiling.

Install intermediate treesfor understoryscreening,utindbreah, and uisual

interest. They are the enframers, particularly suited ro rhe subdivision
of a larger site into smaller use areasand spaces.As a category they
include many of rhe better accenrplants and ornamenralsand may be
used as individual specimens.
tl* De ut€* 49
<pn;111) as *ni Utilize shrubs for supplementar! lou-leuel bdln and screens. They
serveaswell to provide enclosure,to reinforce pathway alignments and
nodes, to accentuatepoints and featuresof plan importance, and to fur-
nish floral and foliage display. They can also be used (sparingly) for
hedges.

Tieat uinesas netsand draperies. Various rypescan be planted to stabilize

slopesand dunes,to cool exposedwalls, or to provide a cascadeof foliage
and blossomsover walls and fences.
VINE5 ANDqTOUND COVERs

l^!' vryh*, ,4t, $ Install ground couerson the bne pkne to retain soilsand soil moisture,define
thaa1ctoog,lnqm drctduou' ,
7tu eh)4n€rA, +1167t €u4Dlf.ult paths and ttseAreAs,and prouide turf uthererequired. They are the car-
-to qnqttzs,
pets of the ground plane.
^J cov-t ,oh;"L
2Qltdt '
nol
In all extensiuetreeplantings, selecta themetree,from three tofiue support-
l
, neftnlion ing secondarytrees,and a limited palette of supplementar! species
e1e4^outu{, for special
'a"1 conditionsand fficts. This procedurehelps to assurea planting of sim-
47 iulaces
ned.ttz+im
plicity and strength.

Chooseas the dominant theme treea type that is indigenous, moderatelyfast-

grozuing,and able to thriue uith linle care. These are planted in groups,
swaths, and groves to provide the grand arboreal framework and overall
site organization.

Ue secondaryspeciesto complementtheprimary planting installation and

to drfine the site spacesof lessermagnitude. Each secondary tree rype will
be chosento harmonize with the theme ree and natural landscapechar-
acter,while imbuing each spacewith its own specialqualities.

LandscaltePlanting 149
 Supplementaryttreespeciesdre usedas dPPro?riateto demarcateor dffiren- -
tiii, arra, of"uniqui Landscape quality. The uniqueness may be that of
topograph; as ridge, hollow, upland, or marsh' It may be that of use' as
a local streetor court, a quiet gardensPace)or a bustling urban shopping
mall. Ir may be that of specialneed, as densewindscreen,light shade,or
seasonalcolor.

Gn""?,Ir'.'s 1- A,^,|"E
h4+ual +tuds
Avoid regulorsp ng-or ihe plocementof
more tho; ilo tr ln o llne Distoncesdepend
upon treelypes ond w therfree-stonding
specimenoi on inietlo d conopy is desired
NEW PANTING INSTALTATICNS
tf.r-rJ,rL lnees...
Exotic speciesare to be limited to AreAsof higb refinement. They are best
.rr.d o.rly in those situations in which they may receiveintensive care
and will not detract from the natural scene'
(Jsetreesto sheathethe trffictua\s. An effective design approach is to
plant the arterial roads oi circuiation drives with random groupings of
tr.., ,.|..t.d from the secondarylist. Local streets'loop drives, and cul-
de-sacsare transitioned in, but each is given its own particular character
with supplementary trees (and other plants) best suited to the use, the
topograPhy,and the architecture.

Giueemphasis to trfficway nodes. The intersectionsof circulation routes

)seJ ot o
oft.r, given addedprominence by the useof modulated ground forms,
"r.

4n A.{^ili^

irees(ond shrubs)ore the ploce,

lntermediote

Bockground Shodow

Treesprovideshode ond inierestolong wolks

ond bikewoys

odiocentto lrofficwoys
screenplontings
Instoll
reducenoiseond glore Silhouette. Foreground.

I50 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 @
a\
t'?',
gYoo
v
vl ao
o
Therondom;:;ocingof treesis suitedto the
noturolizedl,r'dscope-cs for porkond
recreoiionor:os ond reforestoiion
Ofteno
blendof indi;,:nous,nursery,
ond permonenl
speciesproorcesthe beststond

Oc)O
OOO
Q Q),@ Texture. Form
ooe
Thegeometri : spocingof conopytreescreotes
spocious
orclilecturol roomsThisis more
j I level,geometric
oppropriote courlyords
of
civic-monumerlcl chorocter

reserved for tl-e,urbonor builtenvironment

In lhe rno'errotL,rollondscopeon of{set, walls, fences,signing, increasedlevels of lighting, and supplemenrary
irreguiorlreeI rr: is usuolly
preferred planting.

Keepthe sight lines clearat roadwal intersections. Avoid the use of shrubs
and low-branching treeswithin the sighting zones.

Createdn attractiue roadwa! portal to eachneighborhoodand actiuit)/ cmter

The entranceplanting should be arrangedto provide a welcoming harbor
qualiry.
Keepihesightllrescleorot trofficwoy
intersections
Arrange the nee groupings to prouide uiews and expansiueopen spaces.
Plants are well used as enframersrather than fillers.

Closeor compress theplantings wherethegroundforms or structuresimpinge,

This sequential opening and closing and increasing or decreasingthe
height, densiry and width of the planting along any roure of movemenr
give added richnessand power ro the landscape.

Expand the roadsideplantings. \fhere spaceis limited, the initial land-

C r e o ' eo h o ' b r ' - l i l ee n - r o n c ep o r o l i o e o c l ^ scapeplantings and often site construction may occur outside the right-
neighborhood of-way. A landscapeor planting easementmay be required.

LandscapePlanting I 5l
 They can
Useplantings to reinforcethe alignment ofpaths and roadtaays.
help to e"plain the plan layout and give clear direction'

prouid.eshadeand.interestalong thepaths and bikewav' If made attrac-

dve, they will be used.

P l o n t sc o m b i n e dw i t h m o u n d l n gc o n h l d e or looser
Concealparking, storage,and other seruiceareas' tees, hedges'
porklngond serviceoreos walls' or
shrubs -"y bJ.tr.d Jon. or in combination with mounding,
fencing to provide visual control'

used to
consider climate control in all landscapeplanting. Plants can be
and
block winrer winds, channel rhe breeze,temper the heat of the sun'
otherwise improve the microclimate.

the visual
Complementthe topographicalforms. By skillful planting,
canbe greadyenhanced'
impa.t of the landscape

IJseplants as sPaced.efners. They are admirably suited to enclose' sub-

g l t he o r t hs h o p i n g
C o m b i n ep l o n t l nw lo creote
londscope inierest divide. oih.r*ise articulate the various functional spacesof the site
"nd

E X A M P L EB Y R E G I O N
Northern West Coast Central Southwest
Michigan Bay Area Arizona Florida
! (r, ^ )
vT 6e
Resort UniversitY Urban Park Community

T h e m eT r e e White Pine C a l . L i v e O a k W a s h i n g t o n i aL i v e O a k
Eucalyptus Palm SlashPine

,+ "(nooJ*q 7,*'^l Canary Pine Tree Wax

SecondarY Ash Olive
A"ll. a^l/- btayl< 7a1+.
Basswood Monterey A r i z o n aA s h Myrtle

Londscope constructionond ploniingcon occut Am.Beech Pine StonePine Cabbage

(R/W) where
outsideof thestreetright-of-woy
"Londscope S u g a r M a p l e White Alder Cypress Palm
spoceis llmitedond o Eosement"
provided Aspen Pistache Mahogany

Supplementary Shadblow Fl. GherrY Fruitless BlackOlive

White Birch Hawthorn Mulberry W e e p i n gF i g

MODUATION
FORMAND SPACE
Hemlock Vine Maple Sour Orange Royal

Am. Gedar lronwood Evergreen Poinciana

S t r i p e dM a p l e P l u m Pear Mangrove

Pin Cherry GrapeMyrtle Silver

Buttonwood

londforms A similorlistingis modefor sh bs,vines,ond groundcovers. theyshould

Together
Plontscre we I usedto occentuote
londscope power o co=mpotible
constitute fomily f plcnts of
expressive thesite desired.
chorocter
ond infensify

152 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 o
o

: !
o
o
o o
=

o
o

Avcid monot,, ous edges n roodsideond other

p olt ngs

o tn d
U n d u l o r i ol rnl r c t ht h eh o r i z o n tool i g n m e n
ver-icolprofl: odd lcndscope cppeo

Plontssoltenthe groundplone. Treescreoteoutdoorrooms.

P";L + fu^;^ul

and the passagewaysthat connect them. They convert use areasinto use
spaces.By their associativenature and their color, texture, and form,
they can endow each spacewith qualities aPPropriateto the use or uses
intended.
.t-;;;Te,q+l
'Drrs
' Li4l^+tu * +h'u<lue
)nA #xtu"
Plants used for backdrop, screening,shade,or sPacedefinition are gen-
'Q,ztsq €4e h @la erally selectedfor strength, cleanlinessof form, richnessof texture, and
subtlery of color. Plants to be featured are selectedfor their sculptural
I n m o s sp o r i n g se m p h o s i z et h e p o i n t sw i t h
qualities and for ornamental twigging, budding, foliage, flowers' and
d o ' n i n c n tp l , r r i so n d m o k et h e b o y r e c e d e
fruit.

Stressqualiry not quanrity. one well-selected,well-placed plant can be

more effectivethan 100 plants scatteredabout at random'

Advonces
\Within the past few yearslandscapeplanting at all levelshas undergone
a remarkablechange.This is a direct reflection of severalcultural transi-
tions such as:

Slrengthent r,,,buildingclosuresond trofficwoy

. A generalchange in the American lifesryle from the ostentatiousto
modeswith it':esof nore structurochorocter the casual,from the formal to the informal

.|53
Landscape Planting
 a
Two working-parent families with little sparerime for gardening
a
Smallerhomesitesand lack of garden space,especiallyin urban areas
a
A drastic reduction in the number of availablecarerakers,gardeners,
and maintenancepersonnel
Depletion of freshwaterreservesand limitations to irrigation

All of thesetrends have led to a reduction in the sizeof lawn and garden
areas.One appealingresult has been the expanding pracriceof conrainer
gardening. Instead of cultivated garden beds, the trend is now toward
planted 6sn12lns1s-ceramic pots, either free standing or in window
boxes,raisedstone bins, planters, or hanging baskets.

The advantagesof container plantings are many:

. They require lesstime, effoft, and expensefor installation and upkeep.

. Far lessirrigation is needed.
The floral display can be placed at strategic accent points (e.g.,
patios, entrances,or pathway intersections).
Many floral or foliage conrainerscan be taken indoors for table or
window display and appreciation.

C o n t o i n epr l o n t i n g s

Once-barren ciry streets,now tree-lined, have come alive with plants

and floral color. There may be fewer plants than in the traditionaipub-
lic gardens,but they are placed where they count.

\With lessarea and time for

gardening, the once-familiar vegetableplot
in urban areasis now nearly a thing of the past. For one rhing, it is hard
to surpassor equal the qualiry of commercially grown vegetablesso
rempringly displayed in our markets. Also, it is usually hard for the
homeowner to find space to plant even a row of lettuce. Containers
planted with parsley,thyme, and other herbs are welcome attribures
besidethe kitchen door.

154 LAND SCAPE ARC HITE C TURE

 Xeriscope
Natiue, or indigenous,plants are those
growing naturally on the sire and
historicallycharacteristicof the region.
Naturalized planfi arethose introduced
accidentally or by intent that have
accommodaredthemselvesto the growine
conditionsand becomepart oFthJlocal "
scene.
Exoticplanx are rhoseforeign to the natural
site and localiry.
our lawn areas are also shrinking. Not only has their maintenance
b:.oT: an exrravaganceand a chore-the use of our diminishing
sup-
ply of freshwater for irrigation has come into question. Even
when the
use of treated wastewarer for irrigation has been made mandatory,
it is
predicted that in time the broad sweepsof lawn (an America'
ph.rro--
enon) will become a raity.
There are three favored alternatives to the mowed lawn. The
first is
paving or more construcdon-which is reasonableonly if it serves
a good
purpose.The secondis the so-calledXeriscaperrearmenr-using
plants
that require little if any irrigation. such pl"rrtr, ranging from
cacti to a
wide selectionof tough perennialso, o.r"-.rrt"l gt"I..i may be
supple-
mented with mulches of gravel, shells,chips, o. b-k,o .r.",. ,.-".t
attractive compositions. A third alternative to the mowed lawn is "uty
the pre-
servednatural setting, with or without minor modification. In suburban
or rural settings with thriving natural growth this is often much
to be
preferred. It is relatively mainten"r..-fr.., and it is less expensive to
establish.It "belongs" ro rhe site and is obviously compatible. it prorrides
refreshingcoolnessin summer and a welcome windbieak in winrer.
In all thesewaysand morewill the landscape
plantingsof the future differ.
LandscapePlanting 155
\;N
$I-r-ii
ry;TT

rt* n r , r - d i r r t t l t s i o t t .Li tl r ' p l . t r r r r i r t\q\ \ ' . l l c L ( ) l ) L c n l ( (r{r t r h t l e l l n i r

lrr
I r r l c a se n t i t i r u - i r c l . r u o n s l r i po n c r ( ) , r n o r h c ra n d t o t h c t o r a l s i r c .l n
cievelopingthe conceptu;ll plan, :rtt('rltion is ccntelcci rlp(ln rhe trrlll L
o f r h e a r e a si n t o f l n c t i o r r i n g v o l L r n r c sL. . r c l ' rv o h r m c ( ) l ' s j ) : r c ei s c ( )
i n s i z e ,s h a p c ,n r a t c r i a i ,c : c i l o rr.c . r r u r c ,a n . 1o r h e r - q u a l i r i t st o b e s :
tnodatc :rnc{ express irs purPosc. It can Llc said r1'r,rr1,1111111i11"
clitnensiritra.l;
drrec-clirnension;rlthinking takesus inro thr Lealmol:

Spoces
I t , 4 u c ho i t h c l u t
i . u l ds c i e n c e, , 1 - l a n i lp l a n n i n g i s r c r - e a l ci r o r h e .tnIt crr
i,'hcn it is tl rsr rcalizcii thrrr onc is rl.-:aliuqnor rvit[-ri].rcilsir'.rtwith l ) a c e s ,
liS lur exanlpie. the piavqrorLnclconrl.lostrclrii'plav cquiir ncnt sct ,LL)()Lll
on a dull basc planc has little chilcl appeai, rvhilc the samc apirirratu.s
l r r a n g c d r , ,i r h i r - r. r g r o r i p i n q o i i n r a g i n a t i r . ep l e v s p : r c e sc . t n p r o v r i ; c n d -
l c s sh r l r - t t so 1 - c l e l i g h i i.t i s r r m : r t t c r o f " d e s i g n i n qt h c v o i u r n c t r i c c n ( l ' r s u r e
a n c l s p a t i a l i r r t c r c o n L r c c r i o t ' tros s u r t t h c n s c .

i n t h c s a m cv e i n , a h i g h r v a l i s r n o t ' t h a t r i r r i b b o n o f p u \ r . ' I r c l r t t i r v e r s -
i r r g t h c b a - , e r ; r i a n cA. p l o p e l l v . l e s i g n e c ih i g h r v a v i s c t , t r c e i v e dr r i s oi n
terms of-volulnes--()pen rn'here,slft'r.isiclrrand prlcasirrt"it,'\\'-\so c rrtarc,
c l o s c d f o r s , - r e c n i n g .r . l r i c c l i r r i r s s p a r i a l c ' o n f o r m r r t l o r t . ( )p r - o ' , ' i , 1itn -
t c ' r e . sar n c i r c l i e f f r , r t r f a r i g t r c . ; i r r r -tl r o c l L t i a t c dt o r c r " e , r i: i r e e m b r , r c i n q
i a n c l r c a p c j t r t i r c l r c s t p , r s s i l r l c* ' a t . l ' h e s u p e r i o r l i i g r i v r u . n ' i ] i b c a
r'rAf y: iq Ki r Des grr
l e , r n c lc , l n t r a c t i n q , v u r ii i . , r n r c crl < , i t t n . t c
- . c i c n r i f i c a l l r ' c o n t r i r r c r le, x P a n t i n

157
 safely' and.freely while
through which motorists may move. speedily'
relaxedand happy'and'
enjoying a highwayscapedesignedto keep them
at the sametime, alert.

buildings lined
A ciry is not ar best a heterogeneousconglomeration.of
is perceived.asan evolving
out i; a rigid grid pattern; a riell-planned city
More than the build-
.o-pori,i"o., Jf ,,r.r.,rrres and interrelated spaces'
they define th:Ltgive
ir-rgr,it is the form and characterof the oPen spaces
fact of otLr dis-
^Zry its essentialquality. Perhapsthe most disturbing
arrangedas in a wall
t,rrblrrg American cities is that most structuresare
".o.tr,ricted
ciry streets rather than grouped around traffLc-free
"iorrg
courts, squares'and plazas.

spacesfor usesof
The creation of well-o rganizedinterior and exterior
any type and scopeis our goal as environmental designers'

Spoceis definedby the bose,verticol,ond overheodplones

Peopleliue on the earth, on the land, but in
thr)e-dimensionalair-space,the atmospheric
uolume,immediatelTabouethis land surface.
Plansand land-use'mapsmay be measured
diagrammaricallyand abtractly in square
is
foorogeand acreage.b.utspaceforliuing
'measured
in cubage.in uolumesof air-space
enclosedor organizedwith tangiblephysical
elements.. . .
The exlerienceof beinr within fine three-
dimensioialspatialuoluitesis oni of rhe
greatestexperiencesof life.
Gqrrett Eckbo
SpotiolImpoct
volumes have been designedfor the intended purpose of torturing the
occupanrs.It has been t"id th"t during the SpanishCivil'War an archi-
rect was ordered to devisesuch a chamber. He developeda translucent'
polyhedron of sharply intersecting planes-an insidious enclc'surein
which a locked-in victim found himself unable to lie, sit, stoop, or kneel
without tilting or tumbling the cubicle. The surfaceswere slippery,
burning hot in rhe sun, and frigid in the cold of night. In any light, the
colors were distressingif seen alone; seen together, in their discordant
clashing,they soon becamemaddening.
If it is possibleto devisedistressingvolumes, then' conversely,ir should
also be possible to createvolumes that yield an experienceof pleasure.
\We may recall a favorite golf course fairway as such an agreeablespace.

I58 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 Fxpansive, free, and undulating, it is open to the sky, enclosedwith
foliage, and carpetedwith turf.

An outdoor spaceof far different mien is the cascadeapproach andplaza

of New York's Rockefeller center. It is walled by a ianyon of metal,
masonry,and glassand has a baseof cut stone and terrazzo;its overhead

Tension

to wander through sunlight and dappled shade,viewing the pools and

sculpture.

There will come to mind, upon reflecion, many other similarly pleasant
site spaces-a picnic spot on some lakeshore,a sradium, a public square,
Reloxotion
a residentialswimming pool and garden. By analysis,we find that all are
pleasantbecause,and only because,in size,shape,and characterthey are
manifestly suited to the purposesfor which they were intended.

As an instructive exercise,we might list the abstractqualities or spatial

characteristicsof a seriesof varying volumes, each designedto induce a
predetermined response:

Tension. unstable forms. Split composition. Illogical complexities.

\fide range of values. Clash of colors. Inrense colors without
relief.Visual imbalanceabout a line or a point. No point at which
the eye can rest. Hard, polished, or jagged surfaces.Unfamiliar
elements. Harsh, blinding, or quavering light. Uncomfortable
temperaturesin any range. Piercing,jangling, jittery sound.
Fright
Relaxation. Simpliciry. Volumes varying in size from the intimate
to the infinite. Fitness. Familiar objects and materials. Flowing
lines. Curvilinear forms and spaces.Evident strucrural stabiliry.
Horizontaliry. Agreeable rextures. Pleasant and comfortable
shapes.Soft light. Soothing sound. Volume infused with quiet
colors-whites, grays,blues, greens."Think round thoughts."
Fright. Sensedconfinement. An apparent rrap. A qualiry of com-
pression and bearing. No points of orientation. No means by
which to judge position or scale.Hidden areasand spaces.Possi-
Goieiy bilities for surprise.Sloping, nvisted, or broken planes. Illogical,
unstable forms. Slippery, hazardousbaseplane. Danger. Unpro-
tected voids. Sharp, protruding elemenrs.Contorted spaces.The
unfamiliar. The shocking.The starding. The weird. The uncanny.
Symbols connoting horror, pain, torture, or applied force. The
dim, the dark, the eerie, the brutal. Pale and quavering ot con-
versely,blinding garish light. Cold blues, cold greens.Abnormal,
Contemploiicr monochromatic color.
,|59
Site Volumes
 Gaiety. Free spaces'Smooth, flowing forms and patterns-'Loop-
ing, tumbling, swirling motion accommodated' Lack of restric-
tions. Formr, .olorr, and symbols that appeal to the emotions
rather than to the intellect. Temporal. casual. Lack of restraint.
Pretenseacceptable.The fanciful applauded.'$v'arm,bright col-
ors. Sparkling, shimmering, shooting, or glowing light' Exuber-
ant, lilting sound.
Contemplatiln. Scale not important since subjectswill withdraw
i.rto ih.i, own sensedwell of consciousness. Total spacemild and

D y n o m i co c t i o n
Drynamicaction. Bold forms. Heary, structural cadence.Solid mate-
love
Sensuous
Sensuoisloue. Complete privacy.Inward orientation of room. Sub-
Sublime spiritual awe. Overwhelming scalethat transcendsnormal
S u b l i m es,p l r i t u o w
l e
Displeasure. Frustrating sequencesof movement or revelation.
Wemust createpoolsof stillness,areasof
entrancement;and thepurposeof theseis not
from life-euen the uibrant life
to escape
createdby the neu sourcesofenergythat
characteiizeour modernciuilization-but to
enjoyrrfe in itsprofoun*tt;{:t(r:rrerr
Reod
unpretentious. No insinuating elemenrs.No distractionsof sharp
.orr.r"r,. Symbols, if used, should relate ro subject of contempla-
tion. Spaceproviding a senseof isolation, privacy, detachment'
securiry p."... soft, diffused light. Thanquil and recessive
"rrd
colors. If sound, a low muted stream of sound to be perceived
subconsciously.
rials such asstone, concrete,wood, or steel.Rough, natural textures.
Angular planes.Diagonals.The pitched vertical. concentration of
int.r.rt on focal point of action' asto rostrum' rallying point, or exit
gare through which the volume impels one. Motion induced by
I*..pittg li-irr.s,,hooting lights, and climactic sequencesof form'
p",a.rrr,Ld sound. Strong, primitive s61615-61lrnson,scarlet,and
y.llo*-or"rrge. Billowing banners. Burnished standards. Martial
music. Rush of sound. Ringing crescendos.crash of brass.Blare of
trumpets. The roll and boom of drums.
ject the focal point. Intimate scale. Low ceiling. Horizontal
planes. Fluid lines. Soft, rounded forms. Juxtaposition of angles
.rr,r.r. Delicate fabrics. voluptuous and yielding surfaces.
"rd
Exotic elemenrsand scent.Soft, rosy pink to golden light. Pulsat-
ing, titillatingmusic.
h.rrn"., experience.Soaring forms in contrast with low horizontal
forms. A volume so contrived as to hold one transfixed on a broad
baseplane and lift one'seyesand mind high along the vertical. ori-
entation upward to or beyond some symbol of the infinite. Com-
plete compositional order, often symmetry. Highly developed
i.q,r.rr..r. Use of costly and permanent materials.Connotation of
the eternal.use of chastewhite. If color is used,the cool detached
colors, such as blue-greens,blue, and violet. Diffused glow with
shaftsof light. Deep, full, swelling music with lofry Passages.
Areasand spacesunsuited to anticipareduse.obstacles. Excesses.
Undue friction. Discomfort. Annoying textures.Improper use of
materials.The illogical. The false.The insecure.The tedious.The
blatant. The dull. The disorderly.Disagreeablecolors. Discordant
sounds. Uncomfortable temperature or humidity. Annoying
lights. That which is ugly.

160 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
From its hollowness
arisesthe realityof the
uesse/;
from itsemptyspacearisestie reatiryof
the outldxn{.
Loo-fse

A^creation in spaceis an interweauing of parx ships.A resultant qualiry of beaury.

orsPace.. .
L6szl6 Moholy-Nogy
If we were to list the requisites of the ideal spacefor each of a seriesof
Architecture. . . is the beauilful and serious varying uses, we might be amazed ar the variery of suggested spatial
game of spact characteristics and ar the degree of precision with which the character-
Willem Dudok
istics can be defined. A childt play lot, for example,would be designed
as a Lilliputian wonderland of induced acrion, shrieks, and squeals.
Intriguing forms, a rich variety of rexrures,and bright splashesof color
would be right, for children have an acutely developed tactile senseand
a love of shapesand primitive hues.Their play spacemight well be vari-
formed with tunnels, obsacles, baffles, movable objects, and things to
climb over, under, and through. It should be a place of strong conrrasrs;
sun to shadow, smooth to rough, bright to dull, open ro closed, and high
to low. A well-designed play lot for a child gives full play to imagination.
- fl] It is in itself a plaything conducive ro excitement and rollicking delight.

A spacefor private outdoor dining would have an entirely different set

of criteria. As a volume it should be simple in shape,intimate in size,
and refined in texture and detail. It should be shaped to invite repose.It
should createa sereneand pleasantatmosphereconducive to conversa-
tion. For the poinr of highest inreresr,it might well focus on the surface
of the table and the facesof the diners poised above it. It should be a
casualspaceof studied subtleties.As can be imagined, if the child's play
activitieswere to be transposedto a spacesuch as has been describedfor
dining, the child would soon become restive.If, on rhe other hand, the
diners were moved to the spacedesigned as a play lor, we could in time
expect no lessthan nervous collapseor chronic indigestion.

SpafiolQuolities
The essenceof a volume is its qualiry of implied conrainmenr.

A confined spacemay be static, inducing repose.It may direct and con-

centrateinterest and vision inward. The whole sparialshell may be made
seeminglyto contract and bear down, to engendera feeling of intensiry
or compression.

Alternatively, a spacemay open out. It may direct amention to its frame

and beyond. It may fall away or seemto expand. It may seem to bursr
outward. It may impel oulward motion to its perimeter and to more dis-
tant limits.

A space may be flowing and undulating, suggesting directional move-

Thequolities
of spoce ment. A spacemay be developed to have its own sufficient, satisfying

Site Volumes 1 61
 a setting
qualities. It may apPearcomplete within itself-or incomplete'
for personsor objects.

A spacemay be in effect a Yacuum.

A spacemay have expulsivepressure.

A spacemay dominare an object, imbuing the object with its particular

it
,p"ii"l qualities. Or it may be dominated by the object, drawing from
somethingof its nature.

A space may have orientation inward, outward, upward, downward'

radial, or tangential.

A spacemay be developedas an optimum setting for an object or envi-

ronment for a given use.

A spacemay be designedto stimulatea prescribedemotional reactionor

to produce a predeterminedsequenceof such responses'

o
o
o
-
,.e
E
o

Active public spoce Possiveorivote sooce.

162 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 A spacemay relateto an object or another spaceand gain its very mean-
ing from the relationship. It may relateto vista or view, the rising or ser-
ting sun, a sunlit slope, the starlit sky, or the welcome evening breeze.

A complex spaceassumesto a degreethe qualities of its component vol-

umes and should relate them into a unified entiry.

Spacesmay vary from the vast to the minute, from the light and ethereal
to the heavy and ponderous, from the dynamic to the calm, from the
crude to the refined, from the simple ro rhe elaborate, and from the
somber to the dazzling.In their size, shape, and character they may .vary
endlessly.Clearly, in designing a spacefor any given function, we would
do well first to determine those qualities mosr desirableand then to do
our best to provide them.

The Japanese,in their landscapedesign, have learned to develop sparial

volumes of such intrinsic human scaleand personalizedcharacter that
the spacescan be satisfiedonly by the presenceof the person or persons
for whom they were conceived. The Abbot's Garden of Nikko, for
instance, is complete only when the abbot and his followers are seared
sedately on the low, broad terraces or are wandering comtemplatively
among the gnarled pine trees or beside the quiet ponds. The imperial
Squot Shinjuku Gardens, once sublimely beautiful and faultlessly groomed,
Eot seemedsomehow incomplete exceptin the emperor'spresence.The con-
Yok
'n' temporary American family home and garden as a well-designedunit to
Rock roll
Theyodelinqthree provide a balancedcomposition of interior and exterior spacesneedsfor
Growlot thepriceof fish its fulfillment the famlly members and friends for whom it was created.

f^ I SpotiolSize
Planned spacesare usually considered only as they relate to humans.
Sit
Paddocks,corrals,dog runs, canarycages,and elephant traps are excep-
Dine tions, but even these are best conceivedwith more than fleeting atten-
Iolk tion to the habits, responses,and requirements of the proposed
Fox-trot
occupants. Thke the elephant trap, for instance. Few architects
[ightopero
(-^-^^.o r., milan^a. approach their planning with a keener awarenessof their client's traits
than the native builder who directs the construction of the stout tim-
ber and rattan enclosure for the trapping and training of wild ele-
phants. The canary cage, too, with its light enframement, seed cups,
swinging perches, and cuttlebone, is a volume contrived with much
thought for the well-being of the canary.In planning spacesfor people,
it seemsplausible that their accommodation and happinessshould be
of as great a concern to the planner as those designedfor the bird and
Be seoled the pachyderm.
Bonquet
Converse
It is well known that the sizeof an interior spacein relation to people has
Woltz
Symphony a strong effect on their feelingsand behavior.This fact may be illustrated
Discuss
word iroderelotions graphically in the accompanyingdiagrams.

,|63
Site Volumes
 Exterior spaceshave similar psychologicalattributes. On an open plain,
timid persons feel overwhelmed, lonesome, and unprotected; left to
their own devices,they soon take off in the direction of shelter or kin-
dred spirits. Yet, on this sameplain, bolder personsfeel challengedand
impelled to action; with freedom and room for movement thev are
prone to dashing, leaping, yahooing. The level base plane not only
accommodatesbut also induces mass action, as on the polo field, the
football field, the soccerfield, and the racetrack.

If, upon this unobstructed surface,we set an upright object, it becomes

an element of high interest and a point of orientation for the visible
field. \Weare drawn to it, cluster about it. and come to rest at its base. No
small factor in this natural phenomenon is the human atavistictendency
to keep one'sflanks protected.A vertical plane or wall givesthis protec-
tion and suggestsshelter.

Increased protection is afforded by two intersecting upright planes.

They provide a corner into which our subject may back and from u'hich
he or she can survey the field for either attacker or quarry. Additional
vertical planesdefine more corners and spacesthat may be further con-
trolled by the introduction of overheadplanes.Such spacesderive their
sizeand shapeand degreeof enclosurefrom the defining planes,acting
togetherand counteracting.

A volume may be stimulating, or it may be relaxing.It may be immense,

suggestingcertain uses,or it may be confining, suggestingothers. In any
event, we are attracted to those spacessuited to our purpose, be it hik-
'We
ing, target shooting, eating grapes,or making love. are repelled by,
or at least have little interest in, those spaces
that appear to be unsuited
to the usewe have in mind.

tX/hateuerweperceiueas "beauty"in nature is

neuer,and in no way,an addition to what we
'utility."
perceiueas All organicshapeand
detail dependclearlyupon structureitself,and
neuercAnthey be loohedupon as decoratiue
adjunct.
Richord J. Neutrq

Spocescon be creoted by the ouro of people or octivities.

164 LAND SCAPEARCHI TECTURE


Ploto
I shall defin,zbeautyto be a harntonyof all the
Parts, in wltatsoeuersubject it appears,fitted
togetheruitit suchprop-ortioniid coniection,
rhar nothing rculd be added,diminished or
abered, but fi,r the u.,orse.
Leon Boftisto Alberti
Blue and gree'nare tlte colorsof the heauens,
tlte sea,the/ruiful plain, the shadowof the
Southernnoln, the euening,tlte remote
mountains.'I'heyare essentiallyatmospheric
and not substrtntialcolors.Theyare cold, they
disembody,and theyeuobeimpressions of
expanseand distanceand boundlessness.
Biue . . . alu,a.ys standsin relation to the darh,
the unillumined, the unactual.It doesnot
pressin on us, it pulls us lut into the remote.
An "enchanttngnothingness"Goethecallsit in
/zi Farbenlehre.
Blue and greenAre trAnscendent,
spiritual,
nonsensuous, cohrs . . . yellou.,and red, the
classicalcolors,are tbe iolors of tbe material,
tlte nean rhe fiill-blooded. Rei is tbe
cbaracteristiccolor of sexuality-hence it is
the only color rhat worksupon tbe beasts.h
rnatchesbesttl:ephallus symbol-and
thereforethe ;tatue and the Doric column-
but it ispure hlue that etberealizesthe
Madonnals /ltantle. This relation of colorshas
establishedir; euerygreat schoolaia deepfett
necessity. Violet, a red succumbingto blue, is
the color of u,omenno longerjiuiful and of
priests liuing in celibacy.
Yellowand red are tbepopular colors,the
colorsof the roud, of children, of utomen,
and of sauages. Among the Venetiansand the
Spaniardshiglt personages fficted a splendid
blach or blue, tuith an unconscious senseof the
aloofnes inhscnt in rhesecolors.. . .
Oswold Spengler
Some spacesare person-dominated,controlled in sizeby such factors as
the reach of one's arm or the turning radius of one's car. other spaces
dominate us. The visitor to rhe Grand canyon is brought into relation
to the dizzying heights and yawning depths in such away as to thrill at
their maximum impacr. On the Blue Ridge Parkway in Virginia we are
intentionally brought to rhe precipice edge.Again, on some narrow pas-
sagewayone is thrust like an ant against the vasr, empry dome of the sky.
Mysterious Stonehengein England, a greatcircle of spacecarved out of
the moors with massivestone posts and lintels, is a dramatic reminder
that even neolithic people knew the power of the spaceto inspire and
humble humans. It would seem that they must have sensedthat one's
soul is stretched by the feeling of awe and one's heart revitalized by the
experienceof abject humiliry.
Between the micro- and macrospaceswe may plan spacesof an infinite
range in size.The volumetric dimensions should never be incidental.
SpotiolForm
It has been said that, ideally,in design,form follows function. This state-
ment is more profound than it seems.It is open to argument unlesswe
assume that aesthetic and intellectual considerations are an inherent
aspectof function. -What all this meansis that any object, space,or thing
should be designedas the most effectivemechanism for doing the job at
hand; moreover,it should look it. If the designercan achievean actual
and apparent harmony of form, material, finish, and use, rhe object
should not only work well but also be pleasantro see.Let us take a sim-
ple example.An ax handle has for its purposethe transmissionof the full
power of the wieldert stroke to the cutting edgeof the blade.A superior
handle, by long tradition, is made of selectedstraight-grained,seasoned
ashwith just the right degreeof toughnessand flexibiliry. It is shapedto
the grip and butted to prevent slipping. From the grip it swells in a
suong force-delivering,shatter-resistanrcurve of studied thickness and
length. Vhen the tapered helve is fitted and wedged at precisely the
right angleto the head, the ax is in perfect balance,lies well in the hands,
and is good to use. It is also good to look at. To the experienceduser ir
is truly an object of beaury.
If shown a new ax with a handle made of plastic, the wooden ax-handle
user would probably be incredulous; a shaft that had no grain and
looked like glasssurely couldnt be trusted. It would appearincongruous
and ugly. If, however, one came to learn by experiencethat the new han-
dle was in all ways superior, it would come in time to be admired, and
no ax with a wooden handle could ever seemquite as admirable again.
A sloop is a vesseldesignedto utilize the driving force of the wind. In the
superior sloop the hull is fastidiously shaped to cleavethe waves,slide
buoyantly through the wateq and leave a smoothly swelling wake; the
Site Volumes 165
 proposed,"Beauty is truth, truth beaury'"

SpotialColor

surfacesadapt their hue from the recessiveplanes of the landscape-

o
e !
P

j
E
o !
j

= = E
o
o E
o
p

LOrflOOr SpOCeS

166 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 such as sunlit foliage, distant hills, or the sky as it nears the horizon.
Possive ceiling colors recall the airinessof the sky and range from deep cerulean
blue or aqueousgreensto misry cloud whites or sofr grays. Landscape
--.-*\I
architectsfound that this resredtheory of nature adaptation applies as
well to the use of materials,textures,and forms.
Unstoble

1^/4./\\,.J+_ There are, of course,many other theories and systemsof color applica-
tion. One would keep the volumetric enclosure neutral, in shadesof
Positive,bold, forceful Tenuous,uncertcin, gray,white, or black, and let the objectsor personswithin the spacethus
woveflng glow with their own subtle or vivid colors. Another calls for infusing a
spaceor coloring a form with those hues and values that, alone or in
-at'^ ft\
\ [^- q combination, produce a prescribed intellectual-emotional response.
Primitive,simple,bold Effusive Given a basic color theme, this approach modulates harmonious over-
tones to soothe, contrasting ones to give interest and emphasis.Another
systemmanipulates spacesand objectswithin those spacesby the stud-
-\-\_,/
\ ied application of recessiveand dominant valuesand hues.
Jogged,brutol, hord, Curvilineor,tender.
vigorous,mosculine, soft, pleosont,
picturesque feminine,beoutiful
A familiar and sound practice of interior designersis to pse a dominant
graphic, weaving,or orher object asthe chromatic theme fiece of a space
and selectall colors, vivid or pale, to recall and accenruare'ir.
Decreosing, Increosing,exponding
controcting Yet another would determine for any given areaor structure one appro-
priate color which, running through the whole, could be used as a uni-
6 ( ' ) f I
fying trunk. All other colors would be, to this trunk, its branches,fwigs,
___-^ - leaves,flowers, and fruit. Such a scheme can be likened ro the overall
*.] \-/
coloration of the willow tree, the oak, or sassafras-or to the blending
In motion Meondering,cosuol,
reloxed,interestinq, hues of the clouded mountainside or river valley.All featuresor scenes
humon observedin nature have, without exception, their own harmonious sys-
tem of coloration. In the creation of meaningful spaces,the knowledge-
:::: able handling of color is essential.
Flowing,rolling Formol,priesily,
imperious,dogmotic
AbstractSpofio/Expression
--^\/-\._.- ^^A/b 'We
have learned that just as abstract design characteristicsmay be sug-
Indecisive,weok Progressive gestedby a given landscapetype, so may they be suggestedby a proposed
use as well. The spatial requirements of a cemetery, for instance, would
.7n
t
/ hardly resemblethose of an amusement park.'We come to rhe amusemenr
NVllt'lV //rA\
\tf-/Jl
\i,/
--r' \
\ park for a laugh, for a shock, for a change, for relief and escapefrom
Indirect,plodding Concentroling, ordered roudne. \fe want to be fooled, and we delight in confusion and
ossemolrng
distorted, contorted, ridiculous shapes.\(e seekthe spectacular,the spin-
ning, tumbling, looping, erratic motion. \7e love the roller coasterkflash
ll
tl and roaring crescendo,the brassyclashof cymbals, the jarring sock-ring-a-
Direci,sure,forceful, Opposing ling-ting of the tambourines, the rap of the barker's hammer, and the
with purpose
raucous honlcy-tonk. -We thrill to color as gaudy as greasepaint,as garish
as scarlet and orange tinsel, as raffish as dyed feathers,gold sequins, and
ryVW4 * rainbow-hued glitter. \7e expect the scare,the bofi the flirt, the come-on,
Excited,nervous, Opposingwith friction the tease,and the taunt. All is gay tumult; all is for the moment; all is
iittery
h"ppy illusion. \7e acceptmaterials as cheap and as temporary as bunting
Abstroct
linee;<pression and whitewashed two-by-fours. Everything is a surprising, attracting,

Site Volames 167

 diverting, winding, exPanding, contracting' arresting' amusing' tumul-
tuous cirnivl If we wanr a successfularnusementpark, this
"triorph.re.
atmosphereis cr.ated. \7e musr createir with all the planned whoop-de-
doo spatial zis-boom-bah that we can conjure into being. This is not
"nd
only desirable;it is indispensable.Here, order and regimentation arewrong'
ani the starelyavenueor rhe handsome mall would be in fatal error.

How different are the spatialrequirementsof a cemetery!Here we would

expect the volumes to be serenelymonumental, spacious,and beautiful'
--J-1- -
\X/ewould expectenveloping enclosureto provide protection and imply
solid,strong
Structurol, Nonslructurol,
fluid, soft detachedseclusion.The entrance gates,like the prelude to an anthem'
I would give theme to the sPaceswithin, for theseare the earthly gatesto
stoble / paradise.\7e enter here in our moments of most poignant sorrow to
Unstoble t.rty th. dead in solemn ceremony' as from time's beginning'
I
I
I The horizontol-eorthy, \7e come in grief seekingthat which will give solaceand comfort. The
Theverticol-noble, colm,mundone. spadal charactermight well suggestPeacefulquietude in terms of subtle
dromotic,inspirotionol, sotisfied
h"r-oni., of form and rexture.Troubled and questioning, we seekhere
reassuranceand order. Order as a sPadalqualiry is effectedby evidence
oflogical progressions,visual balance,and a regular cadenceofplan or
Refined

.----_t------u
sequentialreYelation.
Smooth,swelling,
Ar'AJ..\AMTLA sliding Humbled and distraught by the presenceof death,we would orient our-
Rough,rosping, selvesto some superior power. The presenceof divine power may be sug-
groting
Stotic,focol, fixed gestedin plan form and by symbol. A sensitivevariation of the classicaxial
ir."r-.ni that so compellingly relateshumans to the concept has no bet-
_5__r__J1__r_
Dynomic rer application than here.There may alsobe breathtaking vistasand sweeP-
Logicol,
,plonned,
oroeny ing rri.*r, aslong asvistasand views are in keeping with the sacredand the
sublime.

At those thoughtfully selectedplan areaswhere an inspirational qtrality is

Follino.pessimistic,
d"f.otEi, depressed to be concentratedor brought to culmination we might use the verticals
that eflect an uplift of the spirit. A simple crossof white marble lifted
tI
Rising,optimistic.
noppy
successrul, Rise,ottoinmentwith
effort, improvement

Aft'^^- I
Regressive
Foll,sinkingwithout
effort,degenerotion
I
(6)
\ Broken,interrupted,
fleeing
Dispersing, severeo

)<
crossing
Connecting,
,o.oll[f,-*,nn *,,h
normony

,l
\
Diverging,dividing Growing, developing ArlingtonNotionolCemetery. Memoriol.
VietnomVeterons

I68 LIINDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 against the clouds may evoke in the viewer an emotional responseof great
satisfaction and spiritual meaning.

-We seek here a fitting and final resting place for those whom we have
loved. In design, this concept is translatedinto terms of the eternal and
the ideal. The eternal may be suggestedby the timelessfeaturesof the
Complexfor exciiement,
diversion,curiosily,sur
landscape-the moss, the fern, the lichened rock, the sun, the grove of
prise,inducedmovement gnarled and venerableoaks, the gently sloping summit of a hill. Materi-
als such as marble, granite, and bronze will be selectedto endure.

Idealism may be expressedthrough the creation of those spacesand those

high art forms that will instill the conviction that here in this sacredplace
the living and the dead are truly in the presenceof their God.
Enclosure
nry be effectively
impliedby strong
demorcotion
of the boseplone In like manner, any such functional places and spaceswe may name-
the shopping center, the summer camp, the amphitheater-will imme-
6 diately bring to mind desirablespatialcharacteristics.
These, it should be
\:7 apparent,are fundamental to the design.
Simp/eenclosurefor concentrotion
on ideo,
form, ond cle;loil
Elements
of Contoinment
/a
w In a large measure,all spacesacquire their being and characterfrom the
elements that contain them. Becauseeach element so used will imbue
Confinedfor reloxotionond inducedrepose.
the spaceto some degreewith its own qualities, ir must be well related
not only to all other such elements but also to the essentialresultant
character desired for the space.
I
{ Lines, forms, colors, textures, sounds, and odors all have certain pre-
fr
dictable impacts on the human intellectual-emorional responses.If, for
f.f
example,a certain form or color saysor does things to the observer,this
is reasonenough to employ such a form or color in the shaping of those
structures,objects, or spacesthat are to convey this message.Surely,if
Open and tee for inducedoctionond the abstractexpressionof a given line violatesthe proposedexpressionof
exuberonce
structure, object, or space,it should be used only with studied intent.
Every line evident in the form or planes has its own connotation. This
must be in keeping with the intended nature of the space.

Definitionof Volumes
The orientals have long understood that to have significanr spacesyou
must have definitive enclosure and that the size, shape, and characrer of
the enclosuredetermine the quality of the space.Openness,void, and
Volumes
moy,be contrived
to importspecificpre-
determined
emotionolond intellectuol
imoocts mere expanseare not enough; they may be only emptiness.

Functions
of verticol
responses
enclosure
]nducedhumon
vo'y withthelpe ond degreeof
enclosure
Outdoor volumes may be of infinite scope,limited only by the horizon,
or they may be as finite as the spacebetween two cedar fronds. In shap-
ing outdoor volumes the designeris not as limited as in architectural or
I
engineeringconstruction by materials,forms, or sizes.One may employ

Site Volumes 169

 not only the full rangeof fabricatedmaterialsbut also all the materialsof
nature. A seasidevolume may be formed naturally of shell-strewnbeach,
a wind-battered tangle of wild seagrape,rolling surf, and luminous sky.
A sophisticatedurban park spaceframed by apartment towers on the
ayenuemay be further defined by a pavementof sawedslatein a partern,
clipped yew, tubbed oleanders,spun-brassfountain bowls, glazed tiles,
and illuminated water.

Exterior spacemay be as loosely defined as by sand, the open sk1',and

the foliage of quaking aspen.Or an outdoor spacemay be tightly con-
trolled 6y terrazzo mosaic pavement, polished marble walls, carved
Whereflowsore light,obsorpiion by lown, mahogany panels,tinted glass,ceramicmurals in rich patterns,and gaily
p l o n t i n go,r m u l c h em
s o yb e s u f f i c i e n t colored canopiesof fabric. All exterior volumes, controlled or free, are
formed of three volumetric elements: the baseplane, the ouerheadplane,
u)al! .oi14 and the uertical spacediuiders.
6',fr;' la.1;{t S;,1 4o,
----=-;=- /
TheBosePlone
Drives wolf s, ond bicycle potts o'e often used The baseplane is closelyrelated to the arrangementof use areas,for it is
os orornogewoys
on this volumetric floor that we are most concernedwith use.\fhat we
seewhen we look at a project plan is what will be laid our on the base
plane. It will establishnot only the kinds of use but also the plan rela-
tionship of each use ro all others.
lf flows ore to be heovy the poving is .rode
concove in section The baseplane surfaceis often the natural surfaceof the earth.'With its
topsoil strata, ranging from thin to deep, its soil moisture and fertiliry
ff and its cover of plants, this plane is veritably the baseof all life. The wise
ffi planner will never disturb or modify the natural ground surfacewithout
reason.Any modifications made will be those that implement the pro-
posed usewhile protecting the quality of the project site.

The generalcomposition of the earth plane is mineral, ranging in hard-

nessfrom granite, limestone, and shaleto the clays,loam, and sand.The
supporting strength and stability of the soil strata depend not only on
Or better,
wherewidthpermits,thepovingis the nature of each but also on its angle of inclination, the presenceof
crownedwi-hdroinogeio o swoleor gutero' water, and its relation to the other strata and the surface.Appearances
theside
are deceptive;deceptionsare ofren disastrous.Nfhen the degreeofsup-
port and stability are of consequence,rhe soil types and load-bearing
%wd
capacitiesare to be determined by rest pits or core borings.

Soils and the moisture and frost they retain are powerful eroders and
corroders.From the structural point ofview, extremecaremust be taken
in the selectionof materialsthat are placed on or make contact with the
earth. In consideringourdoor spaces,we associatewith the ground plane
such natural construction materials as rock, gravel, and sand and such
In recreotion
courts,os elsewhere,thedroinoqe constructed materialsas brick, concrete,asphalt,and ceramic tile. These
plonesore reloredto theove.olloesigr seem compatible. Most other materials, including untreated wood or
The Bose Plone uncoated metals, are subject to rapid decayor rusr.

I70 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
Theboseplone
estob|shes
the
volumetric
oreo
d""llr1

-"J'
€4Y
qrL""l
Biltn;qur
Caaela

oifuiya"u'
Thesize,shope,ond texture of thebose
ore designedto expressthe use a{l {orl

Usessuggested by differentiotion
of
surfocemoieriols

Withino givenoreosurfoce moteriols,

potterns,
ond colorsdefinethe
oppropfloleuse

a^J P^L^1

Usesdefinedby delineotion
Bosesurfocesrongefromfluidto rigid THEBASEPIANEISTHEPLANE OF USF

It is on the base plane that we establish our trafficways. They are best
aligned in compliance with the eartht natural conformation. To violate
the land is to incur expensivecuts and fills and require cosdy drainage
structures. Moreover, on the disturbed surface areas a dght-knit cover
must be reestablishedfor the sakeof appearanceand to preclude devastat-
ing erosion. The most stable and beautiful drives and highways of the
world are those that follow che ridges and valley floors and rise or fall
acrossthe side slopeswhere the cross gradient is most suitable. Perhaps
such drives are pleasant becausethey are basically lines of dynamic force
flowing in harmony with the natural forms and forces of the earth. Our
friend Plato, if we could question him on this point, would nod in sage
agreement.

Every object existing on the base plane has plan significance. If the
object is to be preserved,its relation ro orher elemenrsof the plan must
be thoughtfully considered. If the object is ro be moved, the easeand
means of moving warrant study. If the object is to be modified, the
degree and rype of modification must 6e analyzed.

The baseplane, in a world governed by the law of gravity, gets the most
use and wear. It requires the most care and maintenance.The planner
must recognize, as does the caretaker, that all materials and textures
applied to this plane should be selectedwith concern for their perma-
nence and appearanceduring all phasesoftheir projected use.

Site Volumes 171

 w , J e& 1 1 n o J u l

Exceptwhen Porous,ihese must
be tilted or shoPed to Provide
f o r s u r f o c ed r o i n o g e
N o r r o w s t e p si n c r e o s ei h e o p p o r e n th e i g h to n d
Whereoreosore drolned
sepcrotronof levels Brood stepsunile trre
to o cent,olinlet,thefollis p l o n e sv l s u o l l Y .
computedfromtheforthest
poInts

l n s i t eu s o g et h e w o r P e d P l o n e
-f1- mosi often connotesPossive
oreos or buffer zones

R o m p s ,p e r r o n s ,o r s t e P so
used io provide lronsiiiont m
level to level.

suboreodroin
lf smoller
lnletsore used,consider
thepotlerned Plocementol
the ond
lnlets construction
ioints
ur ,D?
sites
ln noiurol embonknents,
or not ollzed
WARPED'
THEBASEPIANEMAYBELEVEL, s t e p sn e e d n o t . b eo f n i f o r ms i z e , s h o p e ,
ORTERRACED
STEPPED,
RAMPED, h e i g h t ,o r d e p t h .

1,,nq11Jrol*nl
+4ni4tm

eoqlJ<r'

Povedsurfocesmoy be
?^ouiJea epalL $,eii+i*? worpedor tlltedto
t
conductrunoffto o gutter
) ----'1-'--
or outfollof one or more
l,sZ t, 4,eA..s,;oLl,nov sldes
(e7 ,' bAf<")
As o connector of bose plones, the romp hos
severool o v o r l o q e so v e r p s A o m o i s :
o Eosie'toosceno/d end
o L e s sf o r m l d o b l ef o r w h e e l e d v e h i c l e s
. M o r e o f o u n i l i e rt h o n d i v i d e r
o More economicol to construcl

ln modulororeos o
T H E R A M P( A n i n c l i n e dp o t h o r p l o n e i cofferedgrid con relote
d r o i n o g eo n d p o v i n g
ponerns
=J
l-. -
-1-----:
t-11o*4
fTEFs I l(
=.:E-

N e v e r u s e o s l n g l er i s e re x c e p l o t o b u i l d i n g
uaL plot[orm

J".lrJ. o rroJ -A
,f /'+ /"".
all niiel hetlhrs
i x(
lla:,t{JL"-4-
-L
Geometric droinoge +'
gridscon be incorPo- *ei1{f #+e'z:r"" t
poving
rotedln irregulor l n f l i g h t so f s i x o r m o r e t i s e r so h o n d r o i l
shopes recommenoeo

Treod-RiserRelotionshiPs Bose Plone Surfoce Droinoge Stoir Chorocteristics

172
 leuekisa large
part
The earth plane-level, warped,sloped,s1 1s1yxrcd-is the basefor all
o,theaftL'ttownscape
l!:,^'-':.!':::i41k1ins
Gordon
Gurenlfi .nii!llll[':.:'5"0[t
n;n;:i'#,*l;*;:,x*l*
,roject.The treatment of the ground plane is important to
rmenr of proper transitions. The shapesand patterns of
Ihandled, may subtly or powerfully relateastructural ele-
te and to all other components. Through the sensitive
Kqren Bergmonn design treatment of the ground surfacewe may coordinate, accenruate,
and integrate all elementsplaced thereon.

p
o

o
o
;

f
o
o

Voriousfunctions
of the boseorone.

TheOverheodPlone
In the shapingof outdoor spaceswe come to think of the overheadplane
as being free, extending to the tree canopy or the sky. Seldom, if ever,
have the most accomplished designersbeen able to devise anything as
beautiful. Even the open sky,however,has its limitations.\W'esometimes
require shelter;and further, we know that often our site spacesand vol-
umes must have height control. To realize this we need only hold one
hand palm upward and the other palm downward over ir, and slowly
bring the two together.\7e can at once, by this exercise,sensethe spatial
importance of the overheadplane. lVe will remember, as children, our
pleasurein crawling under a porch floor or, asadults, sitting under a low

Site Volumet 173

 \./\, .,4/

.+

solidity tronsllcence
Overheod spoce definirion.The form, heighl portern,densiY'
soundobsorbence,texiure,color,symbolism,ond degree ot overneoo
reflectivlly,
enclosureoll hove o tellingeffecton the spoiiolquolily

porch roof or an arbor. Even in a large open area,a suspendedor sup-

port.d overhead surface may provide this psychological, and Perhaps
physiological, function.

\7hen open blue infi

haps rack our Power
ing cloud forms and
constellationsin the
view the sky but on
most memorable earthly experience'

v4ren the sky is not suitable as a ceiling, we contrive overheadcontrols.

The form, character,height, and extent of overheadenclosureswill have
a telling effect on the characterof the volumes they help to define.

The new overheadplane may be as light as translucent fabric or foliage;

it may be assolid b."-r, plank, or reinforced concrete.It may be per-
",
for"t.d, pierced, or louvered. If solid, it controls not only the sun and
rain but also, by its degree of translucenceor limit of overhang, the
amounr and qualiry of light. To appreciatethe efFectof light on a given

174 LAND SCAPE ARC H ITE CTURE

Tbgraspspace,to hnou how to seeit, is the
beyto the unrlerstandingof building.
Bruno Zevi

Eueryf eld o1-designnday-arcltitecture,

industrial, g,zphic, landscapeand urban-
oPerateson t/te commzn basicprerniseof
functionalisni; i.e., that tbe uitimate lorm of
the objectdesignatedmustflow fom-an
objectiueanaiyis of itsfunction
Jcmes Fitch

The sky oftenformsthe overheodplone of exteriorspoces.

spacewe need considerbut a few of its unlimited qualities.In color, light

may be pearly,milky, amber, cobalt, lemony, aqueous,inky, sulfurous, or
QnVqs silvery.In intensiry, it may range from pale, soft, or limpid to brilliant,
on qble blazing, dazzling,or blinding. Light has motion-25In shooting, pierc-
=a----\a_<F ing, quivering, dancing, scintillating, creeping, flooding, or streaming
Qnvqs
oT ?tP<- light. It has distinctive character-as in dappled, splotched, or mottled

n x oya naila
light; subdued, harsh, or glaring light; searching, glinting, shadowy,
gleaming, or glowing light. Light has mood-as in gloomy, haunting, or
mysterious light; cozy, inviting, or exciting light; relaxing, refreshing, or
Of^ a{rens cheering light. These are but a few of iis qualities and effects that have
design application.
ffi Pqle)
lilhf*-oo The solid overhead plane may serve as a shield or modifier of natural
F, 6
]jT-ffi1 *n=tl light, or it may act as a source of direct or reflected illumination. If
wSfr Sovven-
7a^els pierced or partially open, the overhead cover may nor in itself be as
important visually as are the shade and shadowsit casts.\(e may con-

:zfrn'L sider such a plane as a disk or patterned screenheld up benveen the

sweepingorbit of the sun and the textured surfacesupon which its shad-
ows fall and over which they move. Generally, the spatial ceiling is kept
a\.,^.L^^,.J
v vgr I gvu Ju i rJi.- =9t tJ. simple becauseit is to be sensedmore often than seen.

TheVerticols
The vertical elementsare the spacedividers, screensbaffles, and back-
drops. Of the three volumetric planes,the vertical is the most apparenr
and the easiestto control. It dso has the most important function in the
creation of outdoor spaces.The verticals contain and articulate the use
areasand may tighdy control and enclosethem, as with masonry walls,
or more loosely define them, aswith vegetation.

Site Volumes 175

 o

o
3
I

T h ev e r t i c opl l o n e

By plan manipulation, the vertical elementsmay extend and expand the

Sitevolumes:degreesof verlicolenclosure
use areasto apparenrinfiniry by screeningout the near or obtrusive fea-
tures of the landscapeand ty revealingsuch receding or expansivefea-
of the
tures asthe distant vieq the horizon, or the limitless spaciousness
oPen sky.

for Privocy
Enclosure
Neither enclosurenor oPennessis of value in itself' The degreeand qual-
ity of enclosurehas meaning only in relation ro the function of a given
Enclosuremoy be lighi to solld
space.Enclosureis desirablewhen privacy is desired'The orientals have
s f"..rlry for creating their own privacy by mentally blocking. out those
"
things they find,o b. dirrr"cting or disturbing.They seemableto bring
into"sensedfocus a volume suited to their pleasureor their needs.This
ability enablesthem to enjoy adegreeof privacy even in a crowded mar-
ketplace. For occidentalsthis is more difficult, and such privacy as we
may require must usually be sought out or achievedby design'

An orc of enfromemenlmoy grve ooequole is at once

It has been said that, in our contemporary civilization, privacy
'We
pnvocy
one of the most valuable and rarest of commodities. may readily
observethis lack of privacy by walking down almost any city street.

\(/e are only now beginning to realizeagain the advantagesof private liv-
ing and working ai.as that are screened from the public view and
foiused upon rhe enclosedcouft or garden. In Egypt, Pompeii, Spain,
courts, and
plonelemenis
by dispersed
Enclosure Japan,anJ ail mature cultures,such walled residences,palace

176 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 temple grounds were, and still are, the most functional
and preasurable
of all plannedspaces.

l_
Privocy rction

Quolitiesof Enclosure
,IA Again, vertical enclosuremay be as rugged as the rocky face of a
bl h'
cliff or
a wall. of piled-up fieldstone. It may t. as sophisticated as a panel
of
Recei Decorotivesurfoce etched glass-or light as a rracery of blossom or foliage. The iange
of
form and materials is limitless. But whether the enclosi re is massive
or
delicate,crude or refined, the essentialbusinessis to suit the enclosure
to the use of the spaceor the use of the space to the predetermined

m^
enclosure,
So
Air pollu

Filter Mysrery Visuol Confrol

AII things seenfrom a spaceare a visual function of the space.Not only
the extent and nature of the enclosurebut also th. ,r"t.rr. of the reveal-
E
E
ment must be in keeping wirh the use.Anything that can be seenfrom
E
E
a spaceis visually in the spaceand must be taken into account. often,
an object far removed may be introduced to the spaceby opening to,
prol Bockgroundshouldnot enframing, and focusing on the object. A far-off mountain-peak or a
competein interest nearbytree may thus be brought into a garden.The busrle .lr-o,
of_a sprawling ciry and its harbor may, for its interest and "nd
therapeutic
value, be brought into the convalescentspacesof a military hospital
grounds. A distant cathedral campanile may thus be transportedio a
churchyard, or a quiet pond to a garden terrace.

<,la
--=_J<11_- Enclosure is desirablefor those spacesin which an internal object is to
be featured. It is evident in such casesthar distractions should be elimi-
nated and interest concenrraredon the object to be viewed. It would be
Wind control
difficult, for instance,in viewing a piece of sculpture to appreciatethose
subtle nuancesof light and shadethat revealthe modeling of a torso if
the sculpture were to be seen against a line of flapping laundry or a
stream of moving traffic. Even againsr a visra of regal magnificence,
much of the lovelinessof an individual rose,for instance.would be lost
to the observer.The backdrop of anything to be observed in detail
should rarely compete in interest.
Visuolcontrol
Spatial enclosure,when doubling as a backdrop, should be devised to
bring out the highest qualities of the object seenagainstit.

Site Volumes 177

Edging

sPoce
ploneprovides
Theverticol ondvisuolcontrol'
enclosure

Stond
In general, it may be stated that when interest is to be directed to an
objlct within a given area, the elements of containment must focus
tVhen interest is to be directed outward to object or
attention inward.
vieq the enclosureis pierced or oPened to accentuateand frame that
which is to hold our attention.

Seot
within o Spoce
Elements
Vertical planesprovide not only containment, screen,and backdrop but
often become the dominant spatial feature as well. Other vertical ele-
ments may include furniture set about on the base plane, a specimen

pick up and accentuateits character.The shapeand color of freestand-

ing objects may counterplay with the shapeand color of the space,may
Sofetyborrier be visually apparent against the backdrop. If the object is to dominate,
the backdrop plane is subdued to serveas a foil. If the spatial plane is to
dominate, as in a mural or a building facade, the standing object is
placed or designedto heighten the visual impact.

tVhen an object is placed within a space,the object and enclosuremay

be perceived as an entiry but often more important is the expanding,
Enclosurefor privocy (woll heightdetermined contracting, evolving relationship of the spacesbetu'eenthe two. As an
by function) example,the roundnessor squarenessof an object may best be accentu-
ated by placing it off center in a variformed volume to develop dynamic
Verticol
definition
spatial relationshipsbetweenit and rhe enclosingplanes.

178 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTUruE
 Post ond roil
An object that of itself has complex form or intricate lines is usually best
r1-----------n ra ^
lfftl
t -
lF:l displayed in a volume of simple shape so that the sparial relationships
f+t tgl
l-l ri ri
enhancethe object rarher than confuseor derract.
Three-roil Two-roil
tVhen several objects are placed in a volume, the interacting
spaces
berweenobjects,aswell as berweenobjectsand the enclosingplanes,are
of design importance.

Insetponel Sfructures
os VerficolElemenfs
Often, buildings are the dominant fearureswithin or surrounding a
space.If within, they may be treated as sculptural elementsto be experi-

tr=l wl --:
enced in the round. Vithin or withour, the spaceis developedto focal-
ize attention on the major facades or components and to impel
Borbedwire Choinlink movement toward the entrances.

Veriicol boords The externalspacesmay be designedro serveasforeground or setting, as

ruruI
.rororu
Chestnui,cypress,or cedor poleson frome
an anteroom, or as an external building compartment. The function of
the building may even be concentrared in the exrerior spaceand the
building itself be incidental. Such structuresmay serveprimarily as spa-
tial enclosers,dividers, and backdrops.

! s
o
-
>
4 I
!

a,
E^^ ^^.

s
-9

Concentrotion of interesl

Verticoloblectswithin o spoce

Public squares,courts, or plazasflanked by structures pose a complex

Controlledprogressivedevelopmentof o concept problem in design, for they and the people who use them must all be in
scale.\Which has prioriry? St. Peter'sclearly dominates its piazza and the
assembledcrowds. New Yorlis Central Park rules asverdant queen over
the edificesat her sides.The tiny town squaresof Capri, Italy, and Thxco,
Mexico, on the other hand, are in effect no more than charming stage
sets for the lounging, dining, parading townsfolk and tourists who
Visuolconlrol
gather there from early sunup to the late, cool hours of the evening.Peo-
Functions
of en,.;l,rsure ple, spaces,or structures-which?

Site Volumes 179

 There is no rule exceptthat each,in turn and together,must be tak:n into

A
Preclse l f f o r m , m o i e r i o l sl i g h t
c o n t r oo
ocoustics,iemPerolure
full accountand all relationshipsmade pleasantthrough a senseof fitness.

TheVerticolos o Poinfof Reference

E l m n o t i o no f d t s t t o c t i o n s

E m o t i o n oi lm p l i c c l i o nosf v o r y i n gs p o t i o l
V O I UT N C S

No spoirolvor ely-stotic Vorety-dynomic

Increosedspolio vorielY Formclorly ostby

ond interesi i m p r o p eern l r o m e m e n l

Complex form lterest Severclob ects ploced

heightenedb y s i m pe in o vo ume relolelo
enfromement not
t h ee n c l o s u r e
o n y s i n g y b u to s o
os o 9roup

W h i l e p r o v i d i n go t h e m ef o r t h i sp u b l i cs p o c e t, h i sw o t e rf e o t u r ei s o v e r t i c c l
reference

,|B0
LAND SCAPEARCH ITE CTURE
ferris wheel, for example,draws one to, and becomesthe symbol of, the

In the treatmenr of sizableareas,we have discoveredan intriguing plan-

ning phenomenon that has many useful applications. \7e have found
that a freestandingvertical element or panel brought near a small use
areawithin the larger spacemay have such a sffong visual relationship to
the user that it imparts irs own scale.A great plaza,for example, may be
overwhelming to a person who enters or wanders through. If say,a small
bench were to be placedwithin rhe space,the volume by contrast would
seem even more overpowering. A person seated on the bench would
senseonly the relationship to the total plaza.If, however, near the bench,
we were to place a honey locust tree, a stone fountain, or a decorative
screen,our intimidated friend would firsr sensebeing seatedunder the
tree, besidethe fountain, or near the screenand only incidentally would
sensethe dimensions of rhe greatervolume. One would relateoneselfto
the scaleof the introduced objects.

\Tithin alarge space,many such human referencepoints may be placed,

and, indeed, thesemust be furnished if pleasureis intended. (-Werecog-
nize, of course, that historically the primary objective of many great
public spaceshas been to humble and sometimes even humiliate the
crowds that mill about within them.) tVhen awe,wonder, or humiliry is
to be instilled by spatialimpact, the human referencepoints are removed
or distorted. \flhen comfort and assuranceare desirable,a human scale
must be made evident. Generally, the steps,doorways, or windows of
adjacentbuildings suffice to establisha senseof scale;if not, such human
referencepoints are to be otherwise provided.

The Verticolin Relationto Pix

In spatial design, the verticals generally have the grearestvisual inrerest.
Since, either moving about or seatedwithin a volume, we are face-to-
face with the verticals,we are usually more consciousof them than of
'We
either the baseor the overheadplane. may rightly assume,therefore,
that such standing surfacesor objects presenr the most telling design
possibilities. Featuresof greatest interest or refinemenr are normally
placed or incorporated on the verticals and at eye height-pix. It would
seemobvious that pix for a seatedperson is lower than pix for a person
who is standing, but becausethis critical design factor is too often
ignored, the point is emphasized.One of the most distressingof all
visual experiencesis to have a vertical plane terminate at or near eye
level, particularly in the caseof a fence,wall, or balcony rail. The top of
such a vertical element seemsto do violence to the eyesof those who
passor seeit.

Site Volumes 1 8l
 Obiectsot pix (eyelevel)commondottention'

to have
one of the most pleasantof visual treats, on the other hand, is
that
the eye come comiortably to rest uPon an object or plane so placed
If, moreover' in the thing
it f"ll into pleasing perspectirreand focus'
to the
observed the viewer discovers subtle and fitting relationships
relation-
space,the use, and the user, the pleasureis intensified. such
be con-
,'hip, -"y sometimesbe accidental,but more often they must
sciouslyplanned.

Verficolsos Articulotors
verticals reinforce and explain the traffic and use patterns of the base
scole,
lesser
plane. Just asthe gatepiers of a driveway say"Entef," the sweepingcurb-
ii.r. ,"y, "Follow Le," and the entranceplatform says"Come to rest and
alight here," so musr the verticals of any spaceelucidate the plan. They
-Jr, deflect, direct, detain, receive, and accommodate the
",,r".t,
olanned use as the area demands. The plan pattern of the base plane
-ort of..r, setsthe theme of a space,and the verticalsmost often mod-
ulate this theme and produce those variations that develop the rich har-
monles.
Privocy,sheter,protection

Verticolsos ControllingElements

of interest
Clossificotion

182 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 o

Veriicol
orticulotion.

surfacesor used ro give motion and sound by activating flags, foliage,

mobiles, or those delightful oriental divertissements,wind-flutes or
wind-bells. Sunlight may be intercepted, filtered, diffused, or admitted
in its full glorious, healing, life-giving splendor.

Like the overhead,the verticalsmay servean important function in cast-

ing shadowsto wash acrossa paving, dapple a wall, dance,creep,flicker,
tremble, stretch, blank out a spacein dim coolness,or incise a bold
architecturalpattern onto a receivingplane.

PlontMoteriols
Much of the earth'sland surface,as it were, is subdivided into variformed
volumes hy trees-freestanding, in rows, in clumps, or in masses.Often,
proposed use areasmay be sited to take advantageof spacesalready tree-
enframed.Again, partial treeor shrub enclosuremay be supplementedby
additional planting or by grading and construction. In such casesthe
native growth provides the ideal transition from development to the nat-

SiteVolumes 1 83
 E
o
od

:
o

V e r t i c oi ln c i s etsh eg r o u n dp l o n e .

ural sceneand ensuieslandscapecontinuitF. If we cannot use existing

rreesfor full or partial volume control, in most localitieswe may draw
upon an extensrvepalette of plant materialsthat range from the wildly
freq to the,stiffly architectonicin their native or manicured forms.

EffectiveEnclosure
:
It must be rememberedthai the vertical spaceenframersare not usually
seen alone from within the volume but in the round as well. They,
together with the sPacesthey enclose,become in total a unificd land-
scapeelement to be related to all other landscapefeatures'

184 LAND SCAPE ARC H I TE C TURE

Verticolobiectsform spoceswithinspoces.

An Axiom
Lack of effective enclosure is the key to most unsatisfactoryspacesor
places.\7e cannot stresstoo strongly the need for the proper type and
degreeof vertical definition. All good site development is marked by rhe
organizationof vertical (and overhead)planesto provide both optimum
enclosureand optimum revealment.

By such means,it can be seen,we must synthesizenot only the microland-

scapebut the extensionallandscapeaswell.

frrUfr I*n icritri...

t.lrl,!+d,'H;
"t tfu6."-. r.t
_ ll+.r.ra, tti.h:

..{Dulrb\ as{FrAt I, SIEFfl

ftetlnitztrcv r*ti,r
hf ir^-,, -.-. -
r, otrut.tx
I|BBABT r

SiteVolumer 185
 rli: :
it,

tt'l

TheView
vielv is a sceneobservedfrorn a given vanragepoinr. Often.rr our-
standingviervis reasonenoughfol rhe selectionof rL;rroperrv Once
the sitehasbeenattained,howcver,rhe view is seldomu-'edto fili ,rdvan-

:#eewii: t:rge.Indeed, rhe proper treatment of a r,ien is one of the leastrrndcr-

stood of all the visualarts.A vien must be analvzedand compose,l.,vith
keenly perceptir.eartistrv to utilize even a fraction of the firll clrrLrlaric
potential.Like other landscapefeatr-rres, the view bv its handling r:ravbe
preserved,neutralized,modified, or accentuated.But be.forewe arrempr
to deai with the vielv. ll.e nrust le:rm morc of its nature.

Aview is an evolvingpalloramaof manv blending f.rcets.

A vieu' i.sa theme. Its propcr reaiizationresembieslhe music.rlcre-
ation of variationson a theme.
A vierv is a constantlychrrngingmood-inducer.
A view is a limit of visualspace.It transcendsthe boundaries,f the
site. Jt has directionalpuli. lt may cvoke a sensc of exp,,nsl.'e
freedom.
A view is a backdrop.It ma-vserveasa n'all of a gardenor as ir rrrural
rn a foonl.
A view is a setting for archirecrure

A lo.chner/Des gn Wcrkshcp

187
 Suitobilityos o Foctor
:d to PeoPIeand to those areasand
,rr., ho*.t er' that the use and the
activity or excitement,for instance'
'into an areaof quiet rePose'

a ballpark or a river
How could the pupil concentratein a classroomfacing
lock with it, *hirti.r, bells,shouting gatekeepers' strainingtugs'-andtows?
eyeson^drawingor
Or how, cajoledby such a view, could the artist keep
sceneof gentle pas-
the librarian thoughts on the work at hand?Again, a
toral tranquiliry may negarethe effectiveness of a spacedesignedto exhort
combatantsto action or inspire one t
the view should be lofty and awe-insp
be no view at all. The invigorating c
cragy fir and the thunderous roal
an introspective
dJ;;y the sereniryor passiveatmosphereintended for
leaping flame' and
space.A dynamic indusrial sceneof telching smoke'
switchi.rg f.eight carshas its design applications and its limitations, too'
jewel-like
Even a ,i"..pirrg night sceneof rpt"*ling river city with^its
"
corrstellations p"",,.rrrsof light, its cubesand prisms of shadow and
"id its crawling,
illuminated ,.rrf".., its luminous vaporsof smoke and steam,
wakes and shooting beams, its
beetleliketraffic glows, its arching river
this rnay be
,r.-Uti.rg cloud ieflections-even such a wondrous view as
be ideal.
unsuited"toa number of useareas,while for many othersit would
2

rc
o

o
=
€
o

Theview is port of thedesign.

of o View
DesignTreotmenf
A view haslandscapecharacter.This will, of course,determine thoseareas
or functions with which it should be combined. If the view is a domi-
nant landscapefeature,the related use areasand spacesshould be devel-
oped in harmony with the view as it existsor as it may be treated.

.l88
LANDS CAPE ARC HITE CTURE
 A view need not be seenfull front or be approachedfrom a fixed direc-
tion. It is a panoramaor a segmentof a panorama to be seenfrom any or
all angles.It may be viewed on the oblique, on the sweep,or broadside.

A view is an impeller. A powerful magnet, it will draw one far, and from
one position to another, for the opportuniry of better commanding its
limits or seeingsome parr in a new and intriguing way. The skilled plan-
ner will let a view develop as the viewer moves acrossit, just as a moun-
tain climber experiencesmore and more of a view in the ascentuntil it
is seenin total.

A view may be subdivided. It may be appreciatedfacet by facet,with each

bit treated as a separarepicture and so displayedto best caprure its spe-
cial qualities. By design, a view may be deftly modulated as one moves
from areato area.Each areawill, by direction, foreground, framing, or
by the function of the space,relate one ro some new aspectof the scene
until, at last, it is fullv revealed.

The modulotionof o view Fromo glimpsethroughloosefolioge,to enfromrng

slot,1owider sec'or,to reverse.nteresl.lo visio, ro oblec- seenogoinsrthe
view, io reverseinierest,1oobjectsplcced ogoinstihe view seenihrougho
tr the view is to :,erveos o bockdrop,rhe obiect film of fobric, to concenkolionin o covelikerecess,to full, exuberontsweep
ploced ogoinstil muslbe n chorocter

A view gains in effectivenesswhen certain plan areasare developedas a

counterpoint or foil. If we stand for long ar one vanragepoint, compre-
hending a view in its entirery it begins to lose its first fresh appeal and
strikesthe senseswith lessimpact. The interest of the open view may be
sustainedand much accentuatedwhen certain plan areasare developed
in balancedopposition. Such an areamight be enclosed,with a narrow
slot or a constructed aperture opening on some absorbing decailof the
!ft scenery.It might be a chastevolume kept simple and severein form and
+ neutral in tone, so that a colorful sectorofview might glow more vividly.
.l i,nyh' t, , n" r , ^ . ^ n ^ t 'r. rc noln l nlnror] nnnin<l n It might be a recessivearea,leading one away from the view into some
v ew moy resul,rr solil inieresro"d onr-oyonce cavelike interior spacefor contrast, so that, emerging to the expansive-

Visible Landscape I 89
 nessof the view, one sensesan emotional responseof great releaseand
freedom. A designedspacemay incorporare some feature subdy or Pow-
erfully related to th. ,ri.*r ship relic related to a view of the ocean;
"
hammered metal to a spectacleof blazing furnaces;a fruit bowl to an
orchard view; a trour er;hing ro a sceneof splashingbrook; a drawing of
fox, grouse,or wild turkey or hunting accoutrementsto a Panoramaot
rolling game land; or a candle to a distant cathedralspire'

Some areas,to give respite,might bestbe planned without apparentrela-

tionship. For a"headyview,like a heady drink, should be absorbedslowly
and in moderation.

Split interest is a hazard in a treatment of a view. Light detail placed in

A view is o lhemethoi moy suggestond give front of a sceneis usually lost or distracting-an element of annoyance'
odded meoningto well-relotedfunclions Ifthe broad view is usedasa backdrop,the object or objectsplacedbefore
it must, singly or as a compositional group, either recedeor dominate.

Thebestvlew is notolwcysor oftenthefullview
ThePowerof Suggesfion
If a view or an object in the landscapeis by design suggestedonly, the
mind will multiply the possibilitiesof percepdon and thus expand the
scopeand richnessof the suggestedexperience.The silhouetteor shadow
ofa pine branch seenthrough a translucent panel or screenor projected
upon i, is often more effectivethan a direct view of the branch itself.The
dim outline of a form seenat a distanceor in half-light is thus often of
more interest than the same form seen fully and in detail. And so it is
with the view.

It has long been the belief of the Zen Buddhists,wrires Kakuzo okakura
in A Booi ofTea, that "rrue beaury could be discoveredonly by one who
mentally completed the incomplete. It was this love of the abstractthat
led the Zen ri preferblack and white sketchesto the elaboratelycolored
or seen
beiterif enfromed
A view is usuolly paintings of the classicBuddhist School."
ihroughon opproPriote screen

ond Reveolmenf
Conceolment
A view should be totally revealedfor fullest impact only from that posi-
tion in the plan where this is most aPPropriate.It is not to be wasted in
one first blast but conservedand displayed with perhaps more refine-
menr, though certainlywith no lessfeeling for suspenseand timing, than
shown by the stripteaseartist.

It has been told that, near the village of Tomo in Japan,a celebratedtea
masterplanning to build a teahousepurchased,after much deliberation,
a parcel of land with a startlingly beautiful view of the idyllic Inland Sea.
His friendswere most curious to learn how this greatartist would exhibit
his scenicprize, but during the time of construction they were, of course,
too polite to investigateand waited to be invited.

I90 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
Onlywhenreoching
theprecise
spotisthedistont
viewreveoled

On the day when the first guesrsarrived at the entrance gare, they could
hardly contain their eagerness ro seethe fabulous oceanview that would
surely be eloquently revealed.As they moved along the narrow stone parh-
way toward the teahouse,they were awarethat the seawas teasinglyhidden
from sight by the alignment of the path through thin bamboo clumps.At
the door of the teahouse,they reasoned,the view would be opened to
them in somehighly sensitiveenframement.They were more than a little
perplexedto find the view there effectivelyconcealedby a shoulderof lich-
ened rock and a panel of woven straw fencing. As is the custom before
entering a teahouse,they pausedand bent over a stone basin brimming
with water to rinse their hands. fu they raised their eyesfrom this bowed
position, they caught a glimpse, no more than a glimpse, berweenthe
greatrock and a low dark branch of ancient pine, of the shining seabelow
them. And as they looked, they sensedwith tingling comprehensionthe
relationshipof the mother seaand the cool warer at their fingertips.

Inside on the mats of the teahousewith the translucent screensclosed

around them they performed the simple ritual of the tea ceremony,still
mindful of the lessonof the sea.Relaxedand refreshedat the ceremony's
conclusion, the guestswere half surprisedwhen their host rosequietly to
slide back the screensat one side of the room, revealing in its perfect
completenessthe overwhelming beauty of a seascape thar srretchedfrom
the edgeof the grassfloor mats to the farthest distant limits of the sky.

TheVisto
A vista is a confined view, usually directed toward a terminal or domi-
nant feature.It may be a natural vista, asan alldeopened through a grove

VisibleLandscape I 9l
 The view is o sceneobserved

Thevisto is on enfromedsegmenlof o view

E n f r o m e r e r i o n d v q l o m , r s 'h o r n m n a t : { r l c

ofJapanesemaplesto give a view of Fujiyama; or it may be architectural,

as the majesticvista from the Palaceof Versaillestoward the lavish Nep-
tune Fountain. Each vista has, in simplest terms, a viewing station, an
object or objectsto be seen,and an intermediateground.

The three together should make a satisfactoryvisual unit and are usually
conceivedas an entity. If one or more of the elementsalreadyexist and
are allowed to remain, then the others must, of course, be designedin
conformiry.

Again, vista and the allied placesand spacesmust be compatible. If the

vista is planned as an extension of a use area or space,the relationships
of characterand scaleare important. For example,from the boardroom
of a powerful bank the vista, if there is to be one, should hardly termi-
nate at the roller coasterof an amusement park or the gatesof the state
penitentiary. Commanded by such a rarefied viewing box of marble,

192 LANDS CAPE ARC HITECTURE

 gilt, and paneled rosewood,the vista and its rerminus should be equally
impressiveand richly conservarive.The vista toward a national monu-
ment should hardly commence at a servicestation, drugstore,or factory.
It might well be observedfrom another monument, a civic building, or
a public gathering space.It is fundamental to the fine vista that the end
justifies the beginning and the beginning justifies the end.

Theterminus
estoblishes
the chorocterof thissooce.

TheTerminus
The terminal feature on which the vista is focused setsthe theme to be
developed.All other elementsmust fall into cadence,suppon the theme
in harmony and counrerpoint, and carry the work to a final satisfying
crescendo.There is no room for discord, the superfluous, or the inap-
propriate; insread, the eye must seethe right thing seenfrom the right
placewith just the right enframemenr.

Prog ressiveReqlizotion
The terminal featuremay be displayedin progressiyesrages.If a vista can
be seenfrom severalstationsalong the approaches,the sectionseenfrom
each station is to be treated separately.Sometimes a terminus may be
viewed along an entire approach.In such a case,it should be revealedby
its evolving spatial conrainment to exact the full potential of its changing
perspectives.If the approachis long, the vista becomestiring and should
be divided into segmentsby changing the level, by expanding or con-
tracting the frame of reference,or by altering the characterof the spaces
through which and from which it is seen.Often, in moving toward a dis-
tant focal point, one can at first discern no more than the outline of the
terminal feature. As one continues, the feature revealsitself progressively:
the component masses,the subcomponents,and finally the details.

Any vista may be satisfringly stagedin an infinire number of ways. It is

only necessary that, from all viewing starionsor lines of approach,there

,|93
VisibleLandscape
 be developed a pleasing visual entity. A vista may induce motion or
repose.Some vistasare static, to be enjoyed from one fixed viewing sta-
tion, and are seenin their completenessfrom this point. others, by the
interesr of their unfolding revelation or by the attraction of the termi-
nus, draw one from point to Point.

All vistassubjectthe observerto a compelling line of sight. Avista is insis-

tenr, a directional atrraction to the eye.As such, a vista is a function of
the axis.

TheAxis
Essentially,the axis is a linear plan element connecting rwo or more
points. In use it may be a court, a mall, or a drill field. It may be a path,
a drive, a ciq, street, or a monumental parkway. Always it is to be
regardedas an element of connection.

In land planning, the axis has important applications. It has limitations

also,for once an axishas been introduced, it generallybecomesthe dom-
inant landscapefeature.Establishedin a plan complex,it becomesso insis-
tent rhar all other elementsmust be related to it directly or tacitly. Any area
or structure impinging upon the axis, adjacent to the axis, or leading
toward the axismust draw much of its use,form, and characterfrom this
relationship.Becauseit is a powerful landscapeelement,the axistends to
subjugateother landscapefeatures.This can happen in more ways than
one. It has been told that, in building the Palaceof Versailles,King
Louis XIV questioned the fact that the three approach avenueswere
unequally spacedon the drawings. Vhen he was advised that the offend-
ing avenuewas so aligned to miss a nearby village, Louis replied that he
failed to understandthe point. The plans were revised.To preservea Per-
fect symmetry, one axial approachwas of necessitydriven through the hap-
Iessvillage. Demolition crewsset to wotrk, and the hamlet was neutralized.

Almost as effectivewould be the dri'ilng of an axis through any estab-

lished landscapearea.Becausethe existing order of things would be dis-
rupted, a new order would have to be devised,and this in relation to the
intruding axial line, for there is little of polite gentiliry to the axis. It is
forceful; it is demanding; and, as a result, things usually go its way.

An axis is directional.
An axis is orderly.
An axis is dominating.
An axis is often monotonous.

This is nor ro saythat the axis is alwaysbest avoided. It is only to suggest

that none of theseattributes are conducive to relaxation,pleasantconfu-
sion, nature appreciation, freedom of choice, or many other such expe-
riencesthat we humans tend to enioy.

194 LAND SCAPE ARC HITE C TURE

 Theoxis.
-t/

Axiol Chorocferisfics
From a given use area,an axis is a dynamic plan line leading out and thus
orienting the areaoutward. Such an area,both as a viewing point and asa
sourceof axial movement, might well expressthis outward flow. How can
this be accomplished?By shaping the spaceto induce movement outward.
By constructing, in effect, a viewing box with its aperture well focused. By
fanning the paving lines out and away or by sighting them accuratelydown
;-/
the axial cenrerline. By concentrating interest at the forward edgeof the
staging area,inducing flow to and past it. By directional forms. By use
of concentric arcscircling ourward, as from pebblestossedinto a pond.

Often, in an axial plan, the viewing starions and termini are inter-
changeable.It can be seenthat the forms and lines and details that dis-
patch us from one sration would, if we approachedfrom the opposite
direction, seemto beckon and receiveus. This is fortunate, becausemost
axial treatments allow for looking both up and down the line of sight
and for moving from one end to the other and back again.\Wefind that
each transmitting areathus becomes,in turn, a receiving area.'Wemay
correctly conclude that when viewing points and terminal featuresare
interchangeable,each must expressthe characteristicsof the source as
well as the terminus of axial view and movemenr.

,|95
VisibleLandscape

CourlesyFrenchEmbossy ond
Division'New YorkCitv
Informotion
Arc de Triomphe . and its archway commandingly rallies attention to the staft of the wide
ond the Chomps-Elys6es
Thegoodlife is not a matterofgoodgimmichs
or ofphysicalease; it is a matterof thingsthat we approach the palacegroup. Here the Grand and Petit palaces
uplifr thespirir.High auerages will nordefne the Avenue
;r. itt, aril of rheEtoile,id th, rree-linid
streetsthat comet0 it and deqart lrre more
importanr rc rhegood life of rhepooresr
Parisian tban a tenth ofone percent
improuementin his substandarddwelling.
I mean this r4ection of the high ttueraget0
apply to all elementsof the good life-to the
poetic life, to tbepolitical lfe, to the uisual
life, to the spiritual life. h h a life which
occasionallythough not too ofien because
ecstdslcan not beprolonged,as the readersof
Dantei Paradisiocan discouer.But a life
without thesehighpoints is not thegood life.
John Ely Burchord
I96 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
An axis,being a line of movement and useaswell asvision, must satisfyall
three functions.The axis,like the vista it creates,combinesprimary inter-
mediate,and terminal spacesin the sameyolume. It would seemonly rea-
sonablethat all three need to be planned as integral parts of the whole. If
the axial plan areais intended as a boulevard,it should, from start to fin-
ish, look like a boulevard and function asa boulevard. Every building at its
flanks should belong ro rhe boulevard. Every spaceprojected or leading
into its central volume should partake of the boulevard character.
Much lyrical praise has been heaped upon rhar prororype of all grand
boulevards,the Champs-Elysdesof Paris. Much criticism has also been
Ieveledat its social and economic impact on the city at the time of its
construction, for it clearedout a wide swath of living urban tissue.But,
for the moment, let us dismiss from our minds such weighty implica-
tions and let ourselvesrise up in our imagination until we cang ze down
upon the whole stirring expanseof this magnificent axis'
Below us we seethe grand Etoile, a wide traffic circlewith forcefullv radi-
ating streetsthat disappearin the distance.The circle is massivelydefined
by the stately trees and severegray buildings at its sides.Its glistening
pavementof clipped granire blocks is precisein pattern. The whole mar-
tial spacehas about it a stiffly proud and solemn air, aswell it might, for
there at its center looms the Arc de Thiomphe, and at the arch'swreath-
lined basethe Tomb of the unknown Soldier,with its eternally glowing
flame of tribute. The Etoile is a volume remarkablysuited to its uses.As
a focal point, the arch is seenfittingly framed for miles in all directions.
The circle, a marshalingspaceand point of generationfor, aswell as the
powerful terminus of, the Etoile, is also the head of the Champs-Elysdes,
boulevard.
The axial boulevardmarcheson, out to the east,still crisply military, pro-
gressingfirmly in measuredcadenceof structuresand treesuntil, almost
imperceptibly,we note lessof a military and more of a regalcharactet less
of the coldly regimentedand more of the ornately monumental; for now
flank
Alexandre III as it movesin grandeur from the Esplanade des
Invalides acrossthe Seine to join the boulevard.The transition is from
palatial to civic aswe continue along the Champs-Elys6esto the Placede
la Concorde, with its pretentious ministries and secretariats.
In our journey eastward from the Etoile we have passedresplendent
apartmentswith silver entablatures,elite shopswith high velvet curtains,
proud restaurantswith glittering chandeliers,and, finally, small cafds
with their trim green awnings and crowded sidewalk tables, beween
which bustle the white-aproned gargonswith trays poised lightly on fin-
gertips. Here the boulevardtakeson a lively air. Colors arc gay)spirits are
light, the smile is quick, and the heart is glad on the boulevard in Paris.

Today,we are morehonest,morepractical,
and quitefunctional, but it has beenat the
expenseof gr,zceand gentility. . . .
Piefro Belluschi
Ye1we hauelitrgottenthe simplecourtesyof
pleasing. IVhat is true of architecture is euin
moresoof ciryplanningwherethe chiefobject
seemsto to get the driuerfrom A to B
.be
sttttngdown.
Henry H. Reed Jr.
What is the nonumental? The word, by the
way, in the architecturalsense,is quite new.
Rushin a hundredyars agospoheonQ of
power.Actualb, it h a recentborowingfrom
the French. ",\'lonurnental"theytell ui is said
of a building "qui a un caratdiede grandeur
et de majestd,"fo, o monumentxsan
'buvrage
d'architectureconsiderablepar sa
masse,son dtendue,sa magnificence."
Grandeur m,tj est1t,magnifle nce!
Henry H. Reed Jr.
Beyond the ordered spacesof the Placede la concorde we come to rhe
Tuileries, the magnificent public gardensand park. At the gardent end,
and handsomely framed, we behold the Palaceof the Louvre, with its
warm stonewalls and rich ornamenrarion. Fronting the majesticLouvre
we seethe espalieredall6esof sycamore,the gardensrolling with color,
the screechingtraffic, trim nursemaids, perambulators, barking dogs,
and dodging children, the white-bearded,pink-cheekedold men in blue
beretsdrowsing on benchesin the sun, rhe well-scrubbedjaunty sailors
and the bellesjeunes filhs. Nl that is in this whole exuberant space
belongsto it-is of its very essence.
And where along the lengrh of this grear axis do we find the discrepan-
cies in plan, the discordant notes?Some there must be, and many per-
haps, but they are lost in the captivating and ringing experience of
moving down through this evolving complex of boulevardvolumes, the
"elysianfields," from rhe hushed memorial solemniry of the arch at the
litoile to rhe palatial, then stately, governmental core to rhe splendid
apartments, the chic shops, the lively cafe district, and on through the
carefreeexpanseof the public gardensto rhe grandiosemuseum of fine
arts. \fle feel ourselvesto be, in turn, in one brief morning's stroll, the
soldier, the courtier, the statesman,the person of wealth, the gay dilet-
tante, the poet, the lover, the relaxed,free, and h"ppy boulevardieSthe
stimulated observer,and finally the distinguished connoisseur.
If planned today, this Champs-Elysdeswould have a different mien. And
so it should, for since its conception times have changed and conditions
have changed,and plan conceptsand forms have changedwirh them. The
new boulevard would have lessof the old despotic formaliry lessunbend-
ing symmetry. Retaining its hallowed monuments, it would be lessmon-
umental. It would open our and free the teeming residential districts at its
sides.It would be lessof the classifierand more of the synthesizer.
It would be more flexible and allow more flexibiliry. It would take its
form from an empathedcunderstandingof individual Parisiansand their
emerging culture. It would expressrheir new freedom, new ideas, and
new aspirations.But let those who would change the present Champs-
Elysdesfirst study it long and thoughtfully because,in light of the times
and the socieryfor which it was built and its masterful handling of forms
and space,there is no boulevard of its equal.
An axis has sometimesa negative,sometimes a positive effect on land-
scapeelementswithin its field of influence.'W'ehave said that areasand
objectsadjacentto an axis are perforce relatedto it. Sometimesthey suf-
fer from the relationship becauseinterest is lessin the things themselves
than in the thing'axis relationship. A fine linden tree, for example, if
standing alone, is observedin terms of trunk and limbing structure,rwig-
ging, burgeoning foliage, sunlight and shadow patterns, and the beauty
of its broad outline and delicate detail. If related to an insistent axis.
VisibleLandscape 197
 The subtle,
however,the same tree is noticed primarily in that context.
the natural, and the unique are lost to the axial line'

may ga'inin
Sometimes,by the fact of their relationship, axial elements
inrerest u"l.r.. If as units they are dull, in pattern they may be strik-
"rrd reference
ing. If by position they are inconspicuous, by axial frame of
they may gain in significance.

Elemenf
TheAxisos o LJnifYing
the
A terminal or intermediate station of one axis may function also as
terminal or intermediate station of another.Thus two or more plan areas
'Washington'
may be focalized'on a common point' whose plan
?'C'l
of the
di"gr"- exemplifies this principle, has thereby developed-one
most cohesivemerropolitan plans yet devised.Its long, radial, tree-lined
avenues,converging on p"rk, circle, structure' or monument' enframe
handsome uist^, and bind the cirys complex, extensive,and heteroge-
neous parts into coherenr uniry. If we distinguish in the p.lan arrange-
ment t^heoutline of monumentaliry this seemspreeminently fitting.

:
j

o
6

o
'n
,i
o

Axiol plon for Woshington,D.C

I98 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE

An oxis imposedon o free plon oreo demonds
o new ond reloted order.
An oxis moy be bent or deflectedbut never
divergent.
A powerfuloxis requireso powerfulterminus.
.-+
Theoxis is o unifyingelement.
t n eo x r s
Additionol Chorocteri sfics
A powerful exis requires a fitting rerminus. conversely, powerful design
featuresare often ofsuch form or characterasto require an axial
Such featuresare rhosebesrseenhead-on. "ppro".h.
Or those best situated at the hub of convergingplan lines
Or those to be revealedin stagesalong a given line of approach
Or those requiring controlled enframemenrand establishedviewing
points
Or those that gain through a direct relationship to other lineal plan
elements
The axis presentsthe most imposing approach ro a srructure or other plan
feature.The key word in this axiom is imposing,for the axis imposesa dis-
cipline upon spacesand forms aswell asupon the viewer. The movement,
attention, and interest of the viewer are imposed upon by axial compo-
sicion and induced to alignment with the direction of its srrong polariz-
ing forces.An impressive,dogmatic design form, the axis expressesrhe
supremacy of the human will over narure. It denotes authoriry, the mili-
tary the civic, the religious, the imperial, the classic,and the monumental.
To understand the significance of the axis when properly applied, we
may well look to the ancient city of Peking (now Beijing), the northern
capital of the khans. Kublai Khan, its founder, and the great city builders
who followed him understood the power of the axis as have few before
or since. Centuries ago, in the building of their ciry they scrupulously
avoided the use of the axis in those areaswhere its insistent lines were
unsuited. The refreshing parks, marketplaces,and winding residential
streetswere relaxedand free in their forms and spaces.
In the whole fabulously delightful grounds of the Summer Palace,
planned for sumptuous divertissement,there is scarcelya consciousaxis
to be found. But where the imperial presencewas to be made manifest or
the peoplewere to be subjectedto the concept of supremedeity, omnipo-
tence) or military might, the axis was employed with sensitive under-
standing, as witness the military roads that strecch in broad grandeur
from the ciry gatesto the entranceof the once golden-roofed Forbidden
Ciry of the emperor-dynamic lines of force, subjecting the whole city
to the will and authority of the all-powerful emperor.
Axial planning also highlights the Temple of Heaven, which lies on the
plain to the south of the Imperial City. Here, eachyear at the time of the
vernal equinox, the great khan rode in magnificent pomp and ceremony
to welcome the coming of spring. The approach to this once sublimely
beautiful temple was a wide causewayof white marble that commenced
at a circular platform of noble proportions, rising in balustraded tiers.
The spacious causeway,elevated above the level plain, extended to the
gilded and deep-redJacqueredgatesof the temple. Spacedout along the
Visible Landscnpe 199
 to hold the standardsof
causewaysides,at regular intervals,were sockets
were carvedfire
h.,.rdr.i, of waving-banners,and beween the standards
the long processions
pLr, L" *rrrch pitclifaggots were burned to illumine
th"t -o,r.d Pastthem in the night'

the khans subjects

In the dark hours before the great annual event,
os o generotorof oxiol movemenl
Termlnus flocked through the streetsof their cir
the temple, where theY massedalonl
stand i; watchful, wide-eYedwond
gates,the foot soldierscamemarchin
,."rorr.d warriors, in dark helmets,
flanks' The
boots, to mass in ordered formation along the causeway
upon thou-
courriers and nobles followed in dazzlingarray, thousands
of silk' gold'
sands on horseback,each noble and mount in trappings
his.appointed
costly furs, and precious gems and each proudly taking
ent. fhe high priests,with smolder-
solemn Procession,chanting' fur-
'ns of unbelievablesplendor' Slowly'
Cftenoblecrsodiocentto o sirongoxissufferin gusr Postson the terracedpladorm'
thereloiionship
commanding the length of the ceremonialcauseway'

pink, the
Finally, asthe first faint tracesof light tinged the easternskywith
the golden gates of the
tr o
q khan and his mounted retinue pi"rr..d through
causeway.
g
tr
o
E
Forbidden ciry and out through the throngs to the head of the
tr o
brassand
There, ro the cadencedbooming of drums and the crashingof
E
E E

the blazing fire pits, down

An oxismoybe symmetricol
Butusuolly
silver gongs the khan rode imperiously past
kow-
the a,,!nu! of floating banners,on through the massedtroops and
it is not
and the gleaming altar seen
towing nobles, ro th; resplendent temple
he
throu[h its opened doorr. Preciselyat that hushed moment when
,.".hJd the high altar and bowed his head in gravesalutation, the blaz-
ing red orb of ti. rising sun archedabovethe purple hills to the east,and
.lrlry f".. and every .Iy" every thought in- all Peking were focused
"ttd
down the length of that great axis ro the sacredplace where the exalted
khan, their emperor' knelt to greet the spring'

Plon
TheSymmetricol
The useof the axisdoesnor necessarilydictate the developmentof a sym-
metrical plan.

The elementsof a symmerrical plan are the sameand are in equilibrium

about a central point or opposite sidesof an axial line. The central point
may be an objeci or an area,such asa fountain or the plazathatcontains it.
n e l lw l t h o u i
A s m o lel x h i b ioi r e om o yf u n c t i ow
The symmetrical axis may be a line or plane of use, such as a Path' a
broad avenue,or a mall. It may be a powerfully induced line of sight or
complexIn lhiscoseo powerfulfocol
c e n t e irs m o n d o t o r y movement, as through a seriesof imposing archesor gates,or between

2OO LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 rows of rhythmically spacedtreesor pylons, or toward an object or space
of high interest. It may be a quiet visra acrossan open panel of turf on
either side of which things appearto be equally balanced.

Symmetry may be absolute,as in the pillared and carved and polished

A d i o g r o m n : r ' i co n d w o r k o b l ec j r c u l o t i o n
plcrn[or o ]c.,.,e-scole exhibitionorec hos ihe
fol owing fer frrres:moin enlronce,secondory
enlronces,n:rlor vrsfo,minorvislos,sfrongfoco)
po nf, moior c:rcuotion loop, minorpoths,ond
secondoryfc <:cloreos ond referencepointsfor
eosy oriento r n
perfection of the Alhambrds court of the Lions. or it may be loose and
casual.Growing things, including humans, are ofren symmetrical, for
the seedor the cell may be by nature symmerrical,and thus also are rhe
shapesevolvedthrough their development or growrh. But in the natural
landscapeplan, symmetry is a rariqr.-Vhere observed,therefore, symme-
try generallyindicatesan imposed systemof order.
It is revealingto nore that in the'western world the word symmetricalis
often taken to be synonymouswith beautiful and has the connotarion of
pleasantand handsomeform. Perhapsthis is becauseit implies an order
to the schemeof things that is easilycomprehendedand thus enjoyed by
humans. Perhapsit is becausethe word Itmmeny has come to be associ-
ated with plan clarity, balance,rhythm, stabiliry and uniry which are all
positive qualities. Perhapsit is becausewe ourselvesare symmetrical and
take pleasurein the relationship.

y''
s_._

M o i o rc n d n r r - ovr i s t o n
s e e dn o fb e
percendiculc-

T h ei e r m i n u sr : o v i s t om o y b e o s p o c eo s w e l l
n( -n ^hra.l

A m : i o ro r o r i n o rv i s t om o yb e o f u n c t i oonf
an oreoor c ,,'tlume os well os of o /ineof
opp'ooch

When the ori erminolesin o structure thot is io

be ente,ed o r,: o. 'fl.ee ope. ngs ore beffer
t h o r ' * o s i r c e ' r e 7 p ' o v i d eo r e c e p t v ee l e m e - l
roiherlhon on cbstruction C o u r to f t h eL i o n st,h eA l h o m b r oS, p o i n .

Visible Landscape 2O1

 ot-.ao-A- DynomicSymmefrY
IY \(/hen, by symmetry, rwo opposing elementsor structuresare seemingly
and tension developsbetween them'
ol held apait, an apparen.
",,i".,ron
,trongly related, to the point that the opposing elements
The wo
About o point or oreo "r.
read as orr., together with the intervening spaceand all that it contains.

The symmetrical plan has a quality of stability' Each pole generatesits

own deld of force, and berweentheserwo fields is a field of dynamic ten-
sion. Each elemenr within this field is at once in tension and in repose.
By definition, every symmetrical composition must be in balanceand,
therefore,in repose.But the reposeof symmetry is the more compelling
for the fact that it bespeaksthe resolution of myriad opposing forces
held in equilibrium.

\.-- of SymmefrY
The Despotism
Biloterol-os the doublewings of o mople seed
The symmetrical plan subjects plan elements to a rigid or formalized
I"yo,ri. Each feature musr always be consideredas a unit in the grand
composition.
\.-'
I Sometimesa symmetricalplan may give added emphasisto objects.Such
an object, for instance,might be featured as rhe terminus of a major or
Triloterol-os the groppling hook
minoi axis. Or it might be given greaterimportance through a progres-
sively evolving sequenceof approach or by its relationship to compli-
mentary o, .o-p[.-entary features' Usually, however, it may be said
q/L that the more powerful the total plan, the lessPotent the individual plan
"T" unit.
Multiloterol-os the snowfloke
A symmetrical plan subjectsa landscapeto conffol. It systematizesthe
landscape.It organizesthe landscapeinto rigid Patterns.The natural envi-
ronment is reducedto a setting or background for the plan composition.
?-

*!-I r------'t
tlL-I lr
I

A symmetrical plan subjects people to plan conformity. Not only are

the landscap. all plan featuressubjugated to an organized plan of
"trd
.'rn- things, bl'rt ro arewe aswell. \7e are held transfixed by a diagram of pat-
"T-l" ,"rrr. o,r, lines of movemenr are limited to the lines of the plan. The
plan forms control our vision. We are consciouslystirred or lulled by
Quodriloterol-os by geometry
ieveloping cadence, balanced reperirions, and the subjugation of all
S y m m e t r yp: l o n e l e m e n t si n e q u i l i b r l u m things to one concept. \7e are attuned subconsciously,as if by hypno-
sis, to the rhythmic symmetrical order of things and find ourselvesin all
ways conforming to the order of the plan. This conformity induces a
senseof harmony, but if overworked it may often produce monotony
and boredom.

It can be realized, however, that symmetrical plan forms, if skillfully

handled, may be usedto dramatizea concePtand to evokea senseof dis-
cipline, high order, and even divine perfection'

202 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE

line of symmeny. Only in such casesis
slmmetrJtlogicaland th^ '*ili*'
,oorinen
Symmetry in nciure-growingobiectsin noture
ore ollensymmetricol becouse of thebiloterol
formqtion of the,rgermcellor seed;thenoturol
londscope, o productof infinitely
divergent
forces,is rorel',,
syrnmsl,ia.;
ThenotionoJ'identicalfguresto the rigbt
and brt ofand axiswasnot tbebasisofany
theoryin ancient(European),OT?_rrro
rr*
The Greehsusedsymmetry when appropriate,
theydid not useslmmetr! when not
appropriate,and tbeyneuerusedsymmen1
in their (site)planning ,oourr
rrr"rSoorinen
Ihe Nofureof Symmetry
The symmetrical plan becomesa srrucrural framework, comparrmenral-
izing site featuresand functions. To be successful,such an arrangemenr
must be an expressionof the logical relationship of the featuresor func-
tions so grouped. The rhythmically recurring elementsof a symmetrical
scheme divide the plan field into units. Each such unit, complete in
itself, must still be related as a segmentto the total plan.
Usually, the symmetricalplan has a strong relationship to adjacentstruc-
tures. Often it is designedto extend such structuresor ro relate rwo or
more of them. Such a plan is the familiar campus quad, an expanseof
greensward crisscrossedwith walks, flanked by dormitories and class-
rooms, and perhapsfeaturing on its long axis the library or chapel ar one
end and on the other the adminisuative center. College buildings sym-
metrically placed on their quadrangle may express a closely knit and
well-balancedcommunity of learning. Such a grouping is better suited
to buildings of classicconrexr and to areaswhere a senseof established
order is to be engendered.
Symmetry is unsuccessfulif it obviously forcesunsymmetrical functions
to a symmetrical plan arrangemenr.This is a common error in plan
organization. It is painful to discover an important function balanced
against the trivial. It is pathetic to find a plan area conrorted beyond
workabiliry in order to achieve a visual balance with an areaof dissimi-
lar use.It seemsdishonestto disguisea function or falsify a form to com-
ply with the dictates of symmetry. If Keats was right in his observation
that truth and beaury are one and the same, then such symmerry can
never be beautiful, for not only must a plan be truthful to be beautiful,
its truth must be evidenr.
Symmetry is a coordinator. It has application whenever it might be help-
ful in the comprehensionof the whole of the plan or the relationship of
the parts.
A symmetrical plan may be of crystalline form. This may be desirableif the
function is by narure crystalline in its pattern of growth and expansion.
A symmetrical plan may be of geometric design. Such plan geometry
may be excellent,but only if the function can be logically expressedin
geometric line and form.
There are thosewho believethat geometry is the root of all beauty and that
beauty of form and pattern can be consistently achievedby the application
of mathematical lbrmulas to the planning process.This thinking, they
hold, gains support from the fact that people take pleasurein the compre-
hension of order. The writer contends, however, that the preference is
generally for order over chaos rather than for symmetry over asymmetry.
Visible Landscalte 203
 may destroy desirable
A plan that imposes geometry without reason
qualities of the areas
l"rdr."p. .h"."it.. or",,'"y neutralize the inherent
or objects affected'

It thus
A geometric plan, direct and obvious, is quickly comprehended'
if
h^i th. of clarity. It has also the disadvantageof monotony
"d,r"r,"g.
seenoften or for long.

Ageometricplanisnotvalidinthecontextofthatwhichisnattrralor
be set free.
*li.r, it is intended that the human eye and mind and spirit

a design expe-
In far too many cases,symmetrical plans are conceivedas
and dreary,
dient, a sort of geo-.,ri. doodling. Such plans are rePetitious
fitting'
,r.tirrrpir.d ai th.ir authors.'When geometric layouts are truly
", logic and a con-
it is found that their symmerry is derived through clear
arrangenlentas
scioussynthesisof all plan forms into symmetrical plan
appropriate and^
the highest and best ."pr.rriot of the function' \fhen
form of
when Intelligently ,ppli.d in limited areas,symmetry is a plan
compelling Power.

Asymmetry
ln nature, we can seldom find the elementsof a landscapesymmetrically
balancedon either sideof a line of sight.Yet visual balanceis fundamental

p l o n( 1 8 6 5 ) '
Olmsteod

204 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE

Churchplon(19621.
Plorsfor the University
of Colifornio,Berkeley,
-Le
r ' - d - e v e s I e c t i o r o f u i s u o l. l o g e s
The natural landscapeis an indeterminate
object;it almo.,talwayscontainsenough
diuersity to all,.,u'tthe eyea great /iber4t in
selecting,empL'asizing and grouping its
elements,and ;t isfurthermore riclt in
sugestionand iit uagueemotionalstimulus.
A landscapeto be seenhas to be composed,
George Sontoycno
The e.ye,especi,ll,j,demandscom?letuness.
Johonn Wolfgong von Goethe
: .,){E$6nns.!f: a
o
o
o
o
o o
-l
a:
? *'"7
t
New Centuryplon (20021.
disployingelements
of symmehyond osymmetry
to all satisfactorycomposition and ro all art. It is generally conceded that
any design, any picture, or any view or vista that lacks such balanceis dis-
turbing and unpleasant.Becausewe usually think of natural landscapesas
being pleasant to look ar, we might conclude that visual balance must
somehowbe inherent.This brings to mind rwo intriguing quesrions.
First, until an observerwandersalong, how could there be visual balance?
And then, doesit not seemhighly improbable that, from any given point
of observation,the landscapeshould happen to balancevisually on either
side of a line of sight?Upon reflection it would seem,rather, rhat the eye
must find or define in any landscapethose vistas,views, or sight lines
that produce a satisfactoryvisual balance.The trained eye is offended by
the unbalanced and attracted ro the balanced and tends constantly to
seekout and bring into registerthose sectionsor porrions of the visual
landscapethat provide a pleasantoptical resolution of forces.
VisuolBolonce
... The human eye is constantly darting about, probing and exploring a
vagueand luminous flux of evolvingvisual impressions.Theseare sensed
subconsciously.At inrervals,the mind permits or directs the eye to bring
out of optical limbo and into consciousfocus certain visual images.This
Visible Landscape 205

Symmetricolbolonce:equol ond like mosses
tolonc.d on eithersideof on opticoloxis
or fulcrum
Asymmetricoloccultbolonce:unequolond unlike
mossesboloncedon eithersideof on opticoloxis
occultbolonce:equilibriumochieved
Asymmetricol
by mind-eyeevoluotionof form, moss,volue,
color,ond ossociotion'
Occultbolonce
Weliue in the midst of a whirlwind of light
From this whirling confusionwe
aualiies.
'build
unifed entities,rhoseformsof experie.nce
calleduisualimages'Toperceiue/7ntmagets
to participate in a forning process:it is a
creatxue act.
Gyorgy KePes
Balancemay alsoconsis
objectsnot similar.nors
still so chosenand arcat
Lftractionson oneside t
eaualledbu the sum of r
oiher side.-This hind-of balanceis called
unsymmetricalor occuhbalance'
Henry V. Hubbord
206 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
that the eye composea visual
is a creativeeffort. For the mind demands
is a joint mind-eye
i;;. ;h", i, .o^pl.tt and in equilibrium' This
not one of form balance, Value
effort, for the acceptableequilibrium is
balance as well'
;;;;., or color b"l"n.. aione but one of associative
Themind.eyeteammaygivelittleweighttoamassiveobjectthathasno
to.that which has strong
associativevalue, but it'riay give much weight
associativevalue or i--edi"i. interest.A ripe apple swayingon a branch
of'o" quartz outweigh the
-"y ,hr'r,outweigh the tree itself, or " tht-"'k
sunbather outweigh
mountain from which it was broken, or a solitary
the immensitY of a seascaPe'
Thusnotwomind-eyecombinationsscanningascenecouldeverbring
For
irrto ,.girt., id.rrti.al visual image or combination of images' -a
"r, the possibiliiiesof composition
selective are end-
scenehasno limits, and
subconscious
l.rr. B.r., by a vastly .o,,tpiit"ttd seriesof instantaneous
impressionsvisual
adjustmentr, .".h individual createsout of optical
and' there-
i-"g., that for that particular observerare in equilibrium
the mind-eye combi-
ior.].o-plete. The rnor.,."'itive and PercePtive
richer' the more
nation has become through instinct or training, the
that it reveals.
J.tighrf,il, and the -or. r,iondrous is the visual world
A.more highly
The child or the primitive perceivesonly objectsin space'
It can be
d.\r.lop.d mind and a more selectiveeyeperceiverelationships.
composition be balanced
,..n ,h", only rarely in nature would " """d
symmetrically on .lth., side of a visual axis, but becauseequilibrium is
balancewithout
,eq'.rir.d of ail ,,isualimages,it must be possibleto have
or occult,
bilateral symmetry.This i"sindeed the case.Such asymmetrical'
bilateral symmetry
balanceis the norm. Except in those casesin which
that we com-
has for some reasonbeen contrived, it is by occult balance
pose and comprehend the world about us'
Plonning
Asymmetric
nature' Freed
Asymmetric planning brings us into closestharmony with
plan, eachareamay be developedwith
of ,h. rigidiry of the iy--".rri."l
is more
a fuller"r.g"ta for its natural landscapequalities._circulation
may be
free. Viewl are of infinite variety. Each object in the landscape
to other landscapeelements
seenand enjoyed for itself or its relationship
Such plan
rarher than for its relationship to a prescribedplan diagram.
interesting' and human'
asymmetry is more subtle, ."r,r"1, refreshing,
V. not led step by step along or through a rigid composition' \7e
"r. in the land-
are, rather, set free to .*plor. forlurselrres and to discover
useful'
scapethat which we may find to be beautiful, pleasant'or
or built
Asymmetric planning requires less disturbance of the natural
l"ndr."p.. B..",rr. it-is developedin sympathy with the site' it normally
more
requir.i lessgrading, screening,and construcdon. It is therefore
economical.

George Sonloyono
In seehingnou a reatonablysolidgraspon the
ua/ueof the u'ord, organic,we shiuld at the
beginlingfx in rhe mind rbe ualuesof the
correlated words, organisni, structure,
funcrion, glo.uth, deuelopment, form. All of
rhesewords inply the initiating pressureof a
liuingforce and a resubantstructureor
mechanismwherebysuchinuisibleforce is
made manifet tlnd operatiue.Thepresture,we
callfunction-rhe resultant,form. Hencetlte
tataofformdtscernabIe*,
ft{;"i: {?ffi"o,
Orgonic Growth
The jack pine growing on rhe mountain slope sends out its probing
roots in search of soil pockets and moisture. Its trunk and limbs are
braced againstthe winds, its needleclusrersare held up and exrendedas
a living mesh, to best soak in the cool, drifting morning fogs and to
absorb the utmost vitaliry from rhe light and warmth of th. sun. It
shapesitself to the patch of ground-the furrow and ridge, the rivulet,
the stump, the fallen log, the boulder. It respondsto the encroachment
and to the protection of its neighbors. \When a tip is bent or broken, a
new dp is formed. \Vhen a branch is smashedor rorn away, rhe wound
is healed and the gapingvoid is filled with new wood or wirh fresh rwigs
and needles.All positive qualities of the environment are utilized. All
negativefactorsare overcomero rhe limits of possibiliry.The form of the
pine is expressiveof its development in harmony with its environmenr.
This age-old processwe know to be the processof organicgrowth.
Organic Planning
Organic planning, so widely touted and so seldom pracriced, is funda-
mentally neither more nor less than the organic development of plan
areas,volumes, and forms in responseto all environmental constraints
and opportunities. Symmetrical plan form can seldom be organic in this
sense,exceptin those rare instancesin which the essentialquality of the
use is such that, given unrestrainedfreedom and developmentalcondi-
tions, its most logical plan expressionwould be symmetrical. It can be
seen that even in such a casethe impact of natural landscapefeatures
would tend to disrupt the symmetry.

The term organic designneednot be an E

F
emp4tplatitud,'. Biohglt has many ualuable
hints to ffir the designer.. . Indeed,thereis
o
much that could besaid in supportof a o
biologicalapproachto the entireprocessof
design,mainly tn tlte sensethat one broad
biologicalfeld, knorun as ecologt, undertahes
to inuestigatetl,e dynamic relationsof all the
organisms-borh fauna andflora-in natural
associationruitll eacbother and with the other
forcesof the total enuironmentin a giuen area
of the surfaceoJ'theeart/'.
Normon T. Newton

Arcbitectureis not an art, it it a natural

function. It groutson the soil lihe animals and
plants. It is a function of the socialorder.
Don'tforget that
Fernond L6ger

Visible Landscape 207

 3 great prePonderanceof cases'the
iagram will be asymmetrical' If the
oi.rr", well suited to a site' and if'
; develoPedin best relationshiP to
rd negativefactors of the site' then
such planning is trulY organic'

are best appreciated

Most things in nature, as well as most structures'
when seenin the round. The asYmn
ing. The approach of the observert
rather than fixed, giving a senseot n
plastic (sculptural) quality of an obj'
ietail, ."n b. only if the observermoves around or Pastthe
"ppr..i"t.d with greater
object. Even the^pictorial quality of a landscapeis imbued
of observation'
irrt.r.rt when observedfrom a constantly changing line

preserves
An axis may be developed asymmetrically.such a treatment
greater.plan flexibility.
the positive featuresof th. axis while allowing
induc-
ftrr.', it precludesthe controlled',measuredcadenceand hypnotic
we have found' are in some
tion of bilateral symmetry-qualities which,
axishas much
few caseshighly iesirable-but the asymmetricallytreated
more universal aPPlication.

t-r' TheUseof Asymmetry

Asymmetry is well suited to large-scale planning. The most plea-
_urban
,"rr, ,q,r"r", of Europe \7hat a sad day it would be for
"r. "ry-L"trical' in rigid
San Marco in venice if the prazz^ were to be reconstructed
symmetry. The wonde, .it",- of such towns as Siena' Verona' and
"rrd streetsand
Flor.rr..'*ould be lost to a symmetrical handling of their
buildings and spaces.

C r g o n i c p l o n n i n g f: u n c t i o n orlo o m o r r o n g e m e n t
of fomilydwelling Comeroon
The most magnificent gardenof history, theYuan MingYuan, or Garden
of perfect Bri[htness, in ruin to the west of Beijing, was
-"ry--",ric*tri.h today lies
scrupulously in plan, as attestedto by Jean Denis Attiret' a
Fr.n.h pri.r, *ito many yearsago found his way to the court of Emperor
won-
ch ien-iung.ln 1743, he wrote to a friend in Francedescribingits
ders (as quJt.d by Hope Danby in The Garden of PerfectBrightness):

ffi One quits a valley,not by fine straight alldesasin Europe' but by

-""ti.ring and circuitous routes-and on leaving one finds
oneself in a second valley entirely different from the first as
regardsthe form of the land and the structure of the buildings.
All the mountains and hills are covered with trees, especially
with flowering trees,which are very common here' It is a verita-
ble paradiseon earth.

Each valley. . . has its pleasance,small in comparison with the

whole enclosure,but in itself large enough to house the greatest

208 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 \'

n
tt
.' Lttr x

E-

TheGordenof PerfectBrightness

of our European lords with all his retinue. But how many of
thesepalaceswould you think there are in the different valleys of
this vast enclosure?There are more than two hundred.

In Europe, uniformity and symmetry arc desired everywhere.

I detesteuerythingthat is cold and academic.
Only utherethe liuing purposeexistswill neut
things beformed.
Eric Mendelsohn
Eighty-five percent ofperception is based
on sight.
\7e wish that there should be nothing odd, nothing misplaced,
that one part should correspond exacdy with the part facing it;
in China also they love this symmetry, this fine order. The palace
in Peking . . . is in this sryle . . . but in the pleasancesthere
reigns a graceful disorder, an anti-symmetry is desired almost
everyvhere. Everything is based on this principle. \[hen one
hearsthis, one would think it to be ridiculous, that it must strike
the eye disagreeably;but when on€ seesthem one thinks differ-
ently and admires the art with which the irregularity is planned.
I am tempted to believethat we [in eighteenth-centuryFrance]
are poor and sterile in comparison.

The rash of symmetrical planning that marked the Renaissancein Europe

had linle reasonablebasis.Far too often, it was symmetry solely for sym-

Visible Landscalte 209

 Yosemite
Forrs.

metry's sake,a senselessforcing of the natural and built landscapeinto

geometric patterns. No wonder our friend Attiret, like many others to
follow, found this planning, by comparison with the freedom and rich
variety of asymmetry,to be but "poor and sterile."

VisuolResource
Monogement
Visual resourcemdnagem€nris a relatively new, broad term describing plan-
ning and managementpracticesdirected toward preservingor enhancing
the aestheticquality of an areaoften referredto as a uiewshed.The term
is being applied by severalpublic agenciesto the technique of preserving
and enhancing the nationt scenery.Innovative approachesare oudined
in a number of well-prepared manuals that demonstrate a promising
new concern,

210 LAND SCAPE ARC H ITE C TURE

Essentially,for any areaor corridor of proposed for preservation,devel-
opment or rehabilitation, both the scenic(aestheticallypleasing)and the
blighting (visually incongruous) landscapefearuresare invenroried and
recordedby various graphic meansand given a rating of their visual sig-
nificance. Alternative proposals(e.g., for dmber cutting, highway con-
struction, extraction pits, reservoirs,or military installations) are then
analyzed and evaluated for their relative benefits and negative visual
impacts upon existing conditions. In deciding on the preferred roure or
course of action, the scenic considerationsare shown to be telling, and
often deciding, factors.

The proceduresdeveloped by the U.S. Forest Service are particularly

sound, easyto understand,and efFective.They are basedon rhe premise
that visitors to the national forests have an image of what they expect to
seeand that, insofar as possible,this expectarionshould be fulfilled.

They recognize and consider the numbers and rypes of viewers, rhe
duration of viewing time, and the relative qualiry and intensity of the
viewing experience. They assume that all lands are to be viewed on
the ground, from passing roads or transifways, and from the air. They
build upon the principle that all landscapeshave a definable characer
and that those with the greatestdramatic power and/or variery have the
greatestscenicvalue.They assess eachpotential view in terms of its fore-
ground, midground, and background contribution. They give prioriry
in each scene,to the dominant elementsin terms of line, form, color,
and imagery. They consider the capacity of each landscapearearo absorb
alteration without loss of its visual character. Finally, they outline a sys-
tematic, step-by-stepprocessof evaluationthat makesgood sense.Often,
in the recommendedproceduresof some agencies,far too much empha-
sis is given to the numerical weighting and tabular mathematical rating
of the various scenic elements. (How many points should be assigned,
for instance, for a view of a historic church, an acre of mountain laurel,
or a plummeting waterfall?)

It is suggestedthat in the assessmentof scenic or any other values all

quantifiable costsand benefits be computed and tabulated.The relative
weight of thesecan be establishedwith a fair degreeof accuracy.Unquan-
tifiable values,such asthoseof aesthetic,historical, or educationalsignif-
icance,can be reasonablyevaluatedonly on a broad relative scaleor on
the basisof expert testimony in the presenceof those who are to decide
upon the merits of the alternatives.

The recent manuals on visual resourcemanagement are especiallyhelpful

as aids to untrained techniciansand decision makers. Some provide the
trained professionalwith welcome new insights and advancedapproaches
to the design of the visible landscapeand have wide application.

VisibleLandscalte 211
 I

{
*'

qt t{
w "r*xp
J€*
t' *wi*,
u

-t;gl*.*i

rh
 it. The
an infinite number of viewing points by people moving through
more fluid the circulatio.r p"it.tn, rhe more points of view and, there-
fore, the more interest and enjoyment in viewing'

Mofiontmpelledby Formond Concept

One afternoon, some time ago, the coauthor entered the National

and unfamiliar things. so, aswe approach the Mercury Fountain at the
rotunda's center, h. *"nt, to make us feel at ease'And how does he
accomplish this? By the sizeof things, by scale'

,,The
figure of Mercury is lessthan life-size.The stepsleading up to the
fountain are broad and low rather than high and forbidding. The water

,And
so the architect has piqued our curiosiry, impressedus, and hum-
bled us. He has pleasedus. Now he wants to get us moving out into the
exhibit rooms. How is this accomplished?You will notice that he starts
Motionimpelledby form

of Motion
The Kinemotics
-Without referenceto the causeof movement' it is interestingto dwell for
a few moments on the various characteristicsof pure motion. By design,
the line or trajectory of induced movement may be meandering, discur-
sive,circuitous, loopin g, zigzagging,ricocheting, ascending,descending,
hyperbolic, or centripetal;it may be an arc or a direct straight shot. In

214 LAND SCAPEARCHI TECTURE

 Errotic

Curvilineor Meondering

I
\.].-
,-\ ./t\
(o)
/.^.\
/\
\J Dispersing

In-circling Looping

I
_\/
/\
/\
/\
Congregoting

Diverging
Returning

Ascending
-/- "
-/

(
fr
Mossive
I
(
)
t
Tenuous With interference

A
I
Dilution
(

Interrupted Conditionol

Lineof opprooch Abstroctvorioblesin line of opprooch to c given point, orecr,or spoce

 speed,the motion may range from the creeping-crawling to the whizzing-
*hir,li.rg. The nature of induced motion may be soothing, startling,
,ho.kiti, baffling, confusing, exploratory logical, sequential' progressive'
hieraticiin."r, *I"*lik , flowing, branching, diverging, converging' tim-
orous, forceful, expanding, contracting, and so on, ad infinitum'

The alignment, speed,and nature of motion produce in a moving sub-

ject a dirty pr.dictable emotional and intellectual responseand must
ih.r.for. be carefully considered.The abstract qualities of the path or
line by which obj..t or spaceis approachedmust also be controlled
"r,
*ith care.Motion that is inJuced must be accommodatedand satisfac-
torily resolved.This fact is also obvious, but, like so many obvious
things, it is too often overlooked in our planning'

lmpellingFocfors
We ore ottroctedto: The observantplanner soon learnsthat one is impelled to motion hori-
zontally,rr.rti.Jly, downward-when it giveseaseand pleasureof motion
,"iirf".tion in alignment. Our senseof sight, hearing, taste, touch,
"rrd
and smell are often compelling factors in the subconsciousplotting of
our coursesand the deteimination of our actions. Physicalcomfort is a
powerful factoq too.

\We tend to move:

In logical sequencesof Toward points of entry

progression
In lines of leastresistance
Along easiestgrades
In lines suggestedby directional
forms, Signsor symbols
X-Wfi'r_ Toward that which pleases
Toward things wanted
Thotwhich is impressive
Toward things that have use
Toward change; from cold to
warm, from sun to shade,
from shadeto sun
Toward that which has interest
Toward that which excites
curiosity
Theunusuol Theodmiroble Toward the beautiful, the
picturesque
For the pleasurablesensationof
motion
For the experienceofspace
modulation
Toward exposure,if adventurous
Toward protection, if
Thotwhich is necessory threatened
Toward the receptive
Toward points of highest contrast
Toward points of richest texture
or color
To attain a goal
By pride of height attained,
distancetraveled,friction
overcome
In haste,via the direct; with
leisure;with leisure,via the
indirect
In harmony with circulation
Patterns
In harmony with abstract
design forms
Toward and through pleasant
areasand spaces
Toward order, if tired of
confusion
Toward confusion, if bored
with order
Toward objects, areas,and spaces
that suit our mood or needs

216 LAND SCAPEARCHITE CTURE

 RepellingFocfors
\fle are repelled by:

Obstacles The obvious

Steep grades The undesirable
The unpleasant The uninspiring
The monotonous The forbidding
The uninteresting The demanding
The dull Danger
The ugly Friction
Thotwhich inspires The unsuitable

d fiA Mofion Direclors

The spectoculor \7e are directed or guided by:

Arrangement of natural or Signs

structural forms Symbols
Implied patterns of circulation Mechanicalcontrolssuchas
The exotic Baffles,screens,and space gates,curbs,and barriers
dividers Dynamicplan lines
Suggestedprogression such as Spatialshapes
from red to orange, from hole
number I to hole number 2

Reposelnducers
We are induced to repose by:
The superloiive

Conditions of comfort, Opportunity for concentration

enjoyment, or rest Restriction of movement
Opportunity for privacy Inability to proceed

\*o
Opportunity for fuller apprecia- Imposed indecision
tion of view, object, or detail Functions related to rest and
Pleasantarrangementof forms rePose
and space Attainment of optimum position
Thesubde Theoppeoling

Horizontal Motion
\fe are affected by horizontal motion in the following ways:

Movement is easier,freer and Visual interest is in the vertical

more efficient in horizontal planes.
planes. Most functions are better suited
Movement is safer. to horizontalsurFaces.
A Change of direction is easier. Movement is easierto control.
ll Choice of direction is Vision of moving objects is
Movement Sreater. easierto control.

Circulation 217
 Downword Motionor Decline
M lo I
l
$
Yd-.v
\. i-
\7e are affected by downward motion in the following ways:
Effort is minimized, but
fl
lll elevationmust be regained.
Safery depends on checks and
llr
on texture.
Theweird Theelegont Downward motion gives a
senseof refuge,hiding,
digging in.
It givesa coasting,swooPing
senseof being in harmonY
with the forces of gravitY.
Vision is oriented to the base
plane.
Interest is increasedin things of
the earth-in plants, water'
and minerals.
It offers relatively effortless
movement, most welcome in
fl: the home stretchwhen
Thorwhich is bold energiesflag.
tJpword Motion,Rise,or Climb
'We
are affected by upward motion in the following ways:
Upward motion requiresforce
of lift to overcome gravity.
It addsa new dimensionto
motion.
It is exhilarating.
It givesa senseof accomPlish-
ment, of conquest of
gravity.
It givesa senseof going up in
life.
It offers detachment from the
things of the earth.
It embodiesthe concept of
man or woman againstthe
sky.
It epitomizesincreasedconcern
Herghtconnotes the
inspirotlon,
ottoinment, for safetyand stabiliry and
s u b l i moen d r e l e o s e for texture of the baseplane
Depihconnotes concentroilon,
regression,
to provide necessarytraction
confinement, shelteltheprofone,ond the
weightof pressure and grip.
218 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
It givesa senseofincreased
confinement, protection, and
privacy.
It suggeststhe coalpit, the
swamp, the fertile valleY.
It embodiesthe rathskeller
concept.
It embodiesthe bargain
basementconcePt.
Downward movement and
depth are accentuatedby
deep earth colors, soliditY
and simplicity of form,
natural materials,and falling
or quiet water.
It imparts a moral implication
of exaltation, of being close
to God.
It givesa senseof being
closerto the sun, of being
rarefied.
It offers detachment from
the crowd, supremacy,
command.
It implies military advantage.
It meansattainment of the
pinnacle.
It offers expanding views and
vistas.
It offers visual interest in the
overheadplane, using sun
and sky to full effect.
All the above are increasedin
proportion to the angle of
inclination.
lnducedResponse
Ve respondby:

Relaxingin the familiar, becom- Finding security in order

ing arousedor excitedby the Finding amusemenrand
unfamiliar divertissementin the srrange,
Finding pleasurein unity, vari- in the lively, and in change.
ery and that which is fitting
Ossifring and decaying
physically,mentally,and
spiritually amid the rigid and
fixed

On the street, in crowded shopping districts, and perhaps even more

particularly in exhibit areas,we are invited, cajoled, badgered, seduced,
preachedto, begged,reased,blastedar, or otherwise attracted by a con-
stantly evolving, rolling barrageof visual persuaders.Sometimesfalter-
ingly, sometimes unerringly, we follow our eye-mind impellers toward
that which is:

Meaningful Surprising Amusing

Animated Ingenious Suggesting
Contrasting Dominant Satisfying
Unusual Spectacular Dramadc
Beautiful Subtle Sample
Varied Associative Clean
Near pix, or eye Inspiring Natural
'Sf'eird
level Strange,amid the
Decorative familiar Plausible
Necessary New Colorful
Desirable Pleasingin pattern Lively
Restful, when weary Pleasing in form Pleasantlyshocking
of tumult Pleasingin scale Bright
Startling Safe Familiar,amid
Vigorous Stable much that is
Bold Suitable strange
Interesting Convenient In motion againsta
Exciting On course fixed background
Abstract Educational Charming
Select Curious Subdued,when
Successful Exotic wearyof the
Distinguished Extraordinary bright
Sophisticated Appropriate Awesome
Comprehensible Stimulating Symbolic
Superlative Admirable Fresh
Supreme Thue Excellent
Impressive Diverting Useful

219
 often compelling
our sensesof sight, hearing, taste,touch, and smell are
the determina-
factors in the ,Jb.onr.io.r", plotting of our coursesand
too'
tion of our actions. Physicalcomfort is a powerful factor'

Disfonceos Friction
to be
In moving about by any means,distanceis consideredan obstacle
be bridged'
orr.r.o-.1area that -,rrt b. traversed'and spacethat must
t{4ren speedand economy are factors' it is incum-
with energyexpended.
as prac-
b..rt .rpoi'the planner to selector devisea route that is as direct
smooth and rapid
ticable and thai provides a minimum of deterrent to
travel.

and
Such a route would be of suitable grade and alignment. The speed
of various types and
volume of traffic would be accommodated.taffic
be
velocities would be classified and separated.All obstacleswould
removed. Grade crossingswould be eliminated. Safety would be assured
in all ways possible.Ril oblectsand elementsalong the route^wouldfacil-
it"t. ."pr.r, a freedom of movemenr becausesuch trafficways must
"rri
not only be direct and free but must also suggestefficiency'

Quo/itiesof Distonce
Positive
Distance is a function of area,and areais a function of space.Both area
and spaceare usually at a premium. In our world of expanding popula-
tior, increasingpr.rr,rr.r, we often yearn for more room and seekto
"nd
extend our constricting boundaries. \(hen boundaries are fixed, as is
usually the case,we attempt to expand them by some plan device' \fle
i.r.re"r. perceiveddistancei.This high art was long ago masteredby the
planners of those cultures that lived in compression-sn ths fortified
isl"nd or hilltop or within the ciry wall. It is an art that we, in the
increasedpl"rrrri.rg concentrationsand population densitiesof the near
future, must relearn and develoP.

to
Oftenc rompis plonnedos on olternotive
SpoceModulqtion
neorby in
steps orderto occommodote ihe
ond It is an establishedplanning fact that we seekin an areathat quality of
hondlcopped,wheeledvehicles,
equrpmenl harmony, oneness,or unity that is the mark of any well-conceivedwork
of scienceor art. \7e are attracted to such placesand rebel at the intru-
sion of the incongruous element-for example,a claptrap hotdog stand
in a beautiful natural gorge.

In addition, we seeka harmonious sequenceof transition from one space

to anorher. In going from club terrace to rhe swimming pool below a
detour througlr the parking lot would be disturbing. \7hen driving the
family frorn ho-. io a picnic spor, we would avoid the businessdis-
tricts and prefer a parkway route, river road, or country lane, to sustain
or heighten the anticipated mood and provide a pleasantly evolving
transition.

220 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 People in motion take pleasurein the sensationof change-change of
texture, light qualiry temperature, scenr,visual patterns, expanding or
contracting vistas, and the fluid visual impressions of objects, spaces,
and views.

\Wetake pleasurein an areaarrangedin shape,line,

color, and texture to
accommodateand expressthe use for which it was intended. \7e have
learnedalso that our pleasureis increasedwhen the areais further devel-
oped into a volume or seriesofvolumes that, by degreeand type of enclo-
sure,fufther articulatethe planned use.\(/e enjoy moving to and through
a spaceand around or pasr an object. \We also enjoy moving from one
spaceto another, the experienceof sequentialspace-to-space transition.

Sometimesthe transition is subtle. One may be led through a sequence

of varying spacesthat provide a complete change in use and mood in
such a way that the transition is almost imperceptible. Sometimes the
transition is powerful. One may, by planned inrenr, be so compressed
into a low, tight, dark spacethat releaseinto a lofty, dazzling, free space
is startling and dramatic. In any event, the skilled planner, by spatial
manipulation, can play upon human emotions, reflexes,and responses
as surely as does the skilled musician with the harp or flute or drum.

In one of the Summer Palacegroups near the JadeFountain to the west

of Beijing, there once existeda walled enclosureknown as the Court of
the Concubine. Here, many yearsago, lived the favorite concubine of

3,
=
!

t
;o

Spocesof posscrge.

Circulation 221
 stood her hand-
one of rhe imperial princes.At one end of the courryard
some residenceof lac'
and at the other end
whiled away the sumr
from the open Plainsc
sPaces
its lakes,*oodr, meadows,and far mountains and for the wide
in the Summer Palace,
and the freedomsshehad known there.And here,
this confining courtyard had now become her world'

The prince and his ;

within the limits of I
delight. From her fesi
the courryard were ste
ent distanceto the fa'
rigid enclosure,the fa
the lines of the convt
reduced from near to
ceptibly from the rou
scarlets,reds, orangel
lavendersand evanesr
bold in outline and fi
and delicate.'Wateri
the far ponds it lay mirrorlike and still. By such manipulations of.per-
spectivealone, the views from the concubine's quarters were made to
seemexpansiveand the pavilion remote'

As the mistressleft the terraceof her residenceto move out in the court-
yard, shepassedthrough a pungendy aromatic clump of twisted junipers
to come upon a curiously.ontort.d "mountain stone" that roseserenely
from a beJ of moss.On the stone wall behind it was incised a pattern of
'hbove
stylized cloud forms with the poetic inscription the plains of
Szechuanthe clouds rest lightly on the lofty mountain peaks." Here'
10 steps from her rerraceyet hidden from view, she could be, in her
thoughts, again among her mountains.

a wall of emerald
Just beyond, and angling temptingly out of sight, was
tile with an embossedtile dragon that seemedto writhe in splendid fury
toward an open gateway.Inside the gatewas a low stone bin spilling over
with blooming peoniesthat laced the sunlit spacewith their pastelcolors
and delicious spicy fragrance.The sound of trickling water was meant to
lead her eye roa cool and shadowy recesswhere a teakwood bench was
placed near the light sprayof awaterfall. From overhead,the branchesof
weeping willow cascadeddown until the tips dipped into the wate!
*her. gold and silver fantails drifted languidly among the floating wil-
lo- leaves.A meandering line of stepping-stonesled acrossthe pond to
disappear into the tracery of a bamboo grove where swaying finches
trilled and filled the light air with soft and tremulous melody. The thin
pathway led out beyond to a ferny opening besidethe farthermost lobe
if th. pool, which here lay deep and silent. At its edge, a carved soap-

222 LAND SCAPE ARC HI TE CTURE

 stone rable and cushioned seatswere arrangedin the shadeof a feathery
smoke pine near the stepsof the pavilion.

From. the raised pavilion platform, looking back, a surprising new vista
met the eye. For, by forced perspective, the residen.. ,..-.Jrrartlingly
near.The path that led from it was ingeniously concealed,
route ofreturn invited one to new garden featuresand spaces. ".rd "rrori.r

This masterful courtyard was designedasan evolving complex of spaces,

each complete in itself. And eachiransition, spacero spaceand element
to element, was contrived, with a deft assuranceborn of long centuries
of practicd, as a harmonious progression.

space modulation!'we in America have yet to learn the meaning of the

words. But we will learn it in the crowded years ahead, for indeed we
must; and we will develop it, without a doubt, to new heights of artistry.

Condi tioned Perception

Experiencehas taught us that what a thing is, is often of lessimportance
than how we relate to it. The tree unseen or unremembered for us does

the same,but our impressionof it changeswith our sensedrelationship.

This being so, it would seem that should we place a rree or any other
object in a space,we must considernor only the relationshipof the object
to the spacebut also the reladonship of the object to all who will use the
space.'Wemust program the user'sperception of the object by a sequence
of planned relationships that will reveal its mosr appealing qualities.

Our impressionsof an object or a spaceare conditioned by those we

have already experiencedor those anticipated. A bright, sunlit court is
the more pleasantbecausewe havejust left the leafy coolnessof an arbor.
The splashand sprayof a fountain are the more appreciatedwhen we have
approached it by way of the hot, dry sunbaked courr. The birch clumps
have more meaning when we sensethat the river lies just ahead.The wide,
free spaceis wider and freer ro us when we realizethat behind or beyond
it we have known or will know the compressionof confined spaces.

\7e plan, then, nor a single experiencealone but rather a seriesof condi-
tioned experiencesthat will heighten the interacting pleasurableimpact
of each.The Chinese epicure would understand this procedure, for ro
him or her the well-conceivedbanquet is a balancedsuccessionof sen-
sory delights.The thin, bland shark-fin soup, the brittle wafer of salt sea-
weed, the glutinous pungency of jellied egg, mealy warer chesrnutswith

Circulation 223
 crab-apple preserves'light'
almond bits, the sweet astringent bite of
fluffy fried rice, steamingSweet--Sourfish in persimmon Sauce'bitter tea,
chewy bits of mush-
.rirp ,r.g.,"bles braisedin light peanut oil' tender
eggs'the rich custard
room and meat, soft noodles"inbroth with pigeon
ofripedurian,mouth-cleansingtea,thecoolacidulousmangoandmore
Each such meal is
,.",'".td finally the lightest itd d'itt' of wines'
of gustatory'tactile' visual'
derign.d as an artisti."ily bal"t'ced'seque.nce
with lessartistry in
and"irrtellectualexperiences.Should we be satisfied
planning the placesand spacesof our living environment?

haveperceived'
Experience,we may see,is compounded-ofthat which we
rhat which we are perceiving, ,h". which we exPectto perceive.As we
"nd remem-
move through rp".. or a complex of spaces'we subconsciously
" backward in
ber that which we have p"rr.i or sensed.\7e thus orient
time and sPace,as well fo,*"'d, and find that each orientation gives
",
meaning to the other and to all.

Sequence
percep-
Sequence, in terms of planning' may-bedefined asa successionof
aswe expe-
tions having continuity. Sequenceshave no meaning excePt
rience them. Conversely'all experienceis sequential'

they
In nature, sequencesare casualand free' Sometimes,but not always'
in the expe-
are progressive.Such a progressionmay be one of ascent'as

TheFronklinDelonoRoosevelt of outdoorsPoces
Memoriolis o sequence
the fourtermsof his presidency'
interpreting

224 LAND SCAPEARCHITE CTURE

 rience of climbing from lowland to mountain peak; one of direcrion,
as
westward from the central plains acrossthe deiert, over the mountains.
through the valleys,and to the ocean; one moving inward, from the sun-
lit edges of a forest to its deep, shadowy interior; or a progression
of
enclosure,complexiry intensiry convenience,or compr.h.rrrilrr.

Developmentof codence
Sometimes the sequencesof nature are revealedwith no more order than
in.the.haphazardimpressions of an adult or a child wandering lackadaisi-
cally_th_rough
the landscape, a lonely srretch of seashor!, or among
-along
the shallow pools of a tidal flat.

The planned sequencemay be casual or disciplined. It may be ram-

Sequenceof intensificotion
bling and intentionally devil-may-care,or it may, to achievea purpose,
be contrived with a high degreeof order. The planned sequenceis an
extremely effective design device. It may induce morion, give direction,
createcadence,instill a mood, or revealor explain an object or a seriesof
objectsin space.

A planned sequenceis a consciousorganization of elementsin space.Ir

has a beginning and an end that is usually, but not always, the ilimax.
Indeed, there may be severalor many subclimaxes, each of which must
satisfy its supporting sequence.Through its suggestionof motion and
Cosuol Asymmetricol Symmetricol momentum, one feelscompelled to move from the start of a sequencero
its completion. Once initiated, sequenceand induced movemenr are ro
be brought to a logical, or at leasta satisfying,conclusion.

It can be seenthat all planned spacesare experiencedby a progressiveorder

ofperceptions or events.It can also be appreciatedthat such sequencesare
subject to designcontrol. A well-conceivedplan determinesnot only the
nature of climaxesbut also their timing, their intensiry, and the ffansi-
Sequence of olternohon tions by which they are evolved.

- -- A sequencemay be simple, compound, or complicated. It may be sus-

tained, interrupted, varied, or modulated. It may be focalizing or diver-
Controcting Exponding sifying, minute or ex[ensive;and it may be subtle or powerful.
Sequence. Abstroct
representotion
of vorious
typesof plonsequenceArrowsindicotelineof A sequencein its abstract beat or merer may, like the varied rhl.thms of a
progressron jungle drum, instill a feeling of excitemenr,warning, fear, frenzy,mysrery,
wonder, awe, pleasure,happiness, exultation, power, anger,belligerence,
challenge,temptation, regret,sadness,uncontrollable grief, or comfort.

\Woebe to the designerwho, by plan sequence,

induces in the observer
a mood or expectationnor in keeping with the functions of the plan. In
contrast, how superbly effective is that sequential order of spacesand
form that developsand accentuatesan induced responsein consonance
with the preconceivedexperience.

Plonned
sequenliol
development
of o If a sequenceis marked with a rhythmic recurrenceof one or more spa-
predeterm
inedexperrence. tial qualities-size, shape, color, lighting, or texture-a cadence soon

Circulation 225
 intensiry and rate of inci-
becomesevident. Depending upon its nature'
emodonal impact
dence,such a."d.rr.. h"s Jig^htto very considerable
" is desirable,sometimes
,fr. moving observer.SJmetimesthe effect
"p"" of any spacesthrough
disastrous.Suffice it to note that, in the planning
an understanding of
which people are to move on foot or by vehicle'
both spatial modulation and spacecadenceis essendal'

TheOrderedAPProoch
\(heninmotion,weareacteduponbythephysicalenvironmentthrough
toward a goal
which we pass.It would seem,therefore,that when moving
moving toward
we could L. pr.p"r.d, by design, for that goal'-o^rwhen
*. Jould be prep"t.d for that This
experience.
an anricipat.i."p.ri..r..,
is, in fact, the case.

membersof a fam-
As an exampleof the reverseeffect,let us considerthe
commercial
ily on theii way to a city church that fronts upon 1 busy
a little
high*"y. fu they drive aiong, they feel hurried and then perhaps
rushing traffic into the
when they -.rr, ,*Ing sharply out of the
"1"'r-.i jammed with idling
,igh, .rr,r"rr.. of ih. church dri"e. It is narrow and
.i^ th"t are waiting to dischargepassengers. After a lurching and ner-
out near
vous advance,the diiver finally sropsto let his wife and children
the church parking lot is
the entrancedoor, only to find soon after that
nearby
filled. Frantically, he crossesthe highway to park in the lot of a
church, where he squeezes
supermarket,then jogs back up the hill to the
his wife
irrio the pew besideiis familajusr as the servicebegins. He and
they
and children are ruffled and ,.nr., and the serviceis over before
multi-
regain their composure.obviously, for thesepeople and for great
to church
tuies like them, a presumably pie"rant experienceof going
has never been proPerlYPlanned.

In the same communiry let us say, another church has been sited to
front on a quiet resideniial parkway. On Sunday mornings, as the fami-
lies make their way to church by car or along the pleasant approach
walks, the church ii s.en set back, framed by trees,and serenelyinviting.
Driveways, entrance loop, and the parking areas-areeasily reachedand
connecting walks lead to a wide and spacious court, from
"deq,.rat..
whilh the entrance doors open. Here, pausing before entry, one is pre-
pared by form, by symbol, by the very qualiry of the space'for the ser-
ii.., irrrid.. Her., aft., the service,familiesand friends can meet and visit
in appropriatesurroundings.The approaching,attending, and leavingof
this^churchare all planned as conducive,meaningful aspectsof worship'

In fuian cultures, such approachesare designedwith admirable sensitivity'

As one moves,for.*"-p1., down the roadway toward the entrancegate of
temple grounds, the very streerassumesan air of reverent digniry. By tra-
of o concepl dition, ir"llr gatesclose out the temporal world and enclosea garden
Progressive reolizotion
sequentiol "nd
of o gool
ottoinment
or condiiioned spaceof tranquil p.""., a symbolic paradise. From far down the road to

226 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
the innermosr altar, the approach is designed as a superbly modulated
transition, from the crude to the refined, from the .."r, to the rich, from
the distracting to the introspective, from the temporal to the sublime.

By similar means,we may be conditioned for any planned human expe-

rience.And, by all odds, we should be.

Pedestrion
Movement
The characteristicsof pedestriantraffic can besrbe understood by compar-
ing them with thoseof a sffeam or river. Foot traffic, like flowingwater, fol-
lows a courseof leastresistance. It tendstoward the shortestdistance,point
to point. It has a pressureof momentum. It has force. It erodes.Swift
movement requiresa straight, smooth channel with increasedwidth at the
curves. If not provided, such a channel will be forced. Just as in the swift
river jutting points areworn away,rock ledgesare undercut, and the oxbow
is "strung," so does the force of pedestriantraffic grind away at impinging
or constricting forms or leap the channel to shapea new and freer course.

Just as a canal establishesthe route, rate, and maximum volume of its

boating traffic, so consrructed walks can fix the path and control the
movement of pedesrrians.Again, as wirh the meandering stream on a
level plain, the courseof such traffic may be governedby unpredictable
variables.Sometimes, in campus planning particularly, where lines of
pedestrian force are so difficult to predetermine, only the major walks
are constructed with the buildings, and the crosswalksor meandering
pathways are laid down later along those unconsciousand narural lines
of movement worn thin in the campus turf.

oo"^':ffi"lT;:iiT;ii:l)ffi:
Pedestrions
movein sequence
throughzoologicoldisploy.

An obstaclein a traffic stream, as in a stream of water, produces turbu-

lence. Tirrbulence is friction. \Where directional uaffrc or rapid flow is
desirable,islandsin the path or walkway are best streamlined or shaped
to divert and direct flowing traffic.

Intersections are points of maximum turbulence. In pedestrian traf-

ficway planning, such turbulence is often a positive qualiry as in those

Circulation 227
 Streom-ropid, concentroied flow; deep, smooth
I chonnel
€ Troffi.-r*ift movementin tolume; emphosison
velocityond freedom from friction: onnoyonce with
obstocleor divertisement

Streom-negolive current; flot, Slreom-erosion o[ force ond pressure;moss of

soft bonk woter concentrotedot edge; high, undercutbonk
Troffic-little octivity, little 4 Troffic-orientotion toword bonk; sweeping
interest;troffic oriented io interesl,Pressureiexcitement
opposite bonk visuolly ond
Streom-rough chonnel producesturbulence,rush'
by force of momentum
ond tumble
+ Troffic-friction, donger, excitement,high interest

* Streom-blending of currents
a of troffic woYs
Troffi.-.erging
Streom-meondering, slow the morsh,
the oxbow
Troffic-little motion or inieresiin motion;
X inleresl,rother; in things ond detoil

Streom-quiet,shollowbockwosh
or islond-studded logoon
Troffic-oossive, reloxed,restful

trofficos o movingstreom An onology

Pedestrion

placeswhere exciremenr,acriviry, or high interest is desirable,or where

p.rfor.. the flow of traffic is to be decelerated,or where, by plan intent'
p.opl. are made to mill and churn and jostle about. The degreeand
t-r"rrrr.of such ebullient hurly-burly may be planned, as in the market-
place, the trade show, the amusement park, or the country fair' S7hen
two or more intersectingstfeamsof traffic are to be merged into one fast,
free-flowing srream,the areaof juncture musr be widened and shapedto
provide a smoothly swelling transition and an uninterrupted flow.

An intersection must accommodate and €xpressthe functions induced by

the fact of intersection. Geographically,the placeof the meeting of streams
r}.nl-t\*,e or rivers is strategicallyimportant. For here not only are the watershedsof
two valley syste;s merged, but also the life and trade and culture that flow
down with the streams.In Pittsburgh, for example,the Golden Thiangleis
cenreredfor good reasonsat the point where the Allegheny and Monon-
ftracnq
wiltr, I gahelariversleet to form the start of the Ohio. Here, as in most such
plan*n1 Irrrr"rr..r, many inreracting forces are engenderedby the fact of conver-
gence.The conjunction, whether of water, ffade, culture, transPortation,
iroro, 11affrc,or pedestrian movement, introduces considerations that
must be resolvedor developedin the related land planning'

casual foot traffic, like a quiet srream)takesa meandering course.Thaf-

of wolkcurvesond intersections
Reinforcement
weorond
with itsconsequeni
fic that is passiveby nature or preferenceis found where quiet water on
Short-cutting,
con be Precluded
erosion, a riyer would be found, in the lagoon or island-studdedbackwashand

228 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 <I-k out of the mainstream or current. This sheltered lagoon character, with

I *
o
r
I

lo
all its designimplications, is germanero those mant plan functions rhar
are related ro, yer out od main pedestrian traffic streams. In the same
way, the swift freedom of the channel or rhe sweep of the bend is clearly
7El
to
analogousro many planned landscapeareas.
4o
El-c

ThingsSeen
Since walking is sdll the most frequent means of locomotion, mosr places
and spacesare seenby the circulating pedestrian and from eyelevel. As we
have learned, the line of movemenr may be fixed, or it may be undirected
and free, allowing a number of alternative routes and a variery of viewing
experiences.Slow movemenr engendersinreresr in detail. .Vhen we are in
c*l-l^. .( ?oaL a hurry, we tolerate few delays,but if moving leisurely,we welcome deflec-
tion and distraction. \7e have little interest in motion and take pleasure
r e - Fzl-.n.. l,^e instead in things seenor experienced.
'r-=hk. oncr,-J:^ol
TheBosePlone
Rondompolhloyout
Todescribe c,rfield-stoke
meondering poths, Pedestrian traffic moving on the base plane is sensitive to ics texrures,
meosurement3 to thecenterline
con be modeby which determine the rype and speed of foot traffic. A given rexrure nor
offsetdistoncesolongo reference
line.
only accommodatesa certain classificationof use but may attract it as
well, as in the following examples:

Tbxture Tioffit
Natural granite, rough sandstone The hobnailed boot
Packed earth, the field, the forest The hiking shoe,the moccasin
duff
Snow The ski, the snowshoe
Ice The skate,the crampon
Sand The clog, the sandal,bare feet
Turf The spiked or crepe-soledshoe,
the cleatedfootball boot
Bituminous paving The tennis sneaker
Flagstone The loafer
Cut stone, concretebrick The businessshoe
Polishedmarble The dancing pump

Disfonceond Grode
Moving under our own power, we are conscious of distancesto be over-
f
U?
come and the effort of climbing a grade. \When these are negative fac-
tors, they are reducedinsofar aspossibleby the arrangementof the plan.
=ln";tLI
n4tu
Apparent distances and grades can be reduced by route alignment, by
screening,and by spacemodulation. Paths,for instance,can loop up or
down a long, steepslope to reduce the apparent height, for the straight,
Chongesof grrde requiring
stepsprovide unbroken climb to the top is in all ways more riresome than gradual
designopportlrn
ities ascentfrom station to station along a path that anglesup rhe contours.

Circulation 229
 i
o

-
o
o

!
E
o
n
o
l d

I:
tt =t

o e
6 c,
3 =

V o r i o t i o nisn t h eg r o u n dP l o n e

Often, as we have noted, within a constricted complex it becomes

desirableto increaseapparent distancesand heights.This again rnay be
achievedin large -."i.tr. by the manipulation of trafficways and sight
",riewing
lines or by the of a peak from a pit, a pit from a peak, arLda far
corner from the longest diagonal.

Pedestriantraffic, being earthbound, is more of a flow than a trajectory.

This flow may be inducid, arresred,divided, pooled, channeled,directed,
diverted, or acceleratedby skillful planning.

230 IAND SCAPE ARC H I TE CTURE


tYhen the l,orsewas
discarded,the winding
roadsand streetsouer which hejoged weri
not discardedwith him. The autimobile
inherited tl.rem.Someof them bauebeen
"improued"
fiom tirne io time, but their basic
ftqtuol hat,eremainedunchanged.The result
of pushing Tnotlr carsout luer iheseol.droad^s
Normon Bel Geddes
The streetslitem of our cities and the road
systemofthe regionfollow archaicpatterns
which go ba,:hto a time of beastdrawn
uehicles.The needsand practicesthat created
the old thoroughfaresare entirely alien to the
auto. The old road necessarilyran tbrough the
uilkges, whrchprouided restingplacesfor
a stagewltere ltorsescould befed
Passengerc,
and exchanged.Todaythoseold regional
v6uss5-b4usbecomehighways,and motor
uehiclesspeedingalong thern carry traffic
dangerinto eaeryuilhge and town.
Ludwig K. Hilberseimer
Wespendmoreand morehundred.sof millions
of dolkrs to build rnoreand moresuper
highwaysto lnzre and more remotedistances
so that more,tnd rnorePeoPlema! driue more
and more ra?idb until theycorneto theplace
wherethey muststopand zuaitand wait
hnger and hnger-to get into tbe disnict
whereit is harder and harder and harder to
mouearoundat all!
Frederick Bigger
TheAutomobile
Highways, streets, and even driveways, as plan elements, must be con-
sidered as lethal lines of force. These lines and their inrersectionsare
and sffeets.\flhy? In the name of all reason,why?
There is, in the light of unprejudiced analysis,not one valid reasonfor
our presentcheckerboardsystemofstreets exceptfor the obvious easeof
laying them out. This seemsa sorry excuseindeed. Our streerand prop-
erty patterns were, in fact, devisedin the era of the horse and buggy and
for the convenienceof the surveyor. Becausethey so profoundly affect
the patterns of movement, the qualiry, and very safery of our daily lives,
it is high time for a change.
Vith our omnipresent automobiles we have found traffic friction in-
creasedfrom mere annoyanceto a deadly phenomenon. In self-defense
we have devised wider roads, separated roads, the overpass,the under-
pass, freeways, skyways, and multitiered interchanges. Engineers, in
solving the very pracdcal problem of moving people and automobiles
through space, have created sweeping forms of awesome grandeur. Yet
ever-new types of vehicles, trafficways, and communities must be devel-
oped if we are to domesticaterhe roaring, fuming, four-wheeled mon-
sters that we have created.
TrafficFlow
In the planning of our highways and sreets, we musr conceivethem as
friction-free paths of vehicular movement. This is their primary pur-
pose.Yet if we were to plot atypical street or highway as a force diagram,
we would wonder how a more friction-studded, danger-laden,chaoric
trafficu,ay could possibly be imagined. \7e know, for instance, that each
point at which the paths of two vehicles merge is a point of potential
conflict and that each point at which they cross is a point of hazard.
Obviously, the fewer such points, the better. Yet, with rare exceprions,
our present trafficways are so laced and interlaced with mergings and
crossingsthat their very function is precluded. How blind we have
become in our conditioned complacency!
In our trafficways of the future, the grade intersection will be eliminated
in every possible instance. Roads will be planned for fast, safe, uninter-
rupted traffic flow. Tirrning radii will be greatly increased.Rights-of-way
will be widened and shaped to accommodate and contain all foreseeable
and compatible roadway functions. Vehicular traffic of various types and
Circulation 231
There will be in the future no roadsor
trackswhich must be crossedat grade'

<hu*"

WJ w"lk
Ark ln,il
Ptr

lna,a5lmtSSto>t
sloping grade or ridgetoP!
olhe',
*ao(-'ew1

of sofety,
In theinteresi ond economy
efficiency,

ovoldedinsoforos feosible

ln the Londscope
The contemporary highway with its adjunct approachesand structures
is not only the most dominant feature of our landscape,it is also the
most salient factor in our land and communiry planning. once estab-
lished in any landscape,a roadway becomesa potent feature and imme-

=
o

is
Grode sepcrolionwithoutinierconnection
ofien desiroble

Theleft-turn
underposs (oroverposs)
Highwoycrossing providedwithouthozordor
of trofficflows
interruption Pedestrionond outo seporotion.

232 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
obsoleteall prior conceprsof land planning.

Far too much of our landscapeis presentlyexperiencedat the sametime

In the new landscapefor living, all motor and pedestrian traffic will be
segregated.Our living and working areaswill be readily approached and
servicedby the automobile, but they will be oriented to, and interspersed
with, attractive, refreshing pedestrian spacesunpenerrared by roadways.
\Walking will again be a pleasurewhen it is freed from the
sound, sight,
fumes, and danger of rushing traffic and when it leads us through places
and spacesdesigned for walking and congregating. And our moror$/ays,
designedsolely and specifically for free vehicular movement and riding
pleasure,will seema dream on wheels.

The relationship of land use areas and buildings to trafficways is dis-

cussedin other sectionsof this book. In consideringvehicular circulation,
however, it would be instructive at this point to list the key principles to
be applied in the location and design of roadways, approach drives,
motor entrancecourts, and parking compounds.

TheRoadwoy
Every roadway, be it a rural drive or an urban expressway,is a unique
work of design and will have its own regional and functional character-
istics. In planning trafficways of any type or magnitude, however, the
following principles will pertain.

Determine tbe most rational alignment. This implies efficient con-

nection. The roadway will weave between and provide accessto
activiry centersand areasof population concentration. It will fol-
low existing boundary lines and borders insofar as feasible.It will

Circulation 233
 growth and fit
respond to the toPograPhicalforms and vegetative
into the landscaPe.
Accommodatethe trffic. The eventual carrying capaciry is basedon
the servicearea
the bestpossibleprojection of developmentwithin
to..beconstructed
of the roadway corridor. If the full f"titiry is not
all future needs'
initially, the right-of-way should be adequatefor
A first requisite in
Preserueth, notuiol ,Trtems'andscenicsuperlatiues'
width. It will
this regard is a right-of-way of "-pl. and variable
allow flr a[ forese'eable lanes,shoulders,side slopes,and drainage-
include such
ways without crowding. It will expand in placesto
and rock out-
,r"irrr"l landscapef."tuie, asstreams,ponds, groves,
usesand to
crops.It will alsoprovide buffering to screenunsightly
Evenwlthlnurboncreosthelegollyprescribed protect and enframe desirableviews'
shouldbe widened include number
riohFof-wov
feotu os ponds,
Prouide the optimum crosssection' Lane widths and their
oid pr."r"iu"suchnoturol traf-
sfreoms,rovines, or grovesof ir , os will depend upon projected traffic types and volumes' V4ren
high, the topography is rough' and if existing con-
to lhefreewoY
"furnishings" fic volumes
"r. plan for
ditions and land i"lrr., p.i-i,, it is usually desirableto
can often
separatedroadways.Earth*ork and constructioncosts
thus be reduced ,o lnor. than recoup the additional land taking.
The advantagesinclude the reduction of the roadway scale,the
elimination of headlight glare, the reduction of side-slopeheight
and width, and a more natural landscapefit'
Adjust the horizontal curuature. Major high-speedroads are designed
*ith radi,rs curves and interconnecting spirals. Lesserroads are
often designedwith tangenrsconnected by radius curves at their
points of Irrt.rr..tion. Minor roads and woodland trails usually
jurt f..l their way along the land and between the treesand other
obsracleswithout benefit of geometry. The important point is
that in evefy casethe planned centerline is to be field-stakedand
In consideringolternoiehighwoy cotions, adjusted to avoid ,,rrfor.re.n obstructions and problem areasand
weiqht shouldbe given to ihot on which pro-
to take full advantageof the topographical setting and views.
vides the oestsceric otiributest e olignmeri
A h o s o v i s u o l l yp l e o s o n pi o t h A l i g n m e nB
t Adjust the uerticalprofiles concurrently. The best vertical alignment
does not rolls with the contours to require a minimum of clearing,grading,
and erosion control. It must provide clear sighting of oncoming
vehiclesand points of roadway entry from the sides.It must also
ensure the positive drainage of the roadbed and the adjacent
swaleso, g,ri,.rr. The degreeof rise or fall is an important safery
factor in inclement weather.
Designfor stabilitV. A well-built road like a well-built structure starts
*i.h solid foundation. In the consrruction of any roadw'ayit is
"
essentialthat the basebe stableand well drained and that the suc-
cessivecourseslaid thereon be interlocked and well compacted.
The total section, including slab or wearing course,is designedas
a unit to best withstand the local climate and support the antici-
six-lone
Arteriol: divided
divlded Six-lone
pated loadings.
Priuide a suitable driuing surface. In texture, the surface will give
grip under adversewearher conditions. In color it will be at once
h."t-r.fl..tive, easyon the eyes,and differentiated from the hues
the rlght-of-woy of the road-edgesoils and materials to give visual definition. on

234 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 major roads this definition of the traveled roadway can also be
achievedby edgeand centerline striping. The useof native crushed
stone' coral, or gravelsas surface ag}regateis always appropriate.
Build in the safetyfeatures. Reduced gradients, wider l,.r*"r,
"or-
trolled access,and elimination of on-grade crossingsare all con-
ducive to safery. other protecrive fearures include guardrails,
reflectors, and clear directional signage.At special nodes such as
majgr oflramps or interchanges,roadway illumination by nonglar-
ing light sourcescan be helpfrrl.
Keep the structuressimple. The best highway srructures-bridges,
overpasses,underpasses,retaining walls, and 6ulysft5-are usually
sl,p{
direct expressionsof their purpose, the localiry and the materials
of construction. In some local situations, as in parks, rough-
I dressednative stone and rough-sawn timbers may be used effec-
tively. Usually, and especially on highways, unadorned concrere
Sliplonein tneorteriolmedion
and structural steelare more appropriate.
Coordinate the informational slstem. Good directional signage is
easilyvisible and complete. It gives the right information at the
right place and in a clearly comprehensible form consistent with
the character and design speed of the roadway.
Ue indigenousplam ntaterials. The best planting of any roadway is
achieved by the preservation ofall possible existing native vegeta-
tion. Selectivethinning is usually needed to articulate the road
edges,enframe the views, and createa pleasantly modulated volu-
meuic enclosure.Supplementaryseedingand plandng are in the
main installed for slope protection and erosion control.
enaironmentof euerycitizen. In the open, uncultivated countryside a highly effective proce-
Aldo leopold dure is to seed all disturbed roadside areaswith a hardy strain of
wild grass.An undulating border is then mowed wirh a sickle bar,
while the naturalized area is left uncut ro receive a crop of wind-
blown seedsfrom the adiacent meadows and woodlands. Trees,
shrubs,vines,weeds,andwildflowers combine in time to produce
a maintenance-freeroadsideof indigenous beauty.
Maximize the landscapeualuel In every casea well-designed road-
way will be aligned through the landscapein such a way and be so
constructed as to preserveand display the best features and views
while attaining a harmonious fit. A good roadway provides com-
fort, interest, and pleasure to the traveler. A good roadway is also
,-- \ a good neighbor.

TheApproochDrive
In the selectionofa proposedsite for any project, the off-site approaches
are a primary consideration.\flhat one experiencesin coming or going
Whenevero n:cdwoytronsects o noturol
may be a decisive factor. If for example, the approach to an office cen-
forrn,disruption
Iondscope ond/or costly
is lhe result
construction ter or residential communiry required passagethrough a freight yard or
deteriorating neighborhood, one would look for other choices. Con-
versely,if the traveled route would lead through a forest preserveor past
an attractive shopping court, this would be a positive factor.

Circulation 235

The psvchology of arriual is moreimPortant
rhai you thiZk.'tf ir is not obuiouswhereto
parki if thrrc is io room ro Par! whenY,ou
'get
thire, if you stumbleinto the backdoor
oloohins
foi-rhefront entance,or if the
,rrroii is baity lighrcd'you will haue
subiectedyour{ueststo a seriesoJannoyances
*iirh *itt lin/er long in rheir subconscious'
No matter hol, warm your hearth or how
b,eautifulyour uiew, tie ouerallefect will be
f rst,rr,K!#o"D.
dimmedbyrhese
Ghurch
-4
Lockof interesFmonoiony
Outword thrust-rePulsion
lnword oull-ottroction
Most residentialstreets(forcedto comply
with rieid subdivisionstandards)are grossly
o,rersizEdand by their width destroy the
livabiliry so much to be desired.
Increasedstreetwidth meansincreased
speed,hazard,cost,and disruPtion.
On-streetparkingis a principalcauseof
traffic-relatedaccidents.
236 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
approach.will influence or
In locating a project on any site, the line of
.I.-..t.t but will probably
dictate not only the position of the structural
use areasas well. Assuming
also determine the relationshipsof the site
an existing circulation
that an approachdrive is to beie,reloped beween
require-
drive or *i.., a proposedbuilding, let us considerthe design
"rrd
ments. All elsebeing equal, it should:
entrance is best
Announce itselfat thepassingroadwary' The driveway
the most logi-
locatedwhere it *"nt, ,i U.. T.nit is at the point of
calpenetrationorhighestvisualinterestalongthefrontingprop.
streetnumber
.rry lirr.. The drivewly should be_wellidentified by
be considered in relation-
o, appropri"r. .nr,""tt sign' It should
shipto driveway entrancesand nearby landscapefeatures'
"ij"..n, one in with recessiveforms, as in a coveor harbor'
It will invite
Inplanlayoutandsitetreatment,itwillSetthethemeforallthat
liesahead.oftenitwillintroduceatthegatewaythematerials
andarchitecturalthemethatwillbeusedthroughoutthesite
development.
set at a
Prouid'e,4 orrrs and egress' The driveway entrance.is
down the
poirrt *hi.h will .rrr''rl. safe sighting distance.YP "lq
passingStreetorroadway.ItisnottobelocatedjustbelowasteeP
are
crest or around a sharp curve' Abrupt turning movements
avoided, and, where possible, a glide-in entry with a generous
lane is
turning radius is planned. on larger projectsa deceleration
often p"rovidedifiraffic volumes are heavy.A right-angle roadway
entranceconnection is best for two-way sighting'
Deuelop a pleasant transition. \7e design an attractive space and
theme sequencefrom driveway throat to building entrance to
parking .orrrt return. The drive width may vary' swelling at
".rd
lh. drilr" entry, at the curves, and at the forecourt, always sug-
gesting traffic flow.
\we devisea transition from the characterof the highway to the
characterofthe project and sffucture, be it a residence,an aPart-
-We
ment tower, a businessoffice, a shopping mall, or a school'
move from the scaleof the passingroad to the scaleof the build-
ing entrance courr, from high velocity to repose..Atone instant,
fof e"ample, a person may be whisking along the trafficway at
whistlingsp..d; r*o minutes later the samePersonmay be stand-
ing contemplatively ar the building entrance._Beween the two
.o.rditionr are telling changesin mental attitude that must some-
how be agreeablyresolved.By the design of the driveway,the vis-
itor must be preparedfor the experienceof arrival'
Be logical. Thi approach should present the driver with a mini-
-Irn ,r,r-ber of decisions. It is to be remembered that traffic
tends to the right but also to the easierfork and to the easier
grade.The pathway should be obvious but restrained.This is to
I"y th"t it must read clearly ro the driver while intruding as little
as possibleon the natural landscape.
 'TH€
O@EP, €F EES'DENTIAL SYR.EITS
Takefull aduantageof the site. The alignment of the driveway pre-
senrsan excellent opportuniry to plan for the visual unfolding or
realizationof rhe site-its topography, cover,vistas,views, and bet-
ter landscapefeatures.It should be aligned to reveal the pleasantly
undulating edge of a woodlot or planting, the modeling tf g.ound
forms, and the counterplay of tree u.rrrk againsr t.." ,-r,r.f, -"r,
againstmass,texture against texture, and color against color asone
"L* pavA moves along.
35
4o-5o
t6 Moue with tlte contours. To preclude unnecessarydisruption, the
50 27
6o drive should flow wirh or angle easily acrossthe .orrtorrri. often it
7o15o vule.
24 +24 may follow a broad ridgeline. Again, it may move up a drainage_
24-?2
way ro the side of and preserving the natural flow line, thus gain-
ing positive drainage at one side while enjoying a degree of
protection and concealment. Becausea driveway and its guffers
often provide for the storm-water flow from large of th.
properry, the grades should permit surface flow without "r.",
undue
erosion. It should also provide for the gravity flow of any contigu-
ous storm or sanitary sewers.
Aaoid splitting theproperty. The driveway alignment will be such as
to reserveas much land as possiblein an undisturbed condition.
The planner will strive to rerain the best landscapefeatures while
defining cohesiveuse areas.
Be economicalin layout. The driveway will be kept short for econ-
omy of consffuction and easeof maintenance. Other consid-
erations include the relative ease of excavation, a balance of
cut-and-fill materials, and the alternative costs of drainage srruc-
tures or bridges.
Be safe. Avoid crossing other drives, walks, birycle ffails, or active
use areas.
Be consistefi. Keep the quality of the approach drive consonant
looJucl
aca*nie or{l
n
- ll- with that of the site, the proposedproject uses,and rhe strucrures.
g6lfrq Reuealtbe structuresgradually. Design the approach road to make

ry
the first impression of the properry and buildings atractive. A
building is usually more interesting if seenfrom a curving drive
approach, to show its form and extent before attention is centered
ylih ,
a|-lJ.
'ft)
on detail. Much of the nature of a suucrure is thus revealedby a
lu,e erl-{.->o. ?nouiJ.' Jesi"oLr. , planned exposition of its sculptural qualities from a drive that
n.ttJ6+,at k-lq, ^ c lov-sp.xJ
'of
li^eal accttruq,
uc , ull+
'
''
ulll a <asz
<asq'6f
+out) nol
leads past or around it. Open successiveviews to the strucrure,
^eqhb""hed d !
Jl <loud n.l
loe i ,*t
ac.iJ too.j
dcrif,
+@- ao!6a5
@tl'|",+ *fareJ,;h
",1 each from the optimum distanceand position and with the best
T[€ cL-- DE-SAc attainable enframement.

/.6\\ TheEntronceCourt
Yr 'w'I
The entrancecourt is an integral part of both the approachdrive and the
building. It terminates the one, introduces the other, and unifies the two.
Theopproochloop Turn(otleft)is controryto
normolflow Approochfromthe cenieror right The driveway should never appear to collide with a building but should
inducesthecorrectturningmovement rather sweep toward and past it.

Circulation 237
 giqelzs , use
)ic' r,oa)ua'1 .
tlalbr gt ,"fio"^l.
Uo o{-tfnr4 P4rkh1

u€SrgENTtAL L@P SrzEET

L*f nrs,Je^[;^l-hr"*

e;u6-collula Cal-de.gc

- calleclat

[Fs,Pf,NTIAL 51EEET5 AND U./AYs

would be able to pick up the car and circle back ro passengersat

porkingcourts
internol the building entrance.

238 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 P-,F-1,I-!k,
ntudtaPPdT
o

;
o

C c , n s i d tehrr l r o n d i c o p p e o
Re;erve sicll :f exirow dth,withdepressed
c u r b ,n e o rJ e d e s t i n o t i o n

Accessibility
mustbe incorporoted
intocirculotion
plonning

Screentheparbing areas. A direct view from the entrance courr inro

the parking areais not usually desirable.Except for commercial or
businessoffice projects,a well-placedparking or sewicecompound
is convenientbut incidental to and secludedfrom the building.
.- rl*., Consider muhiple use. A parking compound may be located for
key'l hee-
shareduseby severalbuildings or acriviry areasconcurrendy.Or ir
may serveone purposein daydme and another for eveningor off-
peak hours. Parking areas,when not in use for their primary pur-
pose,may also serveother functions such as recrearion,assembly,
or temporary storage.Accommodate the vehicle.Sincethe parking
court is planned for the efficient storageof automobiles,it musr be
designed with full understanding of the maneuvering require-
ments of the car. These dictate gradients,turning radii, aisle and
stall widths, and paving textures,which may well vary ro differen-
tiate lanesof movement and areasfor parking srorage.
Ln"l Considerthe disabled. The parking compound with its backings and
turnings is an areaof specialhazardfor pedestrianswith impaired
vision, hearing, mobiliry or other handicap. For them, bayswith
, [if[l+?. ;llup-afi,^ widened stallsareto be reservednear building entrances.Moreover,
* +h< ""P? ?P"^*,
as an added saferyprecaution and to preclude the random move-
ment of vehicles, the traffic flow pattern is to be kept simple and
well defined,with the entire areailluminated. Those with parcelsto
carry,strollersto wheel, or children in tow will be grateful.

Circulation 239
 small
Segregateseruicetffic,' S.ervicevehicles range in size from
delivery and refusetrucks'
motorized .""' i"d pickups to larger "building
entrances'collection
They requi.. .ottt"ti""t "ttt" to
vaults' and similar locations'
stations, mechanical rooms' utiliry
and parking areasare
*ft.n practical, servicevehicle circulation
and are designedto accom-
SQITVlct-
,.p"r",.d from passengerautomobiles
and holding
modate th.I"'it' tt"ii"g radii' maneuvering sPace'
Paffernsrequired' and
Plan Jbr ,*rrg,,'y)""'' Fire trucks' ambulances'police cars'
access'The,site plan must
utility servicevans require building
.orl al eiJz they need to go' If direct
?a',k\ ensure,1r", ,t.r. t"hitit' t"" gt' *f,t"
and other paved areasmay
road accesscannot be provideJ' walks
3111vic€ with this Purposein mind'
be utilized, p,o"ia"d th"y "" designed

Trovelby Roil,Air, ond Woter

Asidefromtheautomobile,thetraditionalmeansoftransportingpeople
<hrrl ^na gooar havebeen t'"i"', planes'and
waterbornevessels'Their routes'
have set the locations of our towns
pa"k,1# builh 1 {n'l crossings,and points of tottt"tgtnce
regionswith the essentialoutlets
and cities and provided their Jutlying
fo, prod.,tts and manufactured goods'
"gri.rrl,trr"l
their purposewell' Recently'
The railroads,ships,and airlineshaveserved
however, they have t*ft'itt"td increasingproblems.in their stubborn
that they maintain their
insistence,and ,o-.tit"es forced '"q"i'"mtttt'
and people concurrently' The
original all-purposet.i. tf moving goods
5O1lt4.
new forms of conveyanceby rail'
cwo functions are incompatiblt' At
as will be
water, and air .-.t;;, 'h" carrierswill be highly specialized'
4'-o€[ their router, and terminals' Improved means of transit'
"q.ripi-ttnt, esiablishedconceptsof land
transportation, and distribution will change
fa,,Ery "l4nt neal use, communiry, and city and require "
*-hol. new planning approach'

Trovelby Roil
Passengertravelbyrailinitsmostrecentformsisknownasrapidtransit'
Sometypesarestreamlinedversionsoftheoldinterurbanorcommuter
underground'. or elevated'
trains. They move on fixed rails on grade'
some with wheels that are
Somevehiclesare equipped with steel*httlt'
.""r.a. All are highly #o-"t.d and can be computer-controlled.other
a sin-
*hith are suspendedfrom or propelled along
< ryp", r..r.linked J"r, at
4+nezl All systemshave been improved to a point
;: ;t multiple glideway.
sound' and highly efficient'
i"fri.ft th.y -. ftht, b,ight, enviro,nmentally
to point within a region far
They can -olr. p"opl. fi g'ot'p' from. point
-o.'. opidly l"" lo"'pt' mile than the passengerc^r or bus'
"nd "', accepted?
rXrhy,,ft"rr, ir"rn, rapid transitteen more widely

placeseachday than is gen-

First, it doescarry many more peopleto more
,r:^Jly,rali"ed. The 'y'*-' of San Francisco'Toronto' Mon-
"dt'""ttd

240 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
treal' and\Tashington are promising examples,asare the guided systems
of Disneyland and Disney\7orld. \7here rapid transit h"r"not succeeded
or has failed to realizeits full potential, rhere are common causesat the
root of the fai[ure.For insrance:

T\ dyellings within the communitiesseruedAre too widety dispersed.

In the typical single-family-homesuburb, it often t"kes longe, to
drive to or be driven to the station than to ride from station to
destination.
The transit connectionsare not direct. At the downrown end of the
line, the station is often blocks away from the office, shopping, or
cultural centers.
The smtionsare inadequate. They are often grim. old railway sra-
tions or other obsoletestructuresare sometimesconverted to the
new usewithout remodelingor thought for the convenience,com-
fort, or pleasantrelaxation of the waiting passengers.
Thepassingsceneryis ugly. Some roures, using the old railroad track-
age or right-of-way, provide the most exrensiveslumming excur-
sions extant. By establishedrailroad custom, the public must ride
the sameroute asthe tank cars,flarcars,crated chickens, and bawl-
ing calves,past the rear doors ofthe soap factory, junkyard, and
slaughterhouse.It is not a good way ro artract or hold would-be
commuters.

c
o

o
=
o

o
!

o
@

Multiplemodesof trqnsportotion.

Circulation 241
 TheTronsifPotentiol
The mass movement of PeoPle
is the dential concentration and regio
The solution to public transit
of actiuiry to
centers which
p;;;iG
can ride together'

or
means by which-to structure
The transiway is planned as a
types of residentialcommunities
restructure the region and new
and urban activirF cores'
transit is conceived in terms of
The experi.rr.. of i'""el by rapid
from center to center'
,"f., .ffi.i.,tt, and pleasurablemovement
and planned 1 a complete and
The transit f".ilitf i,'f'og'"rn-ta
communities' stations' vehi-
interrelated *h;[' i" ;'ht' words'
oper-
cles,routes, are planned together asa smoothlv
""Jtt'-itti
ating system'

Trovelby Woter
hull,
.when we think of a boat in motion, we think of a smoothly gliding
course of a
."t"r"g wake of ,;;il; wa.ter'-and dancing light' The
" it moves' is fluid and undulating'
boat, like the water ttt'ottgi which
t curves in wide arcs and must be
Even at rest at its mooring' a boat
to boats at rest or in motion should
Tronsitnode community.A-Stotion with
minicor
litY. In every waY Possible'smooth
dwellings ond
storogeond rechorge.Multifomily ructions eliminated' The heavy'the
conveniencecenter.
They are destructive and
B-Dwellingswithinwolkingdistonce' .- rough, the jagged, the sharp are-out of place'
cortsor
C-Minitronsit occessby oll-weothergolf imp"edingi" i".t and disturbing by connotation'
electricbus.
tides' a boat requires for its
Being exposed to the elements and the
and pier pro-
;;;i"g; shelteredharbor or a protectivepier' Harbor
o' combination of both'
vide such shelter by topography' structu"' "
fi;r; p.int, of ir".t'iti"o"tt*ten the water and the land' where the
mobileandfree^...,t,.Static'Thefactofthismeetingmightwellbe-
developed .tp**i i" plan forms' Indeed' no great stretch of
"na "ll that any structu.rerelated to
the imagination is required to t"'dt"t"nd
drama of the relationship is
water and boatways iains when the full
exploited.

k conceived as a
A summer cottage on a lake or bay' for example' !::'
the solid to the fluid' the
planned transition from land to water. It relatei
peripheroltronsPorlterminols -irr.r"ltotheaqueous'theconfinedtotheexpansive'andstrong-cast
shadowtoshimmeringlight.oftenitprovidesalsoatransitionfromcar
Energyconservoiion
ropidtronsit. it overhangs'overlooks;
Regionol , to yacht, yawl' or ro*-bo",' It is terraceddown;
(economicnecessily)moysoontorceusfo oo it embraces'ramPs
whot reosonso for hosnot it ,.r..r* off and then subtly or dramatically reveals;

242 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
bor, and the lighthouse, our site plans and srrucrureswill expressthe
land-and-warermeeting.

lllustrotion
courtesyol the NotionolCopilolPlonningCommission's
Wotertrovel. Exfendingthe LegocyPlon.Rendering by MichoelMcConn.

Boarways and waterways, when well conceived, have few detrimental

characteristicsand many attractive fbatures.Large bodies of water ame-
liorate the climate, enliven the landscape,and provide a direct and inex-
pensive means of travel and transporration. Rivers follow the valley
floors. Usually, their easygradient encouragestravel along their banks as
well as upon their surface.They, together with their feeding streamsand
rivulets, promote a lush growth of vegetation and the most pleasing
landscape environment of the regions through which they pass. All
waterwaysattract industrial, commercial, and residential development.
How can they all be accommodated?\Which should have preference?
The solution here is not usually one of blanket prohibition, for such
prohibitions tend to dam up overriding pressures,but is rather one of
planned relationships. Lucky the region or city that is empathetically
related to its rivers, lakes,canals,or waterfront.

Circulation 243
 TrovelbY Air

requtl
essentialplan forms or objects
their app
especiallyat the airports and

ortly after' the pressureof economics

andtheadvanceofsciencewillhavereducedtheear.shatteringroartoa
hum'
Pleasantwhistling

AnairportshouldrightlybeplannedasaPort.Hereagain,inthisairhar.
meeti"g an^dall induced transitions
bor the land meets oipori,.. This
"r, requirements
;;;,alyzed"rrd #pr.r,ed. All current or foreseeable
"r;
and characteristicsof planes' at re
dated' Further' the joint use of air
withtheirvaryingspeeds,needs'andcapabthtleswlllnolongcl|.)cLL,rLl.
able.tansportplanes*illb.relatedtoindustrialanddistributioncen.
be linked to centersof population
ters. passengerplanes"rrJ por., will
andurbanactivity.r,o-th.surroundingtownsandcitiesnewexclusive
be necessary, aswill a systemof strategi-
his light, we can consideran airport pri-
n ultimate experienceof travel in
".tl (or'
park, check baggage,andenplane
, brgg"g", and leaveby car'-limousine'
., .r.tint",,tlPted swooP' There are' of
course,manyotherconsiderationsintheplanningofanairport.

Airportsrequirelargeareasofflattopographyorlandthatcanbereadily
such areasare often of neces-
_ojin.a to girr" lorig, level ,,rrr*"yr. B..arr.e
many port
G "-ott,iht ttt'Jt"ty of airports is to bring to the:qot ":
rooms, libraries,and even
i".iti,i., aspossible.Hot.lr, th."t.rr, conference
centers have been planned into
recreation,amusement, and shopping
interest of increasedefficiency'
the airports as revenuep'od"tt"' F A:
future'
all extraneoususesmust be limited in the

244 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

 =

Exterior
escolotor.

A municipal airport is no longer a landing srrip, a windsock, and a ticket

booth. The modern airport is an extremely intricate complex of myriad
related functions. These must be studied to determine their optimum
relationship to the cities and the region that the airport serves.Like all
projects planned in the landscape,the airport musr be studied in rerms
of minimizing its negativeimpacts and increasingits benefits.

PeopleMovers
The need for increasingnumbers of personsto get from here to there,
usually in a hurry, has given rise to a whole array of vehicles and devices
that have been grouped together in the category of transportation and
circulation systems.\Tithout them, many of our newer governmental,
businessoffice, commercial centers,and even zoos and botanic gardens
could no longer function. In type and sizethey vary according to the dis-
tance and height to be traveled,the number of passengersto be carried,
and the rate of speedrequired.

Mouing zualkuays,chairways,and escalators. These are a low-speed,

step-on-and-off means of movement that can be used alone or in
combination, indoors or out.
Automdted,cars. Electronically controlled automated cars that move
on rails or guidewaysare, in effect, horizontal elevators.Used singly
or linked, they can transport groups of people at moderate speeds
for distancesranging from severalhundred yards to severalmiles.

Circulation 245
 monoroil'
High-speed

246 LAND SCAPEARCH I TECTURE

Coblecorstroversesteepslopesond ruggedterroin.

reducethe need for internal roadsand relianceon rhe more cosdy,

more space-demandingautomobile.

lntegrotedSysfems
It might be thought that the proliferating assortmentof people conveyers
would lead to utter chaosin their weaving in and our, up and down, and
back and forth on crisscrossingroutes and trajectories.Far from it. These
vehiclesprovide, at last, the components needed to fir together a rarional
systemof multimodal transportation. Theyprovide the key ro rhe sffucrur-
ing or restructuring of the regionsand metropolitan areasaround intensive
multilevel ffansit-transportation hubs. These concentratedactiviry centers,
freed of automobile traffic and the divisive interchanges,srreers,and park-
ing lots, can become again urbane and delightful pedestriandomains.

The sterile vehicular trafficways and parking lots will be replaced by

terraced plazas,garden courts and malls, and refreshing in-city parks
through which people can move about on foot or be transported from
level to level and center to center in year-round comfort.

Automobiles will swish through the open countryside on controlled-

accessparkways, fieed of trucks and buses.They will provide safe and
pleasant alternative means of connection betrveenthe urban and regional
nodes,where they will be stabledat the periphery.

New integrated sysremsof circulation give promise of innovative and

vastly superior conceptsof land and community planning.

Circulation 247
 :lii'l

n theory.archirecrural and engineering srructures

areconceivedby rheir
I
I designersasthe ideal resolutionof purpose,time, and place.When this
is achieved,the resulting strucrure-be it a cabin or cathedral,an aque-
duct or amphitheater,a windmill, barn, or suspensionbridge-is mem-
orable for its artistryr The cities and landscapesof history are studded
with such masterworks, many surviving ascherishedcultural landmarks.
It is fortunate that in contemporary times we ma)r travel to study and
learn from *1grn-1s understand their admirable traits and qualiries.

What qualities, then, are common to the great examples?

C o m m o nD e n o m i n o t o r s
It can be observedthat, with few exceptions,at the time of their build-
ing, notablestructures:

. Fulfilled and expressedtheir purpose-directly and with clariq..

. Reflectedthe cultural mores of their time, location, and users.
. Respondedto the climate, the weather,and the dictatesof seasons.
. Applied or extendedthe state-of-the-artcurrent technology.
. Fitted compatibly into the built environs and the living landscape.

Borry W Sforke, E

249
 Purpose
only
rm follows function"' is valid
functiontranscendsthe delimiting
exPres-
t funcilon in the context of
as tradi-
ludes such considerations
fi tness'
Proceedin blithe
We contemporaries [easibiliry' acceptabiliry' and
of
t'uti'"nd lessons or
iil;^,J;f,ht
we are must ed can it be said of a structure
hi.,;"; If we, proud spiritsthac
i.;;;';";,;"ih fi"th'nd' there.needbe no function or PurPose'
we aresurrounded by examptes
oroblem'for
5f,h;;;J the bad and needonlY
"nd eyeto disdnguishart
i.".1.FlJr;ning Culfure
from error. being or
narion is an evolving state of
The culture of a communiry or level of
-i.ta-"t.'if i-fiit" sometimesoverkindly' a certain
a right ro communal
A buitding is a rhing in itelf It .has manifestation of a peo-
and wtill
rcgether nature' a civilization. As such, it is at any glven tlme the
be rhere,is it is'
ideas or things that are acceptable
compensationof contrasts' ple's beliefs not
Morcel Breuer "r,a "'ii*it;'-Jh;t litmus test is by custom applied
and those thar are ^.i. 1'ni, cultural per-
of mt'sic' literature' and art-but
onlv to dr.rr, food'l "J *"t1"
structures'
Architecture subtlyand eloquentlry insertsitself ;;; ;;, particularly to buildings and other
moue.us
into thesite,absorbingitspower t0
and in return offering to it the symPttowc ious imProvement and some innova-
eLements of humangeomeftY' :mttimes violently' that which seems
Le Corbusier
so' it would follow that the architect'
the Planning stage might well take
and accePtance'
Public aPProval

randscapesnot^only conform to dis-

Successfulstructuresand planned
..rrring public taste;they "'l"'o upgrade and refine it'

Locolity
Masterful structuresarean expressi'
out of their site.They accentuateits
structuresis a highly developedexer'
reflects,distills, and often makesm
character.It utilizes every favorable
and bracesfor the directionalwind
andfavorableviews'Ittracestheorbitofthesun.Itdesignsintoandcom.
poseswiththeadjacentbuiltenvironment.Themarkofawell.cclnceived
degrades,its site and surroundings'
structure is that i.'.nh"rr..r, rather than

TechnologY
Architecture,engineering'and la
time an art and a science'The art I
craftsmanshiP,comPosition,and t
the organization of structural an(
with the timelesslaws and princi-
tion of human needs,all in accordance
plesofnature.

250 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 Technology in recenr years has advancedwith astounding
rapidiry. In
the designof structures,for example,ir was not long thlt presrressed
"go
concrete was unknown, as was steel reinforcing, electronics-or
even
electriciry, for that matter. Now, with a broad r".r"g" of ,r.* materials
and
construcion techniques, the possibilities have expanded manyfold.
vith
the emergenceof compurer technology the design of physical structures
has takenon new dimensions.

Environs
'what
have theseadvancescontributed to the betterment of our environ-
ment? Not much that is evident. Not yet at least. \fe can get around
This,mgef.o,rrsolatingeuerythingis nuly a
moaernstckltess' faster,.build higher, and communicare wirh the speedof lightlBur many
comirro sitte would hold that the net resulrsof our building in this ageof mechanical
marvelshas been to trash and grievouslypollute .rot o.rly our immediate
living environment, but the grearercontinental land masses,the deprhs
of the seasthat surround them, and the atmosphereaswell. clearly, our
technical and sffuctural capabilitieshave outstripped our ability to envi-
sion and realizea world in which srructuresare conceived and built in
full awarenessof nature'sforms and forces-and in harmony with the
living Earth. A critical changeof courseis the challengeof our times.

Buildingcomposition
formsoutdoorspoce.

Composition
Compositlon of structures
When o slruclure
is lo \il/e physical planners like to think of ourselvesas masrersof spaceorga-
be reofedio o o,venoreoor spoce.boththe
.hnno ond rho -hnrnrlor ^f lho ^ro. ^r q^a.a
nization, yet in truth we are often baffled by the simplest problems of
lry rhspositioning
will be o{fectec: of the spatial arrangementand structural composition. V4rat, for insrance,are
SITUCIUTE the designconsiderationsin relating a building ro its surrounding seaof

Structures 251
 two buildings facing each other
spaceor to its fronting aPProaches'or
structuresto eachother and the
acrossan intervening mall, or a grouP of
beginning'
spacesthey enclose?1etus start from the

ond SPoces
Buildings
for instance'how much
If we were to placea building on a ground pl"l:'
,p".. ,fto,rtd *. it? First' we will want to seeit well from
"llo* "'ot'id or
iit"pp-".hes' The sPacesabout it should not only be large enough
spatial qualiry to compose
,-"ti .to.rgh but also of the right shape-and
want to be sure that enough
with the structure and best dislplay it' \fle
exterior functions,
giuesdirection room is allowed to accommodate all the building's
terraces'
Pour Rudorph including approaches,parking and serviceareas'courts' Patios'
expressionsof
recreation areas'or g"rd.,t'' 5t"h 'p"tts are volumetric
the structure and
the site-stru.t.rr. di""gr"m. \fle want to be certain that
composition.
its surrounding spaceiare in toro a complete and balanced
so- should the open spaces that they
Just as all buil-dingshave PurPose'
to the character,
i.fi.r. or enclose.Su.h ,p"c.i must be clearly related
mass,and purPoseof the structures'

nature of
often the form of a building itself is not as important as the
knows
the exterior spaceor spacesihat it creates.The portrait painter
second-
that the outline of a figure or rhe profile of a head is sometimes
and the sur-
ary tothe shapeof the spacescreatedbetween figure 9r held
figure to
rounding piciorial .rrfra-e-ent; it is the relationship of the
So it
the ,.,rrJunding shapesthat givesthe figure its essential.meaning.
in
is with buildings. our buildings are to be spacedout in the landscape
with other
such a way as to permit full and meaningful integration
structuresand spacesand with the landscapeitself'

E Groupsof Sfructures
m \When rwo or more buildings are related, the buildings, together with
the interrelated spaces,become an architectural entiry. In such a situa-
d tion, each struct;re, aside from its primary function has many second-
ary functions in relation to the assemblage'
5=_!
The buildings are arrangedto shapeand define exterior volumes in the
best way possible.They may be placed:
Ix
As enclosingelements
t_l As screeningelements

t____l As backdrop elements

To dominate the landscaPe

t___l To organizethe landscaPe

To command the landscaPe
l-'---'l
L'____-:.1
To embracethe landscaPe
To enframe the landscaPe
Spoi.olpenetrolionof sttuct.-rre To createa new and controlled landscape

252 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 To orient the new landscapeoutward or inward
To dramatize the enclosing structures
To dramatize rhe enclosedspaceor spaces
To dramatize some feature or features within the space

They are placed, in short, to develop closedor semienclosedspacesthat

An isolated ,:i4t dwe/ling, sx.tspended
as it taere best expressand accommodatetheir function, that best ..v."1 th. struc-
i1 spLce,is t:,uta Utopian drcan. Ciry tural form, facade,or other featuresof the surrounding suuctures, and
dwellings should always be considerei as the that best relate the group as a whole to the rotal exrensionallandscape.
componentparts of groupsof structures,or
dlStrXCtS.
Jos6 Luis Serr \7e have seentoo often in our day a building rising on its site in proud
and utter disdain of its neighbors or its position. \7e searchin vain for
any of those relationships of form, material, or treatment that would
Forasthere('annotbea socialhhea6hy compose it with the existing elementsof the local scene.Such insensitive
'
onlyof egotistic
P.0P,lQlon..c,tttsisting planning would have been incomprehensible to rhe ancient Greeks or
tndtutduattsts.hauing no commo.n spirit,.
so Romans, who conceivedeach new structure as a compositional element
tberecannotbean architecturally heahhy of the street, forum, or square.They did not simply erect a new temple,
communi t1 co
- nsi
----"
st i ng
-6of
-r '-r
self-sufi
-'-rr--'-'
cient
bu;U;ngr.' a new fountain, or even a new lantern; they consciouslyredesignedthe
Eliel Soqrinen street or square.Each new structure and each new spacewere contrived
asintegral and balancedparts of the immediate and extensionalenviron-
ment. These plannersknew no other way. And in trurh, there can be no
other way if our buildings and our cities are again to pleaseand satisfy us.

Buildingdominotes
the urbonlondscope.

Each building or structure as a solid requires for its fullest expression

a satisfying counterbalance of negative open space.This uuth, of all
planning truths, is perhaps the most difficult to comprehend. It has
been comprehended and masteredin many periods and places-by the
builders of the KarnakTemple, Kyotot Katsura Palace,or the gardensof
Soochow (Suzhou), for example.\We still find their groupings of build-

Structures 253
 satisfyingharmony and
ings and interrelated spacesto be of supremely
has its satisfyingmeasure
bi"rr..; each solid h", it, void, each building
extension, genera-
of sDace,and each interior function has its exterior
tion^,or resolution of the function'

.what do we conremporary planners know of this art or its principles,

and error, modifica-
which have been .rrolrr.d ,ir-"gh centuriesof trial
have a highly
tion, reappraisal,and patient '"efi"ete"t? The orientals
terms of
derreloped^ planning discipline that dealswith such matters in
t.rrrior, ,.por.l Though its tenets are veiled in religious mysticism,
"rd .1."r. It is a conscious effort in all systemsof
its plan application,
"r. of all
.o-pori,io, to artain a senseof reposethrough the occult.balance
plan elements,whether viewed as in a pictorial composition or experi-
.nc.d in three dimensions:

The near balancedagainstthe far

The solid againstthe void
The light againstthe dark
The bright againstthe dull
The familiar againstthe strange
The dominant againstthe recessive
The acdve againstthe Passive
The fluid against the fixed
Stotic
or
In each instance, the most telling dynamic tensions are sought out
arrangedto give maximum meaning to all opposing elements and the total
firu ,.h.ri.. Th-ough reposethrough equilibrium must be the end result,
it
is the relatiorrrf,ipof ,h. plan elementsthrough which repose is achieved
r-.-
-natr.*Z that is of utmosi inr.r.r,. It is the contrived opposition of elements,the
sy
'-/ studied interplay of tensions,and the sensedresolution of thesetensions
lry\++(
_ that, when fully comprehended,are most keenly enjoyed'

A group of srructuresmay be planned in opposition both to each other

,o th. l"ndr."pe in which they rise, so that as one movesthrough or
"rri
about them, one experiencesan evolving composition of opposing ele-
ments, a resolution of tensions,and a senseof dynamic rePose.A single
ffee may be so placed and trained as to hold a distant forest or group of
smaller trees in balanced opposition and give them richer meaning. A
lake shining deep and still in the natural bowl of a valley may,by its area,
corrfor-"tiln, and other qualities, real or associative,hold in balanced
reposethe opposing hills that surround it. A plume of falling water at
th.l"k.', far-end may balancethe undularions of its points and bays.

*walter Beck, long a student of oriental art and composition, has said of
the superb garde.rsthat he planned at Innisfree: "on a wall, at the lake
edge,is ,o.k which I call the dragon rock; it is the key in a grouping_of
"
a fieldof dynomic stJnes
generole
whose function is to hold in balancethe lake and nearby hills;
Cpposingslructures
tension whose function is to cope with the energiesof the sky and the distant

254 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 landscape."rIt can be seenthat tremendous compositional interest and
power can be concentratedin such key objects-rocks, sculpture, struc-
tures' or whatever you will-thar by design may hold ^ gri^t system of
elementsin balancedtension and thus in dynamic repose-.

It would seem,from a comparison of the European and oriental systems

of planning, that the \Testern mind is traditionally concernedprimarily
with the object or srrucrure as it appearsin space,while the Eastern
mind tends to think of srructure primarily as a means of defining and
articulating a spaceor a complex of spaces.

In this light, Steen Rasmussen, in his book rowns and Buildings, has
graphic comparison of rwo imperial parks, that of King
T"d. 1_T".aling
Louis XIV atversaillesand the SeaPalaceGardensin Beijing. Both were
completed in the early 1700s,both made use of huge artificial bodies of
watet and both were immense; but there the similariry ends. A close
study of these rwo diametrically opposed planning approaches,illus-
trated here, will lead one to a fuller understanding of the philosophy of
both occidental and oriental planning in this period of history

Too often, when placing or composing sructures in spacewe revert to

Peking,
SeoF'coce gordens cold geometry. our architectural libraries are bulging with building
plans and diagramslaid out in crisp, abstractpamernsof black and white
that have little meaning exceprin the flat. Ir is small wonder that build-
ings that take their subsrancefrom such plans are destinedto failure, for
they were never conceived in terms of form in spaceor of spaceswithin
form. The world is cluttered with such unfoftunate rravesties.The intel-
ligent planning of buildings, parks, and cities is a far cry from such geo-
metric doodling. A logical plan in rwo dimensions is a record of logical
thinking in three dimensions. The enlightened planner is thinking
always of space-strucrurecomposition. His or her concern is not with
the plan forms and spacesas they appear on the drawings but rather with
theseforms and spacesas they will be experiencedin actualiry.

Many Renaissancesquares,parks, and palacesare little more than dull

geometry seenin the round. One clear,srrong voice crying out against
such puerile designwas that of Camillo Sitte, aViennese architectwhose
writings on city building first appearedin 1889 and whose ideasare still
valid and compelling today. It was Sitte who pointed out that pre-
Renaissancepeople used their public spacesand that these spacesand
the buildings around them were planned together ro sarisfythe use.There
were market squares,religious squares,ducal squares,civic squares,and
others of many varieties;and each, from inception through the numer-
ous changesof time, maintained its own distinctive qualiry. These public
placeswere never symmerical, nor were they entered by wide, axial streets
that would have destroyed their essentialattribute of enclosure. Rather,

Versoilles
Pork 'From Painting
with Starch by \il'alter Beck (Van Nostrand, Princeton,

Structures 255
 narrow' winding ways'
they were asymmetrical; they were entered by
to and for the space
B".nr Urritaingo. obje.t within the spacewas Planned
and merge there.
and the ,,.."i* of pedestriantraffic that *ould converge
fountains' and
Th. .".rr.., of ,.r.h sPaceswere left open; the monuments'
placed on islandsin the
sculpture that were ,o ,.ru.h a part olthtm were
and besidethe
;;"i4. parrern, off building .o^.r.rr, againstblank walls,
to surfaces'
.rr,r1*"yr, each positioni with infinite care in relation
-"rr.r, ,p"... Seldomwere such objectsset on axiswith the approach
".rd drtract from
to a building o, it, enrrance,for it was felt that they would
it was felt that the
the full appieciation of the architecture.Conversely,
work of art'
axis of U.ritaittgwas seldom a ProPer background for a
"
were rarely
Sitte discoveredthat such important buildings as cathedrals
placethem
placed at the center of an op.n ,p"tt, aswe almost invariably
off to the
iod"y. Instead, they were set ba;k against other buildings or
the best
,id. to give a b.tt., view of facade,spires,or portals and to give
i-pr.rr]o., from within the squareot fto- its meandering approaches'

Ru/esof Composition
Down throughthe centuries,much thoughthasbeengivento the estab-
lishmentof fi"ed formulasor rulesthat might governbuilding propor-
rions,or the relationshipof one building to another,or the relationship
of a building to its surroundingvolumetricenclosure '

squareits ffict tuouldle greytbdiminished.

ve ceaseto wonderat tts ,rxentattonAnA
other locationaladuantagesoncethisprinciple
becomes familiar.
The incient Egtptians understoodthis
principle, fo, as Giua elataand the litile
'snnd'beside
the entrancen the Cathedralof
Padua, the obelisksand the statuesofthe
Pharaohsare aligned besidethe templedoors. Miloutine Borissavlievitch, Number
in his absorbingwork, The Gold.en
Thereis the entire secretthat we refuseto
decipherndaY'
Gqmiilo sine

tThough Borissavlievitchis speakinghereonly of proportions,it is to be noted that the

Ia*s oithe sameand the similar apply aswell to materials,colors,textures,and symbols'

256 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 Solzburg

Nuremberg

7C
,rzZrta
m Modeno

Strosbourg
Perugio

Genevo
?

w
Gotlomelolo

Lucco
Poduo

The lau of the same. Archirectural harmony may be perceived or

createdin a structure or composition of structuresthat attains order
through the repetition of the sameelements,forms, or spaces.
The lata of the similar. fuchitectural harmony may be perceived or
createdin a composition that attains order through the reperirion
of similar elements,forms, or spaces.

Borissavlievitchnotes that "whilst the Law of the Samerepresentsuniry

(or harmony) in uniformity, the Law of the Similar representsunity in
yatiety." He wisely notes also that "an artist will create beautiful works
only in obeying unconsciouslyone of theserwo laws. \X/hilst we creare,
we do not think about them, and we follow only our imagination and
our artistic feeling. But when our sketch is made, we look at it and
examine it as if wewere its first spectatorand not its creatot and if it is
successfulwe shall know, becauseof our knowledge of these laws why it
is successful;if it is not, we shall know the reasonof the failure."

"The beautiful," said Borissavlievitch,"is felt and nor calculated."

Leonardo Fibonacci,an Italian mathematician of the thirteenth cenrury,

discovereda progressionthat was soon widely adapted to all phasesof

Structures 257
 planning.HenotedthatstartingwithunitsIand2,ifeachnewdigitis
progressionof 1' 2' 3'
made the sum of the previous tio, the" resultsa
5,8, 13,21,34, ,o forth, which' translatedinto plan forms and
"^i that the progression
,ny,ir,''r, is visually pleasing.It was later discovered
this'
the growth ,Iqtt^tt of pfants and other organisms;
"ppro"i-".es minds of designers
of .o,rrr., added to its interest and confirmed in the
"organic."
the notion that this progressionis "natural" and

lived in the first

Marcus vitruvius, a Roman architect and scholar who
proportion that
century before Christ, set out to formulate a systemof
search he undertook an
h. .o.rid apply to his plans and structures.In his
ancient Greece.In
E exhaustive,tudv of th. architectureand planning of
and
; ;h;;;;rte of his work he produced a book setting forth his findings
a unit of'mea-
€ ."oo.rrraine his theorieso.r th. anthropom,rphicmodule,
5 ,.rr.,,'..t, b""r.d ot the proportions of the human body' This was to have
a profound effect on the thinking and planning of the Renaissance.

tl

\l

r -jr
,,j ir.La
d\ -r:'r"'
4F"1
'::r-
*rtsY
The conviction that architectureis a scienceand that eachpart of a build-
ing has to be integrated into one and the same systemof mathernatical
-*;t-r ' 'lJ' t-r
;r"e{

,"Iio, -"y be callJ the basicaxiom of Renaissance architects.Today,we

The Vitruuian Jigure inscribedin a circleand
squarebecamea-symbolof the mathematical
,i*oathy- betweei -arrolot* and microcosm.
RudolPh Wittkower
physical planners are srill searchingfor the modular systemmost appli-
cable to our contemporary work. one of the distinguishing marks of
fundamental order, or mathe-
Japaneseplanning and architecture is a
-atical ..l"tionrhip, of the elements.This stems, at least in part; from
the use of the tatdmi, or woven grassmat (approximately 3 by 6 f'eet)'as
a standardizedunit of measurement.Tiaditionally, a modular grid sys-
tem based upon this unit has been the foundation of most building
plans and surrounding sPaces.By this system'a room is a given number
of -",, in length and width, and a building plan is so many mats in area.
In their pl".rrri.rg, the Japanesemake use also of the I2'foot dimension'
which is divisibleby 1,2,3, 4, and 6.
If a unit such as a closetor a caserequireslessthan the full module, it is
not distorted to fill the module; rather, it is set free within the module
and composedwithin the modular framework. The fact that an object is
smaller o, l"rg.r than the module is not concealedbut is artistically
revealedand elucidated.This approachwould seemto be clearlysuperior
ro our American modular systemsby which components are designed

258 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 (or forced) to fit preciselywithin ,
form order also differs significantly
Europet Renaissance,which worsl
such a free and flexible sysremof n

Structures
in the Londscope
'we
have seenhow the ancients struggled with the
uisuar aspectsof archi-
tectural composition, of trying ,o Ir.",. a
fairer world in their own
rational image.They found within the mathematical
contexr no univer_
sal rules exceprthose of order, proportion, and
scare.could it be that in
o their compulsion to measure,compare, and debate
,h.y o*rlooked the
ultimate truth so evident in all of naturet srrucrur.r?
Thi, is the laut of
I r(f4 ftness. The law of fitness would revearto us that th. optim.,- srrucrure,
of any type, is that which for its time and place
and *irh ,h. mosr eco-
nomical use of materialsbest fulfills its purpose.

'!7itho^ut
exception nature has fashioned,in the mast-and-spar
consrruc_
tion of each tree, the skeleton of eachanimal or bird,
.".higgrh.ll, and
eachweed stalk, a srrucrure of urmosr simpliciry strength,
an"i resilience.
Each as a form is eminently suited to its functior.
E"L is designedand
engineeredwithout concern for aestheticS, each, in
ret its absorutefit-
ness,is intrinsically beautiful. could it be that a dogma
of rules and for_
mulas could preclude rather than foster meaningfuidesign?
could it be
that a preconceivednotion of plan form and ,tr.r".t,rr"r ,#p.,
could pro-
duce archaic buildings? could it be rhat, as in natur., oL,
t o (r,11 most inge-
nious and handsome srructureswill be derived in a forthright
searchfor
ev-ermore expressiveform? It could be. The unselfconsciou-s
architecture
of the New England farm, the Greek hill town, and the African
council
house all share nature'sdirect approach, and all, in their
ways, are elo_
quently expressive.

As with structural forms and objects, narure has much to teach

us, as
well, in the plan layout of our homes and cities. \we have yer to
r5(i 5J
seean
axial anthill or a symmetrical plan arrangementof a beavercorony.
The
creaturesof the wild have learned to fit their habitations to the narural
land conformation, to establishedpatternsof water flow, to the force
and
direction of the winds, and to the orbit of the sun. should nor we be
as
responsive?

Yet we have all seen rowers with expansesof metal and heat-absorbing
2t (+6)
glassfocusedinto the rays of the sun. 'we are all too familiar with broad
avenuesaligned to receive,unchecked,the full brastof prevailing winter
winds. \7e recall groupings of campus buildings whiclrhave corirpletely
destroyedthe natural characer of the hills anJravines upon which they
have been imposed. \fle know of checkerboardcommunities laid out in
utter disdain of contours, warercourses,or wooded sropes,or geology,
d e s i g no n d p l c n n i n gc o n c e r n storm, or view.

Structures 259
 and siteplanning by
If there be a lesson,it is this: Architecturebyformula
l-r-r {l sterilegeomeffyare equally doomedto failure'

--r Individual buildings are sometimes spacedout

Three disconnected Plon elements
Addition o[ conneclivelinkoge
Furtherorticulotiono[ plon circulotion
lntegrotlonof structures
as deployed units of a
composition' It t"tt be seenthat such structures
and
g;.",.,
"-ltit..t,.rri impact than would
?fr. ,p".., they define .olnbi"t to give a more telling
singlestructt"tlf the group' Sometimes this is desir-
b. pirribl. foi
"ty seemsmost
,om.times it is nlt. Such an arrangementof structures
"bl.; alsofunctions as'a"part
reasonablewhen eachbuilding not only aPPears6u
servesas a unit of
of the total compl.*. Ir, .rr.r/case in *tti.tt a building
cohesiveand unified
an architectural group, the entire group is treated asa
composition, ."ih structure owes allegianceto the whole'
"rri
individual units' In
Buildings may be arrangedfreely in the landscapeas
of.a complex' they
such cases,when they i..d tot be planned as Part
more freedom'
and the spaces,ro,rti them may be designed-with.much
rather 'ne of
Their relationship is not on. oi building to building but
building to landscape,with all that this implies'
at.considerable
Buildings of similar charactermay be dispersed'even
a landscapeand unify it-as
distancels,in such a manner as to dominate
of
in a universiry campus or military installation. Though a greatvariety
element
uses may be given to the intervening landscape areas' each
within tire visual field must be compatible by association'

by theoddltionof structurol
Clossificotion
elemenlsplusdeflnitive woys
circulotion

h b u i l d i n gc o m p o s i t i o n
Plonned

v {-

Diverse relotedby clrculotion

plonelements
pollerns

260 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE

Ribbonpotternin lree olignment,to flow with
the topogrophy Site-structure
hormony is
pleosontlyevident.
A T-squoreond triongleloyout:order without
reoson monoionousin the extreme.
Buildingsorronged in o free compositionol
pottern.Note the pleosontvorietyof defined
spocesond building relotionships.Such
groupingsprovideq more reloxedond
pleosonienvironmentfor liuing.
Vorio.rscompo;i"onororrongemen's
oI
oporlmentslruc:iL
res
complex and its fronting lake are in effect composed as an inrerrelated
unit, in which the lake adds much to the resorrand resorr,in turn. adds
to the ambienceof the lake.
A factory and its receiving and shipping yards are designed to and uith
the railroad. A roadsiderestauranris planned asone with the highway in
terms of landscapecharacter,sight distances,approaches,resolution of
momentums, and composition of spacesand forms.
It is to be rememberedthat a building complex, asmuch asa natural for-
est grove, has its own landscapecharacter.This must be recognizedif it
is to be accenruaredby the planned relationships and supporring sire
treatment.
Some buildings are sraric.They stand aloof and are complete in them-
selves.Such structures are no doubt valid when the intended architectural
expressionis that of detachment,grandeur,the austere,or the monumen-
tal. They require that their serringand site development be in keeping.
Other building groupings, by their very plan layout, seem to express
human freedom and interaction. They form a responsiverelationship
with nature and the constructed landscape.It can be seenthat not only
the structuresthemselvesbut also their abstractarrangementdetermine
to a large degreetheir characterand the characterofthe larger landscape
areathat they influence or embrace.
Often, scattered buildings may be brought into a more workable and
visually satisfying relationship by connecting them with paved areasor by
well-defined lines of circulation. Again, this integration may be accom-
plished by the addition of structural elements such as walls or fences.
Sometimes tree rows or even hedgesmay suffice to bind them together.
The elementsthar unite such structuresmay ar the sametime define for
each the most fitting volumes of related space.
TheDefinedOpen Spoce
Open spacesassumean architecturalcharacterwhen they are enclosedin
full or in part by structural elements.Such a spacemay be an exrensionof
a building. Sometimesit is confined within the limits of a single build-
ing or enclosedby a building group. Sometimessuch a spacesurrounds
a structure or servesas its foreground, as a foil, or as a focal point. Each
such defined open spaceis an entiry, complete within itself, But more, it
is an inseparablepart ofeach adjacentspaceor structure. It can be seen
that such related spaces,structures, and the landscapethat surrounds
them must all be consideredtogether in the processof design.
A defined outdoor volume is a well of space.Its very hollowness is its
essentialquality. \Tithout the correspondingvoid, a solid has no mean-
Structures 261
 o G--*
o

o
o
o

.....rrrllrllrrrrrr
If
o
:

oPenspoce
defines
Architecture

of the
ing. Is it not then quite evident that the size' shape' and quality
neg"ti,r. spacewill h",r. powerful retroactiveeffect upon the acljacent
" il-satis-
poii,i,r. masses?Each structure requiresfor its fullest expression
^f.ing
b"lance of massand void. The samevoid may not only satisfytwo
asa
o, ,ior. solids and relatethem to eachother, it may also relatethe:m
grouP to some further structuresor spacesbeyond'

v4eateverits function, when the hollownessof a volume is a quality to be

desired,rhisconcavit
letting the shellread
by incurving, bY bell
forms, by letting thr
down into out of the base,by digging the pit, or by depressinga
"rrd.rp
water basin or reflec
the space to infinit'
cloggedwith Plants
the volume should t
be in all ways maintained.A well-placedarrangementof elementsor
even a clump or grove of high-crowned trees might well incre,rsethis
senseof shell-likehollowness.

The defined space,open to the sky,has the obvious advantagesofflood-

ing sunlight, ,h"do* prtterns, airiness,sky color, and the beauty of mov-

262 LA N D SCAPE ARC H I TE C TURE

 ing clouds. It has disadvantages,
roo, but we need only plan to minimize
theseand to capitalizeon every beneficialaspectof the-openness.Let us
not wasteone preciousyard of aztre blue, one glorious burst of sunshine,
or one puff of welcome summer breezethat can be caught and made to
animate, illuminate, or aeratethis outdoor volume that we plan.

If the volume defined by a structure is open to the side, it becomesthe

focal transition berweenthe strucrure and the landscape.If open to the
view, it is usually developed as the best possible viewing station and
the best possibleenfiamement for the view seenfrom the various points
of observation.

Abstroct
composition. Thegordenof Ryoonii, Kyoto,surelyoneof the10 outstonding
gordensof oll time,is on obstroctcomposition of rokedgrovelsimulotingtheseo.
Thewolledspoceexponds thelimitsof thereloted monosteryrefectoryondterroce.
Designedoso gordenforcontemplotion, it owesitsdistinction
to itssimplicity,
its
perfection
of detoil,itssuggestionof vostspoces, onditspowerto setfreelhe
humon mindondsoirit.

The defined open space is normally developed for some use. It may
extend the function of a structure, as the motor court extends the
entrancehall or as the dining court extendsthe dining room or kitchen.
It may servea separatefunction in itself, as does a recreation court in a
dormitory grouping or a military parade ground flanked by barracks.
But whether or not it is directly relatedto its structure in zse,it must be
in cltaractez Such spaces,be they patios, courts, or public squares,
{l ) Sondedgrrund,{2) moss,{3)stone,{4)eorth
w o l l ( 5 )t i l ep : r e m e n i(, 6 )o r n o m e n tgool t e , become so dominant and focal in most architectural groupings that the
andl7Jveron,icr very essenceof the adjacentstructuresis distilled and captured there.

Structures 263
ll
t,l
 enterprise. How
This integration of habiration with nature is an exacting
is it to be achieved?As a beginning:

scouts
Exploreand anal|ze the site. Just as the bird or the animal
surveys
ih. t.rrito.y for the optimum situation, just as the farmer
the lay
the holding and laysout fields and buildings to conform to
of the l^rrJ, l.rrt ,o -.rr, the planner of each home and garden
come to know and respond to tht unique and compelling condi-
tions of the selectedsite.
land
Adapt to the geologicalstructure. The conformation of everv
aie" is deteimin-edlargely by its geologicformation-,!. convolu-
tions, Iayeri.tg,r'rph.",rals,erosion, and weathering of the under-
lying strata.Th.re establishthe stability and load-bearingcapaciry
of the various site areasand the easeor difficulty of excavationand
grading.They determine aswell the structure, porosity' and fertil-
ity of ih. ,.rfroil and topsoil, the presenceof groundwater' and
the availabiliry of freshw"r.r,.,.""'' Onlywith the knowledge of
subsurfaceconditions, gained by test holes or drilling or the keen
eye of experience,can one plan to the site with assurance'
Preseruethe natural systems. Topography, drainageways'waterways'
vegerarivecovers,bird and wildlife trails and habitat all haYecon-
tirrrrity. one test of good land planning is that it minimizes dis-
ruption of establishedpatterns and flows'

Toke odvonioge of noiurol site chorocterisiics.

Adjust theplan to fit the land. In the recomposition of solids and

,'oids the srructural elements are usually designedto extend the
hill or ridge and overlook the valley.\7ell-conceived plan forms
honor and articulate the basicland contours and water edges.The
prominence is made more dominant, the hollow and cor.emore
recessive.
Reflectthe climatic condition. cold, temperate, hot-dry, or warm-
humid, eachbroad climatic rangebrings to mind at once planning

266 LAND SCAPE ARCHITECTURE

 'sTithin
problems and possibilities. each range,however,there are
many subareavariations of climate or site-specificmicroclimate
that have direct planning implications.
Design in response to tlte elements. Protect from the wind. Invite the
breeze.Accommodate the rain or snow.Avoid the flood. Bracefor
the storm. Tiace and respond to the arcing sun.
considrr the human factors. on- and offisite srructures, ffafficways,
utiliry installations,easements,and evensuch givensassocialchar-
acteristics,political jurisdictions, zoning, covenants,restrictions,
and regulationsmay have a telling influence.
Eliminate the negatiues. Insofar as possible, all undesirable fea-
tures are to be removed or their impacts abated.The undesirables
include pollution in its many aspects,hazards,and visual detrac-
'When
tions. they cannot be eliminated, they are mitigated by
ground forms, vegetation,distance,or visual screening.
Accentuatethe bestfeatures. Fit the paths of movement, use areas,
and structures around and between the landscapesupedatives.
Protect them, facetoward them, focus upon them, enframe them,
and enjoy them in all conditions of light and in all seasons.
Let the natiue characterset the theme. Every landscape area has its
own mood and character.Presumably,thesewere among the chief
reasonsfor the site selection.Only if the indigenous quality is not
desirable or suited to the project use should it be significandy
altered. Otherwise, design in harmony with the theme, devising
pleasantmodulations, light counterpoint, and resonantoverrones.
Integrate. Bring all the elements together in the best possible
dynamic relationships.This is the lessonof narure.This is the pri-
mary objective of all planning and design.

\Thatever the rype of dwelling, be it a single-family home, a townhome

unit with garden court, or a tower apartment . . . whatever the location,
be the site urban or rural, mountain or plain, desertor lakeside. . . the
planning approach is rhe same.

H u m o nN e e d so n d H o b i t o t
lffhat would the ideal garden home be like? As a clue, observationwill
teach us that at least the following requirementsof mosr home dwellers
should be satisfied.

5he/rer
The contemporary home, like all before it, is first of all a refugefrom the
storm. \With the advent of sophisticatedheating devices,climate controls,
diversified construction materials,and ingenious structural systems,the
concept of shelter had been brought to a new high level of refinement.
But architecturallythis basicfunction of shelteris to be servedand given
clear expression.

Habitations 267
 Protection
from the elements
This implies saferyfrom all forms of danger,not only
the natureof poten-
but from fire, flood, and intruders aswell. Although
instincts have not'
tial threats has changed through the centuries, our
Saferymust be imPlicit'

with its back-

Today, an ever-presenthazardis that of the moving vehicle
irrg, trrrrringr. It does not belong within our living areasand should
"rrd its own ser-
no"tbe admitteJ. The automobile should be stabledwithin
Primitive. considerotion vice areaor compound.

Utility
to be
Each dwelling should be a lucid statementof the various purposes
served.Not oirly is eachusero be accommodated,it is to be conve'iently
of food
related to all others. And what are these uses?They are those
Greco-Romon.Protectionond Privocyore
of orime volue.

symbolic meaning.

utiliry connotes "a place for everything, and everything in its place," all
\while a home is far more than a machine for liv-
Eochsfucture is on ideolized
Renoissonce. *orkirrg *ell togetlrer.
obiect in sPoce. ing, it must function efficientlY.

Amenity

that which is utterly simple and unpretentious-a well-formed clay pot,

a simple carpet of blended wools, handsomelyfitted and finished wood,
.,.r, .i",., handcrafted silver-always just the right form, material, and
Orientol. Noiure is revered,privocyis demonded; finish to servethe specificpurPose,alwaysthe understatement,for lessis
structuresore relotedto lot ond tofol londscope. truly more.

Evolutionof c woy of life

In considering dwellings and display, menrion should be made of the
tokonoma of ih. traditional Japanesehome. Constructed of natural

include hangings,paintings, a bowl, sculpture,or a vaseor tfay ro receive

268 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE

Spring ridesr,o ltorsesdown the hill,
But comeson.lc,ot,a goose-girlstill.
And all the loleliestthings therebe
Comesimply, ;t,, it seemsto me.
Edno St. Vincent Milloy
The spirit of a g.erdenis its power to cltarm
the heart.
Kqnio Shigemori
o
o
o
i
,f
E
€
Spotiol
freedom.
a floral arrangement.Our \Testern homes and gardensand their displays
could well be distinguished by such artisrry and restraint.
Privocy
In a world of hustle and hassle,we all need, sometimes desperately,a
place of quiet retreat. It need not be large-aspace in the home or gar-
den set apart from normal activitieswhere one can sharethe enjoymenr
of reading, music, or conversationor turn for quiet introspection. It is
very human to feel the need for one'sown private space.
A Senseof Spociousness
Just aswe feel the need ro retreat,we feel also upon occasionthe need for
expansivefreedom. tVith dwelling and neighborhoods becoming more
and more constricted,such spaciousness inside properry limits is almost
a rarity. But we can learn from those cultures in which people have lived
for centuriesin forced compressionthat spacecan be "borrowed."
Living spacesmay be so arranged and interrelated that common areas
may be sharedto make eachcomponent spaceseemlarger.Apparent spa-
tial sizemay be increasedalsoby the subtle use of forced perspectiveand
by miniaturization. Again, by the studied arrangementofwalls and open-
Habitations 269

The earth is our home and the waYsof
nature our Pathsto understanding'
ings,viewscanbedesignedtoincludeattractivefeaturesofthesiteor
distant hill or horizon' Even
,r"igltUori.rg Propertiesor extended to the
spaciousness. can be expe-
within the walled gardenor court the ultimate
and clouds and the evening
rienced by the fealured viewing of the.sky
in crowded Japan a favorite
constellations.lt is ,ro h"ppt"Itance that
spotonthegardent..,"tt^i'thatreservedfortheviewingofthemoon'

NofureAPPreciotion
Deeplyingrainedinallofusisaninstinctivefeelingfgrtheoutdoors-
earth' \7c need to be
For soil, stone, water, and the living things of the
need to maintain a close
near them, to observeand to tot"h them' \7e
featuresand surround-
relationship with nature, to dwell amid natural
our lives'
ings, and to bring nature into our homes and into

PresentAmericonshowcose (vestiglol
renoissonc Noture ignored Culword
useof properly
orientolionrivocyrslost.Llttle
ond no{ence
A product sideyord,setbock,
restrictions
AdistinguishingmarkofthefecentAmericandwellingisthetrend
areasnow have their
toward indoor-outdoor living. Most interior use
kitchen to service
outdoor extensions-entr)'way to entrance court'
to sPa'game
area,dining sPaceto Patio, living sPaceto terrace'bedroom
In the well-planned
foom to recreation court, and sunroom to garden.
it is often difficult to differenti-
habitation, especiallyin milder climes,
ate between indoors and out.

should be con-
It has been theorized that, ideally,eachhome and garden
Iet it
ceived as rhe universe in microcosm. If this idea seemsabstruse,
find it to have
pass.Perhapsin time' upon further reflection' you may
deep meaning.

ResidentiolComPonents
ExisfingSifeFeofures
home Totoluseof siteos
Americon-trend
often a residentialsite is selectedbecauseof some outstanding attribute.
Future

It may be a venerableoak or an aspengrove' It may be a spring' a pond'

those
o, i.dg. of rock. It may be an outsranding view. All too often
" when the site was acquired are ignored or lost in
things riost
"dmired
.orrrir,r.tion. It only makes sensethat such distinctive featuresbe pre-
servedand dramatized in the homesteadplanning'

Areo Allocotion
By custom in the United States,and almost uniquely among worldwide
homesteads,the area fronting on the passingstreet has usurped a large
part of each residential properry for the sole purpose of home display'
Thaditionally,the for.gro.ml of open lawn hasbeen borderedby shrubs,
the house garnished*ith fo,t.rdation planting for public approbation.
Side yards, too, have been treated mosdy as unused separationsPace-
leaving only the backyard for family use and enjoyment. It is only

270 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 recently that the unified house-gardenconcepr has gained populariry
and that indoor-outdoor living has come irrto it, o*n.

RESIDENTIA
OUTDOOR OPENSPACE
possiLrilities)
{some
TheDwelling
The residenceis the centerpieceof the homestead-within which and
around which everyrhing happens. tJfhat happens depends upon the
type of residenceselecredand the kinds of home life planned for. If there
is truth to the saylng that in time dog owners come ro resembletheir
canine pets, then it can likewise be observedthat much of what home-
owners are and do can be judged by their choice of dwellings.
Wlld fatcooi
(vehiculat ) I
e."rlnice atnl
The dwelling itself is a structural framework for living the good, full life.
In some cases,the good life may be confined to rhe walled enclosureof
a residencestanding proud, aloof, and self-contained.Other homes may
open outward, serving asa multifaceted viewing box and staging basefor
FriJqr. a,tJ
ov<hlek a host of outdoor activities.

Be it an urban apartment, suburban residence,a farm homestead, or

wildernessretreat-each has its limitations and possibilitiesin rerms of
indoo r-outdoor relationships.

In the city high-rise, the outdoor experiencemay be provided by no more

than a sunny window ledge with potted plants or a balcony with seating,
a view, and perhaps a hanging basket or rwo. Y/ith good fortune there
might even be a private or shared roof garden. An on-grade town house
may have its doorstep planting and a rear courtyard with expanded
opportunities-as for dining spaceunder a tree or arbor, a pool, a foun-
tain, or patch of herbs or flowers. The suburban home or farmstead,
lie- wnlLwaaloP
atd canlt4r*d lte&s with more area, cen open out to a wider array of outdoor living and
working spaces.So, too, with the remote cabin or cottagewhose owners
may chooseto leavethe natural woodland surrounds unchanged.

OufdoorActivily Spoces
Culdoor livingcreos ore designedto:
Every outdoor activity needs its measure of usable space.This space
o Prn'rirlo
".o[
'l ^^.1 ^loa.nn].^^.o" [^. ^ll may be as small as that required for a child's sandbox or kitchen herb
octivities garden-or as large as for a tennis court, swimming pool, vegetablegar-
. Integrotewirh ond complementthe
den, orchard, or even a putting green. No matter what the anticipated
orchitecture
. Fit inlo ihe s fe in such o woy os lo preserve uses,if they are to be realizedand enjoyed they must be designedinto
ond reveol its best feotures the plans.

Habitations 271
 L^
Cuidoor octivilYorecs con
. DeTne-ssd

'PziseA
.Fiil€J

--=---:"-q-
. ta-o..A-

Decksmoy be stePPed

+xI7J fhe
4+nucrua

Builtoroundtrees sPoce.
OutdooroctivitY

Ktbeza

a-14.7h-t 7"lzs

riifsJ .]-,a
<1<e7 staTe
other water feature.

slaTs-;--'r

Dects ro7 be 'nte'connected

by bridgesor stePs

borders and beds.

A single pot of geraniums on the table is a garden in itself, as is a pool-

the
,id. iro.rpi,rg ;f containers spilling over with blossoms. Some of
Thebrldgeor roisedwolkwoypreservesground
mosibeautif,Il garden spacesrememberedcould be encompassedby the
vegetotion
forms,flows,cnd existing
outreach of one'sarms.
used
Decksond ploiforms boseplone'
. Expondtheusobleoreo site The service area-oPen, walled, or partially screened-is most often
o Extend
or disperseoctivily
o Dromotize
associatedwith the garageand parking court' Here spaceis to be Pro-
thescenery
o Preserve
thenoturollondforms vided for deliveries,car storage,and turnabout' Here too will be provl-

272 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 fol the temporary_storageof refuse and recyclable materials waiting
10t lion
for collection and for the compost srarion.
5.nall
T^9i q4
4eb Utlcn lnet elc77*1slr"c,
As an adjunct there may be an offser srorage shed for equipment and
supplies.Ir may serveaswell to housethe metersand valvei of utiliw svs-
tems and to hang the hose reels.
harrrneE
liqhl, e{..
The servicecourr border is a convenient location for the kitchen garden
suTytl and for the entryway to a possiblegreenhouse,potting shed,or vegetable
garden. Here, if there are screenwalls, arbor, or fencing, is an opportune
Thedeletionc,foneor moremodulorunits place for the growing of flowering vines or grapes or such espaliered
providesspcrcefor postond benchsettings,
pools,plontcins,plonls,etc fruits as oranges,lemons, pears,figs, peaches,or apples.

Ce4c^[c Servicecourts often double asa paved recreation area,with net-post sock-
PAv clls
ets, line markings, and perhapsa basketballbackstop.At one side there
may be a gated enrry to the childrent play space,with swings and play
Bnirk equipment-overseen, if possible,from the adjacentkitchen windows.

&tusheA cano'efe
Supplemento
ry Structures
As noted, many site-relatedspacescan be planned into the dwelling or
attached thereto by extension. Again, a garage,guesthouse,or studio
may be detachedand designedas an architecturalcounterpoinr. So, roo,

Modulorpovirounitsvorywidelyin sizeond
Vpe

A modulorpovrngsystem
. ls flexible
. Helpsochieredesignunily
o Reduces instrrllotion
ond replocement
costs

MODULARPA\'ING Supplementory
shuctures.

Habitations 273
 Supplementary structures may
with the smaller workshoP or toolshed'
relatedto the site than to the
be intentionally varied in chatacter
the inqended use' Such might be
domicile, and suited particularly to
shelter.Sometimes,living quar-
poolside dressing,oo-, or an overlook
such as a weekend ski
ters are incorporated in a recreation structure
and dock'
ioJg. ot borthor'rr. with its related slips
"

Furnishings
equipment and furnish-
No homesteadis complete without its outdoor
with mainte nance
ings. A well-organir.i ,,o'"gt wall or shed complete
F ),nooJ machineryand tools is a must'
-1c?'

and racquets;the
g.oo4 tI.?t <44 €ttu' Recreationsuppliesand equipmsnl-dls nets' paddles'
aa liutnl' S?ace' h"-*t.L; th" archery target and chest of toys-are
;;;i;t, ,,"k.r, ".td
will usually be benches,
all to have their ordered place.Then too there
PavilQ ground covers'
chairs, tables,and other such outdoor equipage'
furnishings-are
pi"r,ting-which may or may lot be considered
"nd
treated in other chaptersof this book'

accoutermentas
Besidesthe basics,there may be aswell such decorative
and a variety of wooden or ceramic containers'
'lr4or"i. window boxes,
pl".rr.rr,
and
murals or panels add interest and color' as do canopies-
seasonaldeco-
awnings. Sculpturels alwaysan attribute, as are flags and
featuresaswind-
rarions for the holidays.Then there are such animating
bells, birdbaths, and feeders.

\Vater
Not to be overlookedare the enhancementsof water and lighting.
in some form-brimming basin, rivulet, trickle, sPray' or splash-has
P.v^q
' 4. po^A co.-.L, ftanazrc,"hozV 1n*el,"
b5,.[f <loe , u. gecasl rnodulaau'Is
a place in every garden. Ligh,ing, too' A post light to mark the walk

uuJ ustJ1', r 1
neczllwd*lp|q' , ! |
( <'"c rir,a, s sfn a cl iut r atr 54^€,, M^ari?)t q t
ErieL tJseJ )o necall bn'ek r trlalls dl bu'rdal

ln 47an: aA
nsefqltet

con be builtin likethisseotwqll or freestonding'

Sitefurnishings

274 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 !

o
o

J
ll
-o

Effective
hgl^tingof woterfeoture Woter,octuolor implied,hoso plocein everygorden

entrance, trace lighting along the drive and paths, floodlighting of the
game court, uplighting of trees,and the highlighting of sculpture,mural,
floral display,or moving water-all add much of pleasureand sparkleto
the evening.

The cost of exterior furnishings is but a fraction of the overall domicile

ouday. Often these outdoor fittings are the things most seenand used
and thus most experienced.This is reasonenough to acquire and enjoy
the best. In large measure,the qualiry of the homesteadis gaugedby the
qualiry of the furnishings.

Voriotionson a Theme
til/hen in our planning we ignore the natural processesor violate the
land, we must live with the distressingconsequences.!(hen, however,
we truly designour structuresand living spacesin responseto the fbrces,
forms, and Featuresof the host landscape,the lives of the occupantswill
be infused with a senseof well-being and pleasure.

The accompanying photographic exampleshave been selectedto illus-

trate the means by which homes and gardensmay be planned together,
in harmony with their site and landscapeenvirons-and responsiveto
the needsand desiresof the users.

Habitations 275
ifu,-

lli
l;

ll

I
;,
i6 l!
li

lk;#trr*M
 fields and wood-
pollution often became intolerable, and surrounding
lands melted inexorablY awa1'

-with the coming of the rwentieth century and the advent of the auto-
reversed'Initially a
mobile, the farm-to-city movement was suddenly
romanticized farm-
few of ih. *."lthy fled the industrial city to build
Hudson River. They
steadsand rusticatedvillas such as those along the
to whom social
were soon joined by many members of the middle class'
and newFound
reform was bringing an improving standard of living
mobility. These i"-][.r shaied the beckoning dream of a better, more
could live amid
fulfilling life out beyond the city outskirts, where they
forest, d.ldr, g"rd"rrs in communion with nature' As they surged
"nd born. It was
ourward in ever-increasingnumbers, the new suburbia was
would
to become an America.t fh.,,orntnon' New types of dwellings
be created. The
be designed,and innovative community patternswould
gradually
subdivision tracts, planned communitiis, and new towns
short of the vision,
l.ncrease. evolved and are still evolving. If they fall somewhat
Wolter D. Horris they
it is becausethey have destroyed too much of the nature that
along with them from
sought to embrace.It is becausethey have carried
the city too many of the urban foibles-the bad habit of facing homes
pre-
upon traffic-laden streetsinstead ofpleasant courts or oPen-sPace
,.r,r.r, of inexplicably lining schools,churches,and factorieshaunch to
haunch along the roaring high*"yr. It is becausewe have allowed the
interconnecti.rg ,o"d*"yt ,i become teeming thoroughfares along
which has coale"sced mile after mile of crass,traffic-clogging commercial-
strip development. It is becausewe still have much to learn about the
b"ri., and intricacies of group living, of land use, and of transportation
planning.

Problems
'!7'ithout
controls, unsuitable usesinfiltrate residential areas.\(idened
streetsand highways draw to their sides commercial-strip coagulations
that reduce their carryin g capacity and restrict the traffic flow. Deterio-
ration and blight are ramPant. Vacant structures are vandalized' Prop-
erry valuesplummet, and the solid citizens of the original homes move
orr. if they can. Sadly,wherever they go to start anew, without better
planning and regulation, the cyclewill be repeated.It need not be so.

Monotony
Too often in suburban development a well-wooded site is leveled, the

The subdivisionaswe know it is a rypical

United Statesinvention, with few
counterpartsin Europe or Asia. seeka more livable habitat.

278 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 variery the antithesesof monotony, can be preservedand attained
by
sensitiveland and communiry planning, with far more residerr,
and at far lessinitial and continuing cost. "pp."r

lnefficiency
The well-planned neighborhood or communiry-urban, suburban,
or
1u121-sheuld function as an efficierrt -.ch"nism. This is to
say that
energy and marerials are to be conserved and frictions eliminated.
Energy conservationsuggesrsthat things and servicesneeded-schools,
shopping, and recreation-should be convenient, easy to reach, and
closeat hand. Yet in some neighborhoodsmany blocks must be traveled
and many streetscrossedin order to buy a quart of milk or a loaf
of
bread. Playgroundsand even elementaryr.hoot, can be reachedonly by
braving a grid of rushing trafficways. As we know from reading'the
papers,some children and adults never make it.

Mostcontemporory
shoppingcentersore inoccessible
by foot.

Community Planning 279

 \rith clustered off-street housing, the high cost of street and highway
construcrion with its trunkline sewersand utiliry mains can be sharedby
many more dwellings. single- and double-loaded stteets are not only
uneconomical, they are fraught with all sorts of problems'

The common practice of constructing sewers,utility mains, and energy

distribution ,yit.-, within the street right-of-way is another source of
recurrenr difficulties. Power poles and overhead wires interfere with
srreertree plantings which Inr.rstth.n be periodically mudlated to keep
the lines c1.".. Beyor,d that, it is patently impractical to tear up a section
of pavement and closea lane, if not the whole street,for the installation
of each new service lateral-or for the seemingly endless repair or
enlargementof in-streetwater, gas,or sewermains. Far better that a util-
ity.^s.-.rrt be reservedalong rear Property lines to leavethe streetscape
unscathed.

In many unplanned communities the greatestwaste is in uncalled-for

and destructive earthwork and unneeded storm-sewer construction'
These costs are incurred becausethe site layout runs counter to the
topography. Natural covers protect and stabilize the soils and slopes.
N"trrr"l-drainagewaysand streamscarry off the excessprecipitation' But
with the veger;ion destroyed and the drainagewaysblocked, the heary
expenseof iesultant drainage structures and soil stabilization must be
factored into the cost of each dwelling. Not to mention replacement
plantings.

, \l---'-
\--ts -
r--mnqtf\
'MXgt"
\\ \i\\iilil-^

Rodburn, NewJerseY, 1
devlsedby itsPlonners,
theoutomobileHomes
cul-de-soc streetspreclur
of outomobile crossings
oroundwhichweregro
I n t h i sp l o nc o n c e P t
of thesuperior neighborhood ond communlly yeors
plonsof succeeding

280 LAND SCAPEARCHITE CTURE

 UnheolthfulCondition
s
Mens sana in corporesano. A sound mind in a sound body. \What
has
community planning to do with the state of one,shealth?

Mental well-being derives from rational order and behavior. \when

liv-
ing conditions are clearly unreasonable;when the daily experience
is one
of frustration, anxiery or disgust, it is hard to -"int"i.r a positive
state
of mind.

Donger
vho could deny that our presentcommunities, asmost of us experience
them, pose danger to life and limb?

The streetcrossingsand trafficway intersections

The mix of people and vehicles
Overhead power lines
Toxic levelsof soil and warer contamination
The polluted air that we breathe . . .

In addition, theret the increasing threat posed by crime in our streetsand

alleys-the weekly muggings, break-ins, or drive-by shootings. These are

Commanity Planning 281

 endemic to obsolescence and vacancies,to unlighted lurking places-and
to do'
aswell to the lack of better placesto be and better things

planned im-
All these Potential and very real dangers are subject to
provement.

Possibilities
future ,
As we ser out to plan the more salubriousneighborhog* "f the
wherein lie the possibilities?It is proposed that they will have:

A better fit of construction to the land

A bener fit of homes to related trafficways
A better fit of homes to homes and homes to activiry centefs
A rich variery of things to seeand do
Freedom of individual expressionand innovative improvement
A sharedsenseof true community, of compatible living together.

BuildingArrongements
\Vhy do houses face
always have." Probat
slow to accePtany c
recently,in the Unit,
all platted homesitesbe dedicatedwith frontage upon a public right-of-
way. As a consequence,homes sprouted row upon row along streetsand
highways the countryside. This posed few serious problems as
".ro$
long as the roads were used by horsesand horse-drawn carriages'wag-
ons, and carts.

Then came the automobiles. They came, and came, and they keep on
coming. The roadways are overwhelmed. They have been widened and
lengthJned until today the trafficway nerwork coversmost of the land-
scape like a coarselywoven mesh. Meanwhile, buildings cont.inue to
crowd alongside the pulsing mororways. communities are thus cut
apart-diviJed and subdivided again by lines of fast-moving traffic.
This makeslittle sensefor either the residentsor the motorists.

In seekingsolutions to the dilemma, land plannershave sought to have

the frontage requirement rescinded.\fhere this has been accomplished
it has proJuced building-road relationshipsthat hold much promise.

One fairly recent advanceis that of planned unit deuelopment, or PUD_as

it is now commonly called. A PUD ordinance where enacted,provides
that in the planning of sizableresidentialtracts, incentivesare given for
creativesite planning. \7hile the types of permitted land usesand the
total land coyerageand density limits are fixed, the more restrictivepro-
visions of long-obsoletecodesno longer govern. New mixes of housing

282 LAND SCAPE ARC H ITE C TURE

 rypes and traffic-free neighborhoods are encouraged. clustering and
sharedopen spaceare consisrenrfearures,rogerher;ith built-in conve-
nience and recreationcenters.The resulting communities and new towns
have demonstrated the many benefits of off-street residential groupings
and pointed the way to new conceprsof true communiry livini.

Seporotion
of pedestrion
ond outomobiles
in plonnedcommunity.

Accessond Circulqtion
If the new residentialareasare to be traffic-free,what of the automobile?
It is to be assumedthat driver-operatedvehiclesin one form or another
will long be a favored form of transportarion.This will be even more so
when the paths of vehicular movemenr are freed of the myriad pedes-
trian crossingsand hazardousintersections,when arterial roads and cir-
culation drives are designed as free-flowing parhvays with no on-grade
intersectionsand widely spacedpoints of accessor egress.

Communities will no longer be cross-hatchedwith roads and streetsbur

will instead be planned as a seriesof sizablepedestriandomains of vari-
ous types, fitted to the topography. Each will be bounded and intercon-
nected by nonfrontage circulation drives. Each neighborhood, and the
larger community, will be accessedby vehicles from the outside with
inward penetration to residential parking courts and service com-
pounds. Pedestriansand vehicleswill thus be separated-each with their
own specially designed areas of operation. Neighborhood living will
then be safer and more pleasant, and vehicles can move ,.rrtai.r.d
speedswithout interference. "t

Community Planning 283

 ActivifyCenfers
Schools,shopping, and recreationcentersare the main communiry des-
tinations. IIrmany of the early planned communities they were inten-
tionally isolated from single-useresidentialgroupings. In one.areawere
placed the look-alike single-family homes, ar another the look-alike
to*r, ho,rr.s, and elsewheiethe look-alike apartments.In such sanitized
residential conclavesthere was little of interest to seeor do-except at
the distant school, playground, or shopping mall. As a result, the hous-
ing neighborhoodswere overly quiet to the point of being boring.

In the more recent mixed-use planned communities, housing units of

varying fypes are grouped closely around the activiry centers.Not only
-or. ."ry, but this lively, more democratic mix affordswelcome
is accei-s
variety and increasedopportunity for neighbor-to-neighbor meedngs
and friendships.

In such freely composed,more compact, and focalizedresidentialgroup-

ings the activiry hubs and nodes get more use,as do the interconnecting
p"ihs of pedestrian movemenr. Especially if the placesare made more
r. with plantings, lighting, and such furnishings as fountains,
"ttr".ti t"rr.ters. And if the ways are pleasantly aligned and
sculpture,
"td
enhanced with mounding, trees for shade, benches,and perhaps here
and there a bike rack or a piece of child's play equipment.

In most of the more PUD developments,homes and apartments are

arrangedin compact groupings or clustersto squeezeout wastedsepara-
tion space around and berween the buildings. This is not only more
land- and cost-efficient,but also,with the sameoverall densities,yields
an increasedmeasureof sharedoPen sPace.

This compaction is evident also in the better activity centers.Both at the

neighborhood and communiry levels, compatible uses are combined.
Examples include the elementary school and park; the high school,
g"-..o.rrts, and athletic field; the shopping, business,and professional
offi.. .o-plex; the community building, church, library, and perform-
ing arts assemblage;or the museum and center for arts and crafts. In all
,rr.h ."r., the intensification is beneficial. Moreover, the gathering
together of once dispersedusesinto more vibrant nucleii alsoprovidesin
the overall community plan additional open area.

Open Spoce
\7hy community open space?Becausewithout it there can be litde sense
of community. It is mainly in the outdoor ways and placesthat commu-
nal living takesplace.

284 LAND SCAPE ARC HI TE C TURE

 Communityporkond open spoce.

open spaceequareswith many forms of recreation.some, like lacrosse

hockey, require expansiveareas.others need only limited space.
?r l:lq
A child's slide or a basketballbackstop,for instance,will fit almosr any-
where. Baseballfields and basketballcourrs need preciseorientation and
construction, while more passivekinds of 1s61s21i6n-picnicking, kite
flying, or playing sx16h-12ks little more than an open field. Lineal
spaces,as for jogging paths, health trails or bikeways,must be carefully
woven into communiry plans to ensurecontinuity.

open spacehas other values,too. If it follows and envelopsthe drainage-

ways and streams, it servesto preserve the natural growth and define
buildable areaswith lobes of refreshinggreen. It also provides cover for
birds and small animals that contribute much delight io the local scene,
not only in the suburbs but in the inner city aswell.

\flhere doessuch open spacecome from? fu nored, it is a natural product

of the PUD planning approach which, with fixed densities,featuresclus-
tered building arrangements.Available open spacesinclude the unpaved
areasof the street rights-of-way-or the whole of utiliry easements.They
are acquiredin part assegmenrsof park and recreationsystems.Unbuild-
able areassuch as floodplains, marshes, steep slopes and narrow ridges
make their contributions, as do the open areasof businessoffi.. p"rk ,
the university campus, and institutional grounds. Some highly desirable
open spacemay be derived from the reclamation of exffacrion pits, land-
fills, strip-mining operarions, cutover timberlands, or depleted farms.
Public agenciessuch as the Department of rlansportation, water man-
agement districts, or the military may transfer excessor vacatedholdings.
Again, prime lands may be donated by foundations or by private citizens,

Community Planning 285

 with or without the incentivesof tax abatement'And there are, too, the
possibilitiesof scenicand conservationeasements'

Pieceby piece,parcel by parcel,an oPen-spacesystemcan in time be fit-

ted together for the good of all concerned-provided that for eachcom-
munity there is a Program and a plan.

New Ethicin CommunityPlonning:P-C-D

Preseruethe best of the natural and historic features'
Conserue, with limited use, an inrerconnecringoPen-sPaceFrame-
work.
Deuelopselectedupland areaswith site-responsivebuilding clusters.

Many conservationists who would Prot€ct

and assurethe best use ofour lands and
waters have yet to learn that cooperative, The conservarion (c) areasmay be devoted to limited open sPaceor
large-scale,long-range planning is more
effbctive than the common no-growth tactic
recreationalusesthat will not harm their natural quality. Develc'pment
of "block and delay." (D) or construction areasare only then allocatedon the receptivehigher

o
d

n o y ,C o l l i e rC o u n t y ,
o p p r o o c h( P e l i c oB
A p l o n n e dc o m m u n i tuys i n gt h eP - C - D
Florido).Beoch,dunes,ond tidol estuorypreserved. Wetlonds,woterwoys,ond
noiivevegeiotionprotectedlconservedl. Clustered development on the uplond,
withinon interconnected open-spoce frome. All work well together.

286 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 o
!

E
o

A p l o n n e dc o n m u n i t yw i t hg o l fc o u r s eo s o p e ns p o c e

ground. Here the structuresare usually clusteredin more compacr and

efficient arrangementswithin the blue and greenopen-spaceframework.
Here, without inflicting negative impacts, people can iirre work at
peacewith their natural surroundings. "rrd

Planned communities are prime examplesof sound economic develop-

ment coupled with conservation.Yet even the most glowi.rg .*"mpl.,
-outmoded
have come into being only after long years of battle with
codes and with self-sryledenvironmenralists,who by all reasonshould
be the grearestadvocares.For mile after mile of beachfront and thou-
sandsupon thousandsof acresof prime forest and wetrand have already
been set asideand preservedintact, voluntarily, by comprehensivecom-
munity planning.

Much can be accomplishedwhen this processcomes to be carried for-

ward in full cooperation with local citizens, dynamic conservation
groups' and contributing public agencies.It can be seen that such
P-c-D planning applies not only to residential development, but ro
every type of use and parcel-to whole regionsand to th. larg.. st"te.

CommunityPlanning 287
Theplonnedcommunity.

288 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
CornmunityPlanning
LAND SCAPEARCHITE CTURE
Community Planning

All goodpknning,must b1gin wirh a sur,uey
,of
tbe l4ndscape,theprcPle' tne
actual resources:
worh-a-dayactiuitiesin a community. Good
pla.nningdoesnor begin with an abstact and
arbinary schemethat it seeksto imposeon a
cornmunity;it beginsuith a hnowledgeof
existingconditionsand opportunities. . .
and sanityof their communities
is Mumford
292 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
New Directions
In appraising the better examplesof recently planned communities we
findmany promising features.Some planning concepts,like the transfer
of development rights and flexibiliq' zoning'were unheard of even a few
yearsago. Some have met with immediate acceptance,others have not,
and still others haveyet to be adequatelytested.\7hile some approaches
have failed in their initial application, they may contain the seedsof
ideasthat will flower in the communities of the future.
\With the transferof development rights, owners of ecologicallysensitive
or productive agricultural land may negotiate with planning officials a
trade-off by which the right to develop the prime landholding is for-
feited in exchangefor the right to develop a similar, or different, rype of
project at an alternativelocation. Often by such an arrangementa valu-
.o--uniry assetcan be preservedand extensivetracts of marginal
"bl.
or depletedproperty transformed into highly desirablereal estate.Every-
one thus benefits.
Fine communities seldom if ever just happen' They must be thought-
fully and painstakingly brought into being' Improved approachesare
continually emerging and give new meaning to such words as housing,
health, education, rereation, and community. In the shaping of our more
advancedresidentialareasthe following principles are being successfully
applied.
Appb the P(ID approach. Planned unit develoPment (PUD) is a
rational framework for the phased development of community plans.
Essentially,it establishesat the start the types of usesto be included, the
total number of dwellings, and a conceptual plan diagram' The tradi-
tional restrictiveregulationsare waived, and eachsuccessive phaseas it is
brought on in detail is checked againstthe conceptual plan and judged
solely on the basisof foreseeableperformance.
RequestJlexibilityzoning. For larger tracts, this permits within the zone
boundariesthe free arrangementand progressiverestudy of the land use
and traffic-flow diagrams as long as the establishedcaps are rebalanced
and not exceededand as long as the plan remains consistentwith com-
munity goals.
Considerthe transferof deuelopmentrights (TDR). In recognition of the
fact that for reasonsoftheir ecologic,scenic,or other valuescertain areas
of land and water should be preservedin their natural state,TDR provi-
sions allow and encouragea developerto transferfrom the sensitivearea
those usesoriginally permitted by zoning. Although the relocation of the
usesor dwelling units to another property is sometimesprovided, TDR
is most effectivewhen the densitiesof contiguous building sites in the
sameownership are increasedto absorb the relocatedunits.
 Relateall studiesto uAter resourcemdnagemenr- The fourfold purpose is
to prevent flooding, prorect water qualiry replenish freshwaterreserves,
and provide for wasrewaterdisposal.

Prouide perimeter bffiring. As supplemenrary or alternarive open

space'a band of land in its natural statemay well be left around the bor-
ders of larger development sires.This provides a screenagainstadjacent
trafficways or other abutting uses and ofFersa *.l.om. backdrop for
building consrruction.

create a communityportal. one of the best ways in which to engender

a senseof neighborhood or community is by the provision of a cohesive
circulation system and an attractive gateway.

Ensure regional access. Thriving communities need connecrion to the

shopping, cultural, and recrearion centers and the open spacesof the
regions which surround them. Aside from paths and conrrolled-access
roadways, linkage may be attained by bikeways, by boat if on water, and
by rapid transit in one or more of its many forms.

Preclude through-community trucking. Although local streets must be

Plan an open-space framework. As an alternative to facing homes and

other developmenr directly upon trafficways, many communities now
wisely provide for the reservarionof variformed swathsof land, in pub-
lic or private ownership, as preferred building frontage. Vehicular
approach to buildings, parking, and serviceareasis from the rear. The
open-spacesysrem, which usually follows srreams and drainageways,
may also include walks, bicycle and jogging paths, and wider recre-
ation areas.

Plan a hierarchyofnfficuays. Even in smaller communities a clear dif-

Home-to-home
r<>lotionships
ocrosso busystreel
ferentiation betu'een arterial, circulation, and local-frontage srreers
or highwoy
ensuresmore efficient traffic movement and safer,more agreeableliving
areas.

Limit roadsidr /iontage. Insofar as possible, the facing of buildings

upon arterials and circulation srreetsis to be precluded, with intersec-
tions to local frontage streersspacedno closerthan 660 feet.

shoulC
aivewcy to roodside
clusters
oroundo Make useofthree-way (T) sffeetintersections. They reduce through traf-
shoredcourt fic, increasevisibiliry and make pedestriancrossingmuch safer.

Community Planning 293

 Prouidefor rapid transit. Sheltered bus and minitransit stops and
attractivecommuniry rapid transit stations,where appropriate,do much
to stimulate transit use and reducevehicular traffic.

Integrate paths of mouement. Only when streets' walkways, bicycle

trails, anJ other routes of movement are planned together can their full
possibilitiesand optimum interrelationshipsbe realized.

Vary the housingtypes. A well-balancedcommunity providesnot only a

variery of dwellings, from single-family to multifamily, but also accom-
modates residentsof differing lifesrylesand a broad income rangc.

-6
o
N

-
d

Vory housingtype

o
r

o
o

I n c l u d ec o n v e n i e n c es h o p p i n g Encouroge progroms.
community

Systematizethe site installations. All physical elementsof a community-

buildings, roadways, walks, utilities, signage, and lighting-are best
planned asinterrelatedsystems.

Cluster the buildings. The more compact grouping of individual

In Great Britain a charitableorganization
calledthe Learning ThroughLandscapesTiust
hastransformednearly 10,000 schoolyards
into imaginatiue learninggardens.
goffi
Land scope Archirecrurerno
dwellings and the inclusion of patio and zero-lot-line homes yield
welcome additional open spacefor neighborhood buffering an<lrecre-
ation use.
Featurethe school-parkcampus. The combining of schoolswith neigh-
borhood and community parks permits much fuller use of each at sub-
stantial savings.

294 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
Include conuenienceshopping. \Vhile regional shopping centers fill the
largest share of family marketing needs, they usually require travel by
automobile. Neighborhood and community centers, with accessby
walks and bikeways, are needed to provide for a lesser scale of conve-
nience shopping and service.

Prouide emPlolment opportunities. Bedroom communities-those

planned for residential living only-require the expenditure of time,
income, and energy just to get to and from work. Integral or closely
related employment centersadd vitaliry and convenience.

Relateto the regional centers. The larger businessoffice campus' indus-

trial park, or regional commercial mall is best kept outside, but conve-
nient to, the residential groupings. Such centers are logically located
near the regional freeway interchanges and accessibleto the intercon-
necting circulation roads.

Pkn for transient accommodations. \7hen highway-related motel,

hotel, or boatel accommodadons do not otherwise fulfill the traveler's
needs,a communiry inn is a welcome addition.

Consid.era conferencecenter. In addition to the auditorium and meet-

ing rooms of che school-park community centers,a conferencefacility
related ro the commercial mall, business office park, cultural core,
marina, golf course,tennis club, or inn is a popular amenity and asset.

Make recreationd ud! of lift. Aside from private recreation opportuni-

ties and those provided at the neighborhood and community school
parks, there is usually need for swimming, golf and racquet clubs, a
marina and beachclub if the communiry is on water, a youth center' and
accessto hiking, jogging, and bicycle trails. The broader the range of
availablerecreation,the more fulfilling is communiry life.

Encouragecomrnunity Prlgranxg actiuities, and euents. Although many

do not riquire specialspaceor site areas,no developmentprogram could
be complete without considerationof all those social activitiesthat con-
tribute so much to community living. These include worship, continu-
ing educarion and health care programs, children's day care, a craft
center and workshop, a little theater,game and meeting rooms' a news-
paper, serviceclubs, Little League,dances,contests'and parades'Some
ir"i, rpon,"neously; orhers may require encouragementand guidance.

Buitd out ds Jtnugo. Scattered or Partially finished building areas are

uneconomical and disruptive. In the better communities' construction
proceeds by the phased extension of trafficways, utilities, and develop-
-.ra Th.y are completed as examples.Construction materials
"r."r.
and equipment are brought in from the rear, and the prearrangedstag-
ing areasand accessroads retreat as the work advances'

ComrnunitjtPlanning 295
 o
-
j
E
o
o
E
o
E
,o

H o n o rh i s i o r i cl o n d m o r k s .
noturepreserves.
Estoblish

Ensurea high leuelof maintunance. A maintenancecenter and

enclosed
yard, perhapscom
locatedinconspicu
and the areasto t
advanceoFdevelop
staft.

Honor the historic landmarhs. \When fearuresof archaeological

cr his-
torical significance exist, they are ro be cherished. Thelr
presence
extends knowledge of the localiry its beginnings, and
traditiols and
givesdepth of meaning to life within th. -__tiriry.

EstablishnaturePreserues. Every locality or site has in

some degreeits
prized natural features.Be they subtle or dramatic, they
add richnlss and
interest and are to be protected, interpreted, and admired.

Name a scientistaduisorltcouncil. In both initial and ongoing

planning
much can be gained by the naming of a team of scientist
advisers.con-
vened periodically to bring their expertiseto bear on
the evolving plans
and proposa.ls,they are especiailyhelpfur in the study
of rarg., .r;;1.;,
or ecologicallysensitiveholdings.

Appoint an enuironmentalcontroloficer. In the phased

construction of
each new parcel the responsibiliry for .r,riror,-.rtal
protection ir; best
centralized.in one trained pe:s9n who is presenr
d.rri.rg all phar;esof
planning, design review, fi.ld installation.
"rrd
Form a designreuieu
improvementsare b
designersfor review
modification. An arr
tal control officer would be appropriaremembers.

296 LANDS CAPE ARC HITE CTURE

 Preparea deuelopmentguideline manual. As the basic reference
docu-
ment for all planning, design, and continuing operation of the commu-
niry an expanding loose-leafmanual is essential.As it evolves,
it will
contain:

a
The communiry goalsand objectives
a
The conceptual communiry plan
a
Each. phased neighborhood or parcel plan as it is brought into
detailed study
a
A section and flowchart describingplan review procedures
a
Plan submission requirementsand forms
a
Architectural design guidelines
a
Site designguidelines
a
The master planting plan and policy and recommendedplant lists
a
A section on environmental qualiry control
a
A section on energy conservation
a
A section on solid waste disposaland recycling
a
Homeowners' associationcovenants

As the need arisesor is foreseen,supplementary sectionswill be added

and the manual kept updated and complete. To be fully effective, irs
provisions must be equitably and uniformly enforced.

EstablishA mennsof gouernance. It is important from the start of plan-

ning to have in mind the rype of political entiry that the communlry is
to be or to become a part of. This will be a key factor in the determina-
tion of the rype and level of public servicesto be provided and of respon-
sibilities for planning reviews and permitting, for the installation of
utilities, streets,and other improvements, and for taxation and decision
making.

associationis to provide the mechanism for the formulation and imple-

mentation of continuing communiry maintenance and improvement
policies.

Ensureflexibility uith control. The most successfulAmerican commu-

nitie-shave been guided in their developmentby policies that accomplish
the following:

' Establish the broad outlines of compatible land use and routes of
movement
Providethe guidelinesrequiredto ensureflexibiliry, designqualiry
and environmentalprotection
Encourageindividuality and creativiry

Community Planning 297

 t sometimesseemsthat our conremporary planning is an unholy game
I
I of pilrng asmuch structureor asmuch ciry aspossiblein one spot.The
urban areasto which we po-int with pride oft.r, merely the highest,
widest, and densestpiles of brick, stone, and"r.
mortar. .wirere, in these
heapsand stacksof masonry, are the forgotten, stifled people?Are they
refreshed,inspired, and stimulated by their urban .nrriro.r-.rt? Hardlv.
for in our times, too often a ciry is a desert.

Cityscope
To be bluntly truthful, our burgeoning American cities, squaredoff and
cut into uncompromising geometric blocks by unrelieved,unterminated
trafficways,have had more of this arid desertqualirl'than those of other
culturespast or present.

If we compare a map of Rome asit was in 1748 with a recenraerialpho-

tograph of New York, we marvel at the infinite variery of pleasantspaces
that occurred throughout the Eternal ciry. of course,as Rasmussenhas
pointed out in Townsand Buildings, "Great artisrs formed the ciry and
the inhabitanrs, themselves,were artists enough to know how to live in
it." \7e wonder why such spacesare for the most part missing in our
contemporary city plans.

Tiaditionally, the urban spacesofAmerica have been mainly corridors.

lllustrcrlion
courtesy>fthe NotionolC"pitol FllnningGr;i;;;t
Extendingrh. L:gocy Plon Rendering by MichoelMccorn
Our streets, boulevards, and sidewalks have led pasr or through to

299
 and our
something or somewherebeyond' Our cities, our suburbs'
we often
homesites"arelaced and inteilaced with these corridors, and
hold us and
seek in vain ro find those placesor spacesthat attract and
rooms. The
satissr.\we do not like to li r. in corridors; we like to live in
furnished with as
cities of history are full of such rooms, planned and
have
much concern as were the surrounding structures. If we would
corridors not as
such appealing outdoor places,we must plan our
.h".rrr.l, trying to be places as well but as free-flowing channelized
ofurbana*'bTJ#liio
exPanses trafficways.'Ari *. -*t pl"r, our placesfor the use and enjoyment of
c. phitips people.

TheCify Experienced
to
The old cities of Europe, Latin America, and Asia had, and still have,
their credit and memorable charm, their plazas, prazzes, courts, squares'
and fountains and their distinctive, indefinable, uplifting spirit ofjoie de
vivre. These cities were conceived as three-dimensionalcivic art and in
terms of meaningful patrernsof form and open spaces.our cities, with
few exceptions,are oriented to our traffic-glutted streets'

"Truth
\rhom are we to blame for this? Aristotle, inhrs Rbetoric, states,
and justice are by their nature better than their opposites,and therefore
if decisionsare made wrongly, it must be the speakerswho (through lack
of effectivepowers of persuasion)are to blame for the defeat." For our
purpose, this passagemight well be paraphrased:"Facility,.interest,and
t."".y are by n".,t.. better than chaos,the dull, and the ugly, and there-
fore iidecisions are made wrongly, it must be we plannerswho, through
lack of effective powers of persuasion(or more compelling concepts of
urban living), are to blame."

In searching for a more enlightened approach to urban planning we

must look back and reappraisethe old values.\flhile recognizingthe fal-
Iaciesof the "ciry beautiful" in its narrowest sense,we must rediscover
the age-old art of building cities that inspire, satisfy, and _work. And
,,rr.ly *. will, for we are disturbed by the vapid nature of the cities we
have planned or, worse, have allowed to grow unplanned in sporadic,
confusion.
senseless

EvidenfNeeds
-w'e,
in contemporary times, have lost the art of, and feeling for, overall
plan organization. Our cities lack coherent relationshipsand plan conti-
nuity.'svlth onr automobiles as the symbol and most demanding plan-
ning factor of our times, we have found the meandering streets,places,
forms of the ancienr cities to be unsuitable. Ve have rejected
"nJplan
(with good reason) the synthesizing device of the inexorable "grand
plan" but have found, for the most Part, few substitutes save the
mechanicalgrid and other patterns of uninspired geometry.The transit,

3OO LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 ls
IE
lt .p
Tltc essentialt,bingof both room and squareis
rne quatt1l o1tnclosedspace.. tt of
Comillo Sine rI
r -od
lo

o
z
3

o
-
o
=

FromGiovonniBottistoNolli'smop of Rome.

o
E
z
t

Thecorridorconyonsthotore New york CiV,sstreets stretchon

interminobly
withoutrelief,withoutfocolpoint,ond withoutthe
welcomeinterruptionof usefulor meoningful
spoce.

UrbanDesign 30,|
The unit of measurement for spacein urban
societyis the indiuidual' '
lrrhu. B. Gcrilion

A cin plan is the expresionofthe cotlectiue

purpoi, of rhepeopiewho liue in ir. or it is
nothing'
Henry 5. churchill

Thefrst stepin adequateplan,ning is,tomake

oJhuman tduls and human
a jiesh canuass
PurPoses'
Lewis Mumford

warmer in winter and cooler in the summertime'

econom)/'
Henry Adoms

Countryede

T h eC i t yD i o g r o m

\Yill rhe city reasert itselfasa goodplaceto

liue?Ir wili nor, ,nku rtrrc is a deiided sh;1i as functioning entities.As to components,for the PurPoseof this exami-
narion it is proposedthat we consider,first separatelyand then together,
the center.ity, th. inner ciry the outer ciry and the suburbs'

The CenterCify,or CenlrqlBusinessDisfrict(CBD)

the worse;thesebleak new [Jtopiasare nlt

bleahbecausetheyhaueto be; theyare the
concretemanifestation-and how literally-
of a deepand at timesarrogant,
0f thefunctionof thecity.
misunierstanding
Williom H. WhYre Jr.
rateheadquartersof industry,manufacturing,and communications.Here,
too, are most often found the cultural superlatives-the cathedral,per-
forming arts cent€r,centrallibrary, museums)and galleries,and aswell the
theaters,stadium, and sportsarenas.

302 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 Thereare, ctr:ainly, ample reasons for redoing
o
o
downtown-Jtlling retail sales,tai bases o
in leopardy, t,xgnantreal-estateualues,
im|,ossiblen.tfic and parking conditions,
Jailing masslansit, encirclementby slums. c

Bur with no ittrent to minimize th-ese serious U

matters,it is nnre to the Doint to consider
o
whtt mahesI citl centermagnetic,wbat can
i.njec,t
gaiety,the wonder,the cheerfulhurly-
burly that m,zhepeopletaant to cime into-the
citl and to hn,qerthere.For magnetismis the
cru.uof thep,ablem. All doutntiwni ualues
are its by-prt,ducts.Tb createin it an
atnnsphereo.furbanity and exuberanceis
not a friuolo,u aim.
Jqne Jqcobs

The central :rusinessdistrict, in

compression,will grow upward insteadof
outl obsoles<.encewill disappear;densities
will increaseand the corewill regainits
dynamic inrr:rrsitv.

Our presenttroubled, largelyobsolescent,

and woefulll inefficient urban cenrersare
centrolPork,NewYorkcity,wosthefirstpublicporkbuiltin Americo.
A competition
spilling out (,\er their boundariesand
for itsdesignwosheldin 1858;thewinners,
FrederickLowolmsteod ondcoivert
messingup their countryside.Such
uncontrollec sprawlcan and must be
stopped.Nor. ,onlyfor the good of the cities,
which are losing their focal dominanceand
vitality, but aswell for the farmlands,
forests,and r ural American landscape,
which are rapidly going to pot.

\With eachcomplex a small empire in itself, there is reason

An arcadeor rnall ofshops and resraurants
that nevercl,rsehelpskeep the streetssafe
and the dow'rrown vital. Occupantsof
upper-story:,,parrments in office and
commerciallxrildings add to the evening
streetlife, an,i round-the-clocksurveillance. tems are to be relegated
to allocatefor
each its own distinctive segment of the cenrer.Since all segmentsshare
the need for shopping, dining, and hotels, a centralizedsuperplazais
suggested,around which the various building groupings can take form.
'With
few exceptions,parking, srorage,distribution, and mechanicalsys-
ro subsurfaceplaza levels.

\Tithin the CBD, through streetsshould be eliminated-phased our in

The bestwa\ r.opromote securityin a
dou'ntown a'ea is to ensurethat the streets
are rrlivewit[, responsibleurban residents
who come orrt to enjoy the eveningsites
and activitier,.In such an atmosphere,
rest:rurants and rhearersthrive,ihops stay
open,and pcoplecan lingeror rtroil .bour
ln felatrvesalery.
time and replaced by circulation loop drives around and benveen the
traffic-free plaza islands. These surfuce drives, bridged at rhe plaza-to-
plaza crossings,will provide for the free circulation of cabs,buses,emer-
gency vehicles,and a limited number of private cars by specialpermir.
On the linked plaza islands of the revitalized center will rise a new urban
architecture.The freestandingmegaliths of the presenrneed to be replaced
by interconnected complexes of high and low srrucrureswith flying ter-
races,roof gardens,inset patios, open courts, domed conseryatories,and
galleries.Aloft, boxed window ledges,balconies,and terracedsetbackswill
become the private gardensof the center city. Rooftop resraurantsand illu-

(Jrban Design 303

The memorablecitiesof the world-
London, Amsterdam,Paris,Copenhagen,
Madrid, Athens, Rome, Montreal, New
York, New Orleans,San Francisco-are
thosein which peoplelive where they work.
Civic and businesscentersare interspersed
with town houses,apartments,and caf6s,
with bakeriesand boutiques,with wine,
c h e e s eF,r u i t .a n d f l o r i s ri h o p s .a n d w i t h
artists'studios.
minated recreationcourts and pools will add sparkleand animation to the
skyline.At pedestrianlevels,buildings will open out upon a labyrinth of
from place to
landscapedcourts and meandering walkrvays. Passageways
place and level to level will be weather-protected. They will be flanked
with seasonalexhibits, displays, and plantings-with flower stalls and
book marts; candy, nut, and pizza shops; pretzel, fruit, and poPcorn
stands. . . and provision for sidewalk \azaars with paintings, carvings,
crafts,antique jewelry, mechanicaltoys, entertainers,and all those diver-
tissementsthat add excitementand pleasureto shopping.

Utilizerooftops.

Revitolizeexisting open spoce Redevelop

ihe woterfront.

lVith surfacetraffic and parking restrictedwithin the city center, rapid

rransit will flourish. (Such cities as Stockholm, Toronto, and Paris are
telling examples.)Multilevel transit hubs, centrally located, are:major
regional destinations and points of transfer.Linked, computeriz,edcars
arrive and depart at swishing speedsthrough illuminated subsurface
transitwaysor by aerialmonorail.

It is proposed that the CBD of the future will be confined, and con-
stricted, by a tight and inflexible ring to preclude its "leaking out" and

304 LANDS CAPE ARCHITEC TURE

 C entralbusinessdistrict(CBD)

6
o

L nes of local
int€lrconnection

CBD weakened-split and dispersed

Wi'hino thecreticol centrolbusiness distrlct PlonneC

d B D :S h o n g h iH
, u o n g p uR i v e r .
{CED), thec r tl:s represent moiordestinotions
suclos bon( , deportment stores,
civiccenlers,
regonolspors focilities, or enterioinment
districis
Thelinesrepr)senlpothsof pedeshion ensure its intensity. Access by automobile via radial boulevards will be
circulotion
A c oselyknitx;t of CBDelements is mutuolly interceptedat the center-cityperimeter by a deckeddistributor ring road
sustriningA :c>mpoct centermokesforeosy within a spaciousright-of-way. Vehicles arriving at the ring can either cir-
connections irr ermsof time,distonce, ond cumvent the CBD entirely if this is desiredor enrer by well-spacedramps
fricton Dispe's on of theCBDnegotes the
'downtowr into the parking and ffansport levelsof the plazas.The ring is more than
odrontogesc [
a free-flowingtraffia^ray.Its wide swath of spacecan accommodate ample
Patternsof r'rix are important. The vibrant
open-air parking compounds as well as water management holding
centersare thr)sein which the old is ponds and recreationareas.Here too, availableto center-ciryvisirors,can
intermixed r''rith the new, rhe low with the be located such affractions as elementsof the zoo, botanic garden, and
high, the sir:rplewith the elaborate. aviaty. Or perhaps the annual art fair or erhnic festivals.
-When
ro,vsof shopsand homesare
interrupted bv blocks of stark office towers
or by blank building walls, eveningsrreet Housing? The more successfulcities have proven the value of devoting
Iife is diminished.To sustainstreetappeal the upper storiesof buildings and rowersro in-ciry aparrmentsfor exec-
and nighttir're activity, office and aparrment
utives and higher-salariedworkers, who then in the eveningsthrong into
to\4'ersare b,:st grouped around off-street
plazasor colrrts.Business,residential,and the pedestrianways and placesto keep them alive and thriving.
commercialrclationshipsare all thereby
intensified.
The layering of shops,apartments, and The lnnerCity
officesis prc,vingto be a successful means
of keeping tle eveningstreetsalive,with Outward of the ring lies the areabest describedas the "inner city." It is
peopleat ha:rd to enjoy them. the band containing the bulk of housing and service facilities that

(Jrban Design 305

Eminent domain is the authoriry by which provide the necessarysupport of the CBD and adjacent urban satellite
a governmentor public agencycan communities.Commonly, in its presentform, it is mostly obsolescent-
a p p r o p r i a t ew, i r h d u e r e c o m p e n s p e r. i v a t e
left behind in the exodus of the previous residentswho followed the
property for public useor benefit.To make
the exerciseof eminent domain more expanding trafficwaysinto the lands beyond. In its dilapidated state it is
acceptable,its applicationmay be pocked with abandoned strucrures and vacant properries. Here and
c o n d i t i o n e db y s u c hp r o v i s i o nas s : there are the remnantsof once-thriving neighborhoods.Here to()' one
1 Use only after open negotiationhas
finds start-up businessesin reclaimed buildings and blocks of homes
beentried and failed.
2. Use only for the final 10 percentof the restoredand renovatedby enterprising newcomers.
land requiredwhen a holdout has
blocked acquisition.
3. When long-rangeacquisidonis in Avoiloble O pportunifies
the public interest,grant the owner
tenancyfor a statedperiod of time. Here in the inner ciry with its frequent stretchesof boarded-upbuildings
4. Purchase,with leasebackfor and rubble-srrewnland, there is opportunity to acquireat affordablecost
conditional uses.
the sitesfor clusteredhousing enclavesor whole new communities, Until
recentlythis was not possiblebecauseof absenteeor holdout parceIown-
ers.Now, however,with innovative redevelopmenttechniquesproviding
the powers of eminent domain, the sizablesites required can be imsem-
bled and clearedby a redevelopmentauthority.

od

f
o

NewYorkCity
Memoriol,
WorldTrodeCenter

In ciry afrer city, such reclaimed tracts of inner-city wasteland are now
sprouting with well-planned, mixed-use, residential developments.
Dwellings range in type from single-family homes to multistory apart-
ments. Residents,many of whom are employed nearby,may be workers
of low to moderate income or high-salariedexecutives.

The inner city offers the greatestopportunity for urban renewal and
redevelopment,for with overall planning and self-help incentives,it can
providenot only the housingbut alsoa wide spectrumof the serviceand
supply facilities neededto support the adjacentCBD and the outer ciry.
With unemployment and the lack of housing two of the major urban
problems,the inner city teemswith latent solutions.

306 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE


o o
I o
>
()
]
rc
I
!
Exomples
of inner-city
housing.
There is a trr rism to the effect that in every
problem anc seemingdisasterarero be found
the seedsof , rPportuniry.[n many waysour
presentcitiesarelittle short ofdisasters.
'\7here
then ,1,rthe opportunities lie?
'fhe
inner' :iry where the problemsseem
most hopele.is,may becomethe promised
land. In this deterioratedband aie to be
found many sound homesand start-up
businessstrucruresinviting rehabilitation.
Here too are endlessoppoitunities for
employmenrin the demolition of obsolete
structures,cle,rringof land, reconstruction
ofstreetsan<lutiliry lines, and for privately
refinanced.rt'd evelopmentand planned
communltle .
!
o
3
o o
I
s
-
>
'o
!
o
o
a
Housing
It is in the inner ciry that low- to moderate-incomehousing will make
its most telling advances.\while the rower apartmenrs of the cBD (on
costly land and with elevatorsrequired) will be designedmainly for res-
idents with the higher incomes, the mixed-use neighborhoods outside
the ring will include the full range of housing rypes for those of all
income levels,including the displacedand presentlyhomeless.
At the upper end of the housing scalewill be zero lotline homes, rown
houses, garden apartments, and low-rise multifamily apartments resem-
bling horizontal condominiums. The separatedsingle-family homes facing
on local streetsor culs-de-sac(with front yards devoted to display and side
yards unused) will no doubt persisr,but there will be a preponderanceof
dwellings with common walls and fenced or walled ourdoor living areas.
Town houses are a long-standing tradition-from Boston and Philadel-
phia to San Francisco.Georgetown in \Tashington, D.C., surely one of
the most delightful residential areas of our counrry has narrow brick
homes setwall to wdl along its narrow shadedstreers.Its brick walk pave-
ments, often extending from curb to facade,are opened here around the
smooth trunk of a sycamore or punched out there to receive a holly, a
boxwood, a flowering rree, or a bed of myrtle. In this compacr commu-
niry where spaceis at such a premium, the open areasare artfully enclosed
(Jrban Design 3O7
 No fence or by fences,walls, or building wings to give privacy and to createa cool and
pleasantwell of gardensPaceinto which the dwelling oPens'

Mid-to-lower-scale dwellings will also be designedin compact arrange-

ments within open-spacesurroundings-with schools, child care cen-
ters, and .o.rrr.ni.n.e shopping close at hand. Again' some residential
buildings will resemble horizontal habitats, with common laundries,
,ror"g. ip".es, gardens,and evenkitchens. New conceptswill be evident
also in modular and prefab construction'

\fhile the construction framing members and panels will be of uni-

form dimensions,the room shapesand arrangementscan be of infinite

Too
norrow

,f
{or use

shared usablespace,the building groupings can be diverseand com-

pact, with things to seeand do close at hand. For most homeowners
Advonced and tenants,this will be a desirablefeature'

In working with urban renewal and model cities programs,we have dis-
covered that the opennessof newer communities was at first the thing
with greatestappeal to families relocatedfrom older neighborhoods or
from cramped and aching slums. But the residentssoon becamedissat-
isfied with the severebuildings, the wide grassareas,and the play equip-
ment set out on flat sheetsof pavement. One would hear the officials
t*4ry arent they happy?\What did
ask, "\fhat's wrong with thesepeople?
they expect?\What more do they want?"
Ultimote
'What they wanted, what they missed,what they unconsciously longed
Reloxoiionof sideyord,setbock, ond enclosure for, were such congregatingplacesas the carved and whittled storefront
ond bench, the rear-porch stoops, the packed-clay,sun-drenched boccie
will permitfulluseof loi, privocy,
reslriciions
indoor-ouidoor tronsitions
courts, the cratesand boxesset in the cool shadeofa propped-up grape
arbor or in the spattered shadow of a spreading ailanthus tree. They
missedthe meanderingalleys,dim and Pungent,the leakinghydrants,the
hot, bright placesagainstthe moist, dark places,the cellardoors, the lean-
ing board fences,the sagginggates,the mazeof rickety outsidestairs.They
missed the torn circus posters,the rusting enameledtobacco signs, the
blatant billboards, the splotchy patchesof weatheredpaint. They rnissed
the bakery smellsof hot raisin bread and warm, sugaredlunch rolls, the
fish market smells,the clean,raw smell of gasoline,the smell of vulcaniz-
ing rubber.They missedthe strident neighborhood sounds,the incermit-
tent callsand chatter,the baby squalls,the suppershouts,the whistles,the
"allee,allee oxen," the pound of the stone hammer, the ring of the tire
iron, the rumbling delivery truck, the huckster'scart, the dripping' creak-
ing ice wagon.They missedthe shape,the pattern, the smells,the sounds,
and the pulsing feel of life.

308 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 \X/hat they
missed,what they need, is the compression,
the interest, the
variety,the surprises,and the casuar,
indefinabL.l"r-'orrh. neighbor_
hood that they left behind. This same
.hr.- of both tight and expansive
rouscontrast, of the h"ppy accident,
rt we must constandysuive for. And
n, when we find it, is a senseof the
rpression.private or community liv-
ey and the life within them are kept
Lnexperience.

Minimum
h o n e ;fso rm o x i m u m
living

A furthererrorofourplanninghasstemmed fromthelingeringcompursion
to forceourcitiesinto lots bro.L,of uniform,r; ffi;ls".r, ,,id.rl,]
"rrJ
cities of monotonous conformiry are gray in tone. If we examine most
recent plans, we find that one zone is designated
for single-family homes,
another zone for town houses,and another"for
high-rise ;r;;;;", an iso-
lated district is set asidefor commercial use;
a green areawilr somedaybe a
gark.flaywe placein this residentialareaan artist! studio?It is not
allowed!
An office for an architect?A florist shop?A boolatail?
A p;;t;;p? No! In
notpermitted, for thatwould be .,spot
nning sins.Thesehaveroo often been
esthat arethe very essenceof the most

oursray
cities.
London,
after,h.
Blir'l;:r:;fi1t :ffi;:til'i:.r1;;Tl
tially according to this antiseptic planning order.
The first new London
areaswere spacious,clean, and orderly, and
dl would have seemedto be
ideal exceptfor one salient feature:they were incredibly
duil. Nobody riked
them' our ordinances,which to l"rg. degreecontrol our ciry
r"ilg " pat-
terns, are still rather new to us. They have great promise asan effectivetool

Urban Design 309

 efficiency' and charm when we have
and a key to achievingcities of vitaliry'
rather than precludethen.
learnedto userhem ,i .rrr,rr. thesequarities

TheOuterCitY
diagram' the limits of the revital-
In the replanned,far more efficient ciry
parkway that provides
ized inner city will be defined by a circumdrential
satellite centersof the outer ciry'
external vehicular access'aswell, to the

growth' those districts far-

In the expanding rings of previous outward
usual] newer' with many sound
rhest removed from the city center are
land regulation'however'most
neighborhoodsyet,.*"ittittg''Without
by such incompatible usesas
outer residentialareashat'eblen infiltrated
stops' to name a few' These dis-
,.*t, shops, r'tr"d ."' lots, and truck
,rr., to be phasedout-gatht"J i"to their own unifiecl com-
;;;r. "r. disrupting
they can operate more efficiently without
i"""ar, where
iheir neighborsor the landscaPe'

ItisintheouterciryalsowherenewsatelliteCenters-asforhealth,edu-
and recreation-can take form
cation, businessoffices, manufacturing'
of their employees'
at receptive sites surrounded by tht io--t'nities
SuchsatellitesConnectedcentertocenterwithintercityrapidtransitand
parkway circumferentials
,tt. peripheriesb1' Jt regional.freewayand
", in more conducive
will attract thor" ..t."'prisles seeking togetherness
more efficient activiry centers'
surroundings.Thus wili be achievedfar
and optimum^regional access'
with the advantageof nearby housing
means of ending the all-
Such "centering" is believed to be the only
American scourgeof urban sPrawl'

S u b u r b o snp r o w l

3I O LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 The Suburbsond Beyond
It would seemthar suburban riving has become
the American dream. The
early abandonment of the industri-alized
ciry in searchorg...rr., pastures
gainedmomenrum until it becamea rour.
The migration ir^ gi.,r.ni-p.-
tus by the coming of the automobile and
the ."p;;ri;; oi[i"g],*"y.,o-
works' Moreover, as families and businesses
puiled up stakes,ciry taxes
were raisedro compensatefor the ross,while
properry valuesdeclined. The
outward flight has continued until now -*y
who'work in the ciry and
live in exurbia must spend hours a day in
buiki.rg *"rnr", ,t.y drive to
and fro' It is only recentry that the birnc. is
beginning to tip As subur-
ban communities become commerciarized and
i*. ,rr?i. ,pieal, and as
revitalized cities become more attracrive, there
is irrl.."ii'r* back_to-
the-ciry movement. As a resurt, the agricurt.rr"t ""
t"rir-"rJ;;"r, beyond
are lessthreatened.wjtl,r the.stemmin-gof scatteration
and the emerging
acceptanceof regional planning and rJevelopmenr,
we can in time have
the best of all worlds-thriving cities, a*ractive
suburbs, and a protected
regional matrix of productive farmsreads,forest,
and wildern.r, ir.r.*.r.

o
o
o
6

:o
d

Freewoysculpture.

TheUbiquitous
Automobile
Even more than the Industrial Revolution, even more than
our threaten-
ing population explosion, even more than erectronic
technology, the
automobile has been the chief determinant in American
land pllnning
for the pasr many years.In the foreseeabrefuture this
will prof"bly y.i
be the case. \without a drastic change in our thinking,
the^automobile
will continue to dominate our citiei, our communities,
and our lives.
The challenge is to segregateand improve our rrafficways
while at the
same time. devising rh.emeans by which cohesiveliving
and working
areasmay be freed of through-traffic intrusions.

UrbanDesign 31 1

With passasebv CongressoFthe Americans
is now a
*irh bisablliriesAct |ADA)' there
nationalmandateto shapeand reshape
Iivins environmentwith the disadvanraged
in mTnd.All peoplewill benefit from such
sensitiveplanning.
In seneralit can be said that in reviewing
thJmerits of any architecturalor landscape
architecturalproposalit should be tested
vicariouslyby thi experienceof all Potential
users.
312 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
ThedriversandPassengersofmotorized-vehiclesaresafestandhappiest
pleasantand variformed
when the travel experi.,itt it one of flow through
areanathemato fast-
corridors.S,r.., .rorri,tg' ""d on-gradeinterseitions
bt avoi-cled'By realigning exPresswaysand arte-
-."i"g traffic. Th.y
"rJto and activiry centers' the
rial highways arounJ, not through, "'idtt'tiJ
can be eliminated'
-4or?".rro of interruptions anJaccidents
PeoplePloces
Wheredocitypeopleliketobe?Notwheretheyfeelintimidatedby
office towers. Not where
rushing t,"ffi. o, ,h. blank walls of massive
wait' or tiresome climb'
g.r.ing"fro- here to there entails a long walk'
paving' Not where there
ilo, iri" blazing or frigid windswept t"p"t" of
instead to be in or move
is little of interest ,o f.. or do. People prefer
brt, interest, and delight' They enjoy
:acting and exPanding sPaces'TheY
,, where
P"rr"gewaYs-of Places
"rrd seldom hap-
h. Such experiences are
our ly Planned.
\well-designedways and places,especiallythose intended for public use,
rea-
everyon.--.to, only the spry' but' as well' all who by
"..or.r-Jate or disabiliry have specialneedsor problems' All of us ourin
son of age
the
lifetimes-fro- ,t.oller days to the times of crutches, the cane,
ldir"d'rr"nt"ged" to some degreein terms of
walker or wheelch air-are
mobiliry or cognizance.
planners
Only in recent years have our public agenciesa.nd.physical
positive action.
come to recognizethe needsand possibilities,and take
requirements
Now mosr u-"itai"g codes and regulations incorporate
designedto make [Fe safer,more comfortable and convenient'
pedes-
Among rhe more helpful innovations arewell-marked, well-lighted
and tapered.
ffian street crorrirrgr. Curbs at street corners are depressed
the loading and
Ramped pl"tfor-r""re provided at bus stoPsto al.lowf9r
courts'
,rrrlo"dirri of passenger, th. conveyancefloor level' In parking
"t the handicapped'
stalls arei.r.*.d ,-t.", th. entrancewaysfor the use of
or alternative
Steps to public buildings and areas are being eliminated
often entrance gates
,^-p, installed with easyslopesand with handrails.
or have
and doors are fully automated.since many personscannot,read,
symbols has
language difficulties, the use of internationally standardized
b.."o-. a welcome feature of informational and directional signs.
tree
The starknessof once-hostile downrowns has been relievedwith shade
our
plantings,miniparks, seating,fountain-s,and floral displays.Gradually
ir. taking form around interconnected, traffic-
irroLrirr[ -.tropolitan
"r.",
free buJirresr,,ihoppirrg, and reside.rrirl ..rrt.rs. On thesewell-furnished
and
islandsth. ."p.ri..r..-of g.tting about, or being, in safe,attractiYe,
refreshingsurroundings givesnew meaning to town and city'
 UrbonGreen,UrbonBlue
Few would deny that cities would be more preasantif
ressbreak and
more gardenlike. Is that asking roo much o] the system?
Not when
we can witness many examples of downtown transformation.
Every-
where across the nation once-barren streets are now a-greening
and
a-blooming. Flower-bedeckedplanters,window boxes,
b"r-
kets enframe srorewindows. Recessedbaysand setbacks "rrdi"rrgi.rg
are convertedto
miniparks with raised planting beds and seating. concrete boulevard
medians are converted to seasonalshowpieces.v"cant lots in
the inner
ciry are cleared of trash by citizen groups and with the help of
civic
groupsor clubs made neighborhoodgardensand gatheringplr..r.

The local embellishmenrsare heartening signs of new attitudes.At

the
larger, citywide scale,publicized and iree-planting programs have
"ided
clothed mile upon mile of streetsand drives with turgeoiirrg 6li"g.. nol-
luted streambedsand riverbanks have been clearedoid.brir"rrrd restored
to verdant waterways.Lakeshoresand waterfronts have become a focus
of
public improvement and the focal points and pride of many cities.

Building upon such successes, sentiment is growing for open-spacepro-

grams that will in time incorporate or consolidatela.ge swathsand small
bits and piecesof public land into integratedryr,.-rlunder the central-
ized guidance of expanded departments of parks, recrearion,and open

Urbongreen,/blue.

(JrbanDesign 31 3
 !. space,our contemPorarycities might-well in time come to approach-the
within which buildings, travelled
: ia.A of "an all-emlracing g"rd.r-park
*"y, and gathering pl".o beautifully interspersed"'1
i "te
sold-by the.squarefogt
€ B.r,, one might ask,with urban real estatebeing
and assembled?
i irrr,."d of th". acre,how can such open spacebe afforded

ing of half-used obsoletebuildings. Reclaimedvacant or tax-delinquent

l"idr.".r be added to park and recrearionholdings. If within the ciry
there are cliffs, steepslopes,or arroyos,so much the better.\(here there
are in-ciry srreamsor a warerfront, the possibilitiesare expanded.

Throughout the greatermetropolitan confines' the evolving processes of

reclam-ation,t.h"bilit"tion, and redevelopment will create extensive

Hyottcity center open-spacereserves.To these can be added the gifts of property by

p.rUti.-rpi.ited donors and the essentiallinks and fill-in parcelsacquired
*ith bonds or budgeted capital improvement funds. The lands are there
in various conditions ready to be put together into an oPen-spacesystem
and framework for ongoing development.

TheNew UrbonitY
The needsof the human beings who would work and live in our cities
must come to have precedenceover the insistent requirementsof traffic,
over the despoiling demands of industry, and over the callous public
accepranceof rigid economy as the most consistent criterion for our
,tr..i utiliry layouts and for the development of our boulevards,
"rrd
plazas,parks, and other public works.

\what are the human needsof which we speak?Some have been so long
ignored or forgotten in terms of ciry planning and growth that they may
now seemq.r"in, or archaic.Yet they are basic.\(e human beings need
and must have once again in our cities a rich variety of spaces,each
planned with sensitiviry to best expressand accommodate its function;
,p".., through which we may move with safetyand with pleasureand in
'w'e
which we may congregate. must have health, convenience, and
mobiliry on scalesasyet undreamedof. \fle alsomust have order. Not an
antiseptic, stilted, or grandioseorder of contrived geometric dullnessor
,*..pi.rg emptiness but a functional order that will hold the city
togerherand make it work-an order asorganic asthat of the living cell,
the leaf, and the tree. A sensedcohesiveand satisfyingorder that permits

lKublaiKhan,in outliningtheplanforhisnewcapital Beijing.

ciry,Thtu,thepresent-clay

314 LANDS CAPE ARCHITECTURE

New urbon oreo.

the happy accident,is flexible, and combines the best of the old with the
best of the new An order that is sympathetic to those srrucrures,things,
and activitiesthat afford interest,variery surprise,and contrast and that
have the power to "charm the heart." \7e humans need in our cities
sourcesof inspiration, stimulation, refreshment,beaury,and delight. \We
need and must have, in short, a salubrious, pollution-free urban envi-
ronment conducive to the living of the whole, full life.

Such a city will not ignore nature. Rather, it will be integrated with
nature. And it will invite nature back into its confines in the form of
clean air, sunshine, water, foliage, breeze,wooded hills, rediscovered
water edges,and interconnectedgarden parks.

Gradually,but with quickening tempo, the faceof urban America is tak-

ing on a new look. It is a look of wholesomecleanliness,of mopping up,
renovation, or tearing down and rebuilding. There is a senseof urgency,
directness,nonpretense,and informaliry. There is a new group spirit of
concerted actions and of people enjoying the experience of making
things happen, of coming and being together in pleasantcity surround-
ings. There is a freshness,sparkle,and spontaneity asAmerican as apple
pie. The movement was born partly of desperation-of the need by
property owners to "savethe city" and protect their threatened invest-
ments. It respondsto the need for energy conservationand the contrac-
tion of overextendeddevelopment patterns. It stems from revulsion at
pollution, filth, decay,and delapidatedstructures.It is a strengthening
compulsion to clean house, repair, and rebuild, mainly by private enter-
prise. There is a new vitaliry. There is a senseof competition, too,
marked by inventiveness.Freshwinds are astir in our cities.

(Jrban Design 3,|5

 most important aspectsof land
ln the coming decadesone of the
I planning will be that of growth management. On the face of it, the
regulation of population expansion and distribution might seem an
impossibiliry. How, for instance, can the awesomeburgeoning of our
population be brought under control?Yet this is imperative, for by pres-
ent projection it will double and then double again within the next 100
years. One can imagine the sffesson buildable land, farmsteads,food
production, freshwaterreserves,and roadway capacities.

Or how can the constant shifting or tidal flows of population migration

within our borders be managed?These vexing and critical problems are
at last being addressedby our institutions and government. Pending
effectivesolutions nationally, there are many means by which our plan-
ning professionscan improve the local situations and prospects.

T h eG u i d e l i n eP l o n
To managegrowth and ensuresound development within a given local-
iry it is essentialthat each community, ciry and/or region have a clear
understanding of existing conditions and what they might better be in
the future.

This implies the need for a planning committee, council, or commis-

sion, depending upon the sizeof the areaconcerned.Ideally such groups
TomLomb,LombStudio

317
 U n m o n o g e dg r o w t h i s o c o n c e ro n t h e l o n d .

representthe best of the local leadershipaided by a professionalplanner

and staff. Their task is the preparation of a guideline plan and action
program. This will define the rypes, locations, and limits of develop-
ment foreseento produce the most desirableconditions for living and
working. It will preserveand protect the best of the natural features
including forest and farmland. It will provide a protective framework of
open-spacelands, around which development is to occur. It will allocate
areasfor all rypes of usesdeemed necessaryto produce in time a bal-
anced and stable communiry. It will provide for interconnection of the
various activity centerswith a systemof free-flowing paths, streets,park-
ways, and freeways.It will be generalin outline with flexibiliry to meet
changingconditions.

This guideline plan and improvemenr program is to be consrandy

updatedand revisedfor usein reviewingall future developmentproposals.

ProiectReview
\(/herever uncontrolled developmenr is permitted, it will in time
occur-most often causing an unwelcome incursion. Road and utility
capacitiesare exceeded,natural featuresdestroyed,farmland eliminated,
and school systemsoverloaded.Pleasantcommunities are disrupted and

3t8 LAND SCAPE ARC HI TE C TURE

 changedbeyond redemption. often their very narure is so changed
that
existing homeownersmove to more agreeablesurroundings.

Growtlt ma;tdgementis a searchfor rhe besr How.is_suchdisruption to be prevented?It is easierthan might

be sup-
relationships
of peopleto land,warer,orher posed.\flhere a planning committee or council existsand *h.r.
resources,
and to routesoftravel. a devel-
opment plan and guideline program have been prepared, each
new
development project musr meer the test of phased'review
ro meer
approval or be rejected.

The first phase is a determination that the proposed project meets

the
spirit and conditions of the guideline or can be amended to do so.
If ten-
tative approval is granted, the development is carried through a
seriesof
further srages,which include a detailed impact ,r",.-..r"r, cost/yield
analysis,and posting of performancebonds if called for. only with
such
a strict rwiew processand presentationsin public meetingsian the
citi-
zensand their leadershipbe assuredof orderly growth anJ transition.

RequiredSeryices
Having satisfiedthe suitabiliry and project review phases,the final
key
to growth management is the assurancethat all p"bti. servicesare
in
place and operation before the first occupancy is permitted. such ser-
vices include required approach-road improve-.rr1r, all off-site
utility
leads,adequatefire and police protection, school facilities (in the case
of
residential developm_ent),open space, and recrearion. \Vho pays for
their provision?It only makessenserhat the speculator/developers-not
the existing citizens-p ay for the costsinvolved.

E'en well-planned development is not alwaysgood-especially when it

throws establishedsysremsout of kilter. uncontrolled ievelopment is
seldom desirablebecauseof its disruptions and costsro the members of
the existing communiry. Unmanaged growth resurtsin that cancerous
American form of land use and development known as urban sprawl.

Much of what needsto be done in the way of environmental planning

falls.within the caregory of growth management. This goes beyond th!
obvious need to stabilizethe doubling, rJoubling, o.,.ir"h.lming, and
shifting populations. It dealsessentiallywith bringing people, lanJ, and
other resourcesinto balance.In this endeavor it ."" Jir.itly affect the
future of every region.

There are some-yea, many-localities where a desirableequilibrium

has alreadybeen attained; where land is preservedor built ou, .o capac-
iry in its "highest and best use";where trafficways,utilities, schools,and
other amenities are working well together and where further growth
would be disruptive. Again, rhere are areasof scenic splendor, elologic
sensitiviry-,or high agricultural productiviry where the existing condition
is best left largely undisturbed. In every region, however, tf,.r. .a' b.

Growth Management 319

 found potential sitesfor well-planned communities or other enterprises
if and when it can be establishedthat they belong'

more and
unless or until our exploding population growth is checked,
tVe can no longer, however, allow
ever more constructlon rs lnevltable.
agri-
the uncontrolled development of our prime remaining natural or
.W. -.rri first explore and maximize the possibilities of
cultural lands.
renewaland redevelopment.'we must reclaim, redefine,reuse,and often
reshapeour obsoles..rr, o, depleted urban, suburban, and rural proper-
ties. \7e can and musr createa whole new re-formed landscapewithin
river
the grand topographical setting of protected mountain slopes,
basins,shores,desert' forest, and farmland'

Implicit in long-rang
ment. For unlesscont
range" has little meal
resourceswould be in
ning must be the formulation of strategiesfor restraint,wise use,replen-
ishment, and restoration.

It involvessuch broad and diverseconcernsasthe efficient useof energy'

It dealswith such finite matters as limitation on consumption, land use
conrrols, and recycling.As to land and landscapeplanning, it soon leads
to the realizationthat-urban sprawl and scatterationmust be curbed and
reversed-replaced with concentrated and interconnected centers of
human within protected and productive open-spacesurrounds.
"cti..,riry
It demands,in short' comprehensiveregional planning'

In our planning and replanning, we must preserveintact such significant

,-r",,.rr"1- asare necessaryro protect our watershedsand maintain our
"r."s
water table, to conserveour forestsand mineral reserves,to check ero-
sion, ro stabilize and ameliorate our climate, to provide sufficient areas
for recreation and for wildlife sanctuary,and to protect sitesof notable
scenic, ecologic, or historic value. such holdings might best be pur-
chasedand aJministered by the appropriate federal,state,or local agen-
cies or conservancygrouPs.

\6/e must ensurethe logical development of the existing landscape.Such

thinking points to a national resource planning authority. Such an
authoriry would be empowered to explore and determine, on a broad
scale,the best conceivableuse of all major land and water areasand nat-
ural resources.It would recommend the purchaseof thosethat should be
so conserved.It would encourage,through zoning, enabling legislation,
and federal aid, the best and proper development of these and all
remaining areasfor the long-range good of the nation. It would con-
srandy ,J"rr.r, and keep flexible its program and master plans and
engagefor this work the best of the trained physical planners, geogra-
pt.ti geologists,biologists, sociologists,and experts in other related

320 LAND SCAPE ARC H ITE C TURE

a'?,

Golden Goh,rNotionol RecreotionAreo.

disciplines. Regional, state, and federal environmental advisory boards

composedof distinguished scientistsand thinkers might well be consri-
tuted, with participants nominated to this post of high honor by their
respectiveprofessionalgroups.

Further, we must consciously and astutely continue the evolution toward

a new systemof physical order. This may be one of improved relation-
ships,as of people to people, people to their communities, and all to the
living landscape.Sincewe have now become,in fact, world citizens,the
new order may stem from a philosophic orientation that borrows from
and incorporatesthe most positive driving forces of the preceding and
contemporary cultures.

\7hile the Athenians, as has been noted, faced their homes inward to
family domains of privacy, while the Egyptians expresseda compulsion
for lineal progressions,while the Chinese designed their homes and
streets and temples as incidents in nature, and while the \Testern
predilection was for a continuum of flowing space,perhapsthe new uni-
versalphilosophic guidelinesmay be a felicitous blending.

The value of the secure,private contemplative spacemay come to be

generally recognized. The appreciation of lineal attainment may be
translated into the design for pleasurable and rewarding movement

Growtb Management 321

 along transitways,parlsvays,and paths.\Whole cities and regionsmay be
harmoniously integratedwith natural landscape,in which interconnect-
ing open spacemay provide a salubrious setting for our new architec-
tural and engineeringstructures.

For the first time in the long sweepof history, environmental protecdon
is becoming at last a world concern.The wise managementof our land
and water resourcesand the earthscapeis becoming a common cause.
Fortunately,when the problems are nearing crisisproportions, the essen-
tial technology is at hand. Perhapswe can pull it all together in time, and
soonerthan many suppose,with enlightened,creativeplanning.

o
6

Smollurbonimorovemenrs

Significant environmental improvement does not necessarilyrequire a

monumental effort. It is sometimes achievedat a massivescale,as by
efFectiveand far-reaching flood control programs, clean air legislation,
or the scientific managementof regional farmlands, wetlands, or forest.
For the most part, however,it is accomplishedon a far lesserbasis.It is
the sum of an infinite number of smaller acts of landscaoecare and
improvement. It is:

. The advent of a well-designedpark or parklet

. The placing underground of power distribution and telephone
cablesin a new community
The cleanup and water-edgeinstallation of paths and planting along
a forgotten stream
o Neighbors caring for their street
o A linden tree installed besidethe entranceof an urban shop
a A vine on a factory wall
o A scrapof blowing paper picked up by a child in the school yard

Each act generatesothers.Together,they make the difference.

322 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 Scotterotion
ond UrbonSprowl
It is believed that there is no greater threat ro our cities and outlying
countryside than the blight of urban sprawl. The subject is given plac!
in this text becausemost readerswith such an interest b.rt
"re-thor.
suited by training and experienceto deal with and solve this problem.

The early rowns and cities of America were compact and self-contained.
compact for convenience.Streetswere muddy. Horses, the only means
of locomotion, had to be harnessedand hitched to buggy or wagon. The
hostile forest closed in around. Self-containedbecaui. th. o.rly goods
and foodstuffs available were ro be gathered from the forest or g"rJ.r, o,
bought at the generalsrore.

\fhen towns and cities grew by accretion, their centerswere strength-

ened by the growth that crowded around them. As new roadsand hlgh-
ways were built, comparablesettlementsformed as nodes along the way,
soon to be surrounded by farmsteads.\(/hen the railroadscame-,new ser-
tlements coagulatedat railroad or river crossingsor natural harbors. In
time, transportation routes also found their way to remote centers of
agriculture, mining, lumbering, or to notable scenicattractions.

RompontsprowlfollowedWorld Wor ll.

Grotatb Management 323

 ing homesitesor the evolvingsuburbs,which were an American inven-
tion. Stores and factories followed-1s ls2vs the hemorrhaging cities
with ever-increasingvacancies,dilapidation, and raxes.An influx of
Iower-income families and welfare recipientsexacerbatedthe problems'

Not only the cities were faced with the resulting dilemmas-for wher-
ever new development occurred in the rural landscape,the adiacent
farm- and forestlandswere taxed, not according to their use, l)ut as
porential development acreage.A swelling tide of farmerswere tenlpted'
or forced, to sell their farmsteadsand add to the scatteration'

And so we find ourselvestoday. Almost without exception our towns

and cities are burdened with debt, pocked with obsoleteor vacant struc-
rures,woefully polluted and crime-ridden.In the surroundingoutlands,
thriving family-owned farms are becoming a rarity. The once unspoiled
'America
the Beautiful" is cluttered with a mazeof poorly maintained
roadwaysand unplanned scatteration.In time, the owners of outlying
dwellings demand paved access,utilities, and such public servrcesas
schooling and busing. It is hard to imagine a less efficient or more
destructivepattern of development. It has come to be known, an.dvili-
fied, as urban sprawl.

P i t t s b u r gPho i n tc, i r c o 1 9 9 0

324 LAND SCAPE ARC H I TE C T URE

na

Urbon revitolizotionis o mojor weopon ogoinst sprowl.

Restorotion

a tried and proven approach to land use planning rhar has produced an
environment for living that is more comfortable, convenient, efficient,
and fulfilling.

Individually or in sum they point the way to the end of urban sprawl
and the comprehensiveplannin g of far more desirableliving and work-
rng centers.

TheCiry
urban sprawl is for the most parr flight from the ciry. vhen a ciry is
grosslypolluted, poorly maintained, crime-ridden, and heavily in debt;
when the beckoning countryside is largely unzoned; and when a nerwork
of unrestrictedroadsleadsourward-this exodusis understandable.

\,Mhatwould it take to srop the outflow and reversethe trend-to bring

the entrepreneursand home builders back?one answe! of course,is to
renovate the ciry and make it safer and more arrractive. In ciry after ciry
this has proven to be not only feasiblebut an accomplishedfact.

Grouth Management 325

 AcfivifyCenters
Activity nodes-such as those of communities or commercial, business,
,.r."r.ir, medical, universiry or recreationalcenters-are working enti-
ties. They can be unplanned and awkward, or they can be designedor
redesignedto function like a well-tuned machine.

To better things for any type of center,it is well to list those comPonents
necessaryto make it complete-including housing for the workers-
and then designateareasfor them to be constructed phaseby phasefor
opdmum performance.

Each activity node is to be connected to others and the center ciry by park-
way or rapid transit. Such complete and functional centersplanned within
the cities, or (if needed) beside controlled accesshighways, provide a
highly desirable alternative to urban sprawl. In addition, they greatly
,.J,r.. place-to-placetravel time and traffic. They are more pleasant and
.orrr.rrLrrr. They are more profitable and successfulfor all concerned.

FixedBoundories
Scatterationor urban sprawl is the creepingdispersionof the more suc-
cessful enterprisesand more desirable housing into the surrounding
countryside. All sorts of support servicesfollow along. Not only does
this weaken vital centers,it infiltrates the outlying agricultural, forest,
and wetlands with a nerwork of incompatible roadwaysand ill-matched
rypesof development.

How can this hemorrhaging of the ciry and the disruption of the sur-
rounding region be precluded?only by the imposition of fixed bound-
ariesand development controls to check the outward pressures.

'W'here
srrong metropolitan or regional planning commissions are in
place, such confining limits can be accomplished by strictly enforced
,oni.rg. There will be opposition by speculators,but the benefits of the
\With land afeaat a pre-
confined cities and centersare overwhelming.
mium, vacant lots and obsolescenceare rare; maintenance,land values,
and tax yields are high and the economy thrives. Moreover, the center is
complete, convenient, and in balance'

Open Spoce
\x4rat constitutesopen space?It is unpaved, un-built-upon land or water
bodies.'w'ithin a metropolitan area,the best possibleopen-spacesysrem
is comprised of recreationalparks or parklets aligned along the natural
srreams and drainageways.The latter, preservedto rhe 5O-yearflood
level, form an inrerconnectedswath of green where the soils are richest
and the foliage and tree cover most luxuriant. Here, within or besidethe
swath, is the preferred route for parkways, bikeways, and walking/

326 LAND SCAPE ARC HITE C TURE

 ri..J-:l$*:i: o

f
o

o
o

o I
o
i
- o

o
o

o
o

*#&ww*
*1r,,''t

:..&

!-*J,*.***

&*,,,';',,r,
O p , : n s t r o c t :: , l r n e si n c o u n t l e s fso r m s .

jogging paths.Thev belong in the public domain. Even where presently

enclosedin concreteculvertsor built upon, warerwa)-scan in time be
reopenedand restoredto their natural flows. Urban open spacecan also
be provided by planted parkway medians and be,rms,by institutional
grounds and in-city forests.Streettreessupplemenropen spacebv serv-
ing as windbreaks in the trafficway channelsand by providing welcome
shadeand coolins.

Groutth Xl[anagement 327


Two key provisos of growth management
poliry are that entrepreneurscontribute
their fair shareofthe funds neededfor off-
site improvementsand that all required
servicesbe in placebeforeoccupancyis
permitted.
328 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
The urban pattern of the future will be one of comPact and confined
centers surrounded by park and recreation lands, gardens,agricultural
or forest. Internally and externally,nature will
fields, nature preserrres,
alwaysbe closeat hand, with urban sprawl precluded.
Roodwoys
Presumably, highways are designed to move motorists safely,efficiently,
and pleasantly from place to place. Yet, excePt for national parkways,
turnpikes, and interstate highways, there are few trafficways without
buildings fronting upon them, together with driveway openings-
somerimes100 or more per mile. Every car slowing down to turn off or
to allow another to enter reducesthe capacity of the highway and flow
of traffic-often to a standstill. By what right are abutting proPerty
owners permitted to convert highways built with public funds into
highly valuable private building frontage?Highway engineersknow the
hazardand friction of roadsideintrusion and would oPt for development-
free borders along all major roadways.By all reason,new through high-
ways and arterialsshould be designedwith limited access-with off- and
on-ramps no closer than one-quarter mile on each side. Privileged
landownerswould no longer gain at others' exPense;the traveling pub-
lic would have the free-flowing highways they paid for and deserve.
Thus, too, could be eliminated mile after mile of sordid strip commer-
cial and unplanned sprawl.
Lond VolueAppreciofion
Developersare often blamed for our woes. Sometimesrightly so. But in
fact, the better developersare akey to salvation. Given an enlightened
governmental and planning framework that encouragessound and cre-
ative development, the large-scale,long-range landowner developer is
the hope of the American landscape.
Alone, or in a consortium, only the hearyweight developer has the
financial depth and staying power to:
. Assemblesizabletracts of buildable property
. Produce a community or other activity center in accordancewith a
comprehensiveplan that addressesall pertinent considerationsand
includes all neededcomponents
. Build in phases,toward long-term completion
. Reserveand dedicatelarge stretchesof the most scenic,sensitive,or
productive open-spaceland
. Engageexperiencedplanners and top scientific advisers
. Coordinate fully with such public agenciesas the transportation
authoriry school district, water resourcemanagementdistrict, park/
recreation/open-space board, and regionalplanning authority

Zoning canno! be a substitutefor planning,
and planning cannor be a substituiefor
design-the three must work together.
Recentering
return or move on.
-what can be
done to heal scatteration and restore the integrity of rural
lands?There are many possibilities.Among them:
' The scattered parcels can be assessedand taxed to co.,.erthe cost of
the required servicesand off-site improvements.This, in mosr cases,
would soon make remore living prohibitive.
' Acquisition by purchase of an unsuitable properry is the direct
approach. often it cosrslessfor a jurisdiction to buy the home or
development than to provide the road improvements, maintenance,
and schooling. A condition of purchasecan be the granting of life-
time tenancy for the owners.
\(hen the perceived advantagesof dispersed living are outweighed by
those of new or replanned centers,the ownerswill gravitat. to th. -or.
attractive locations. The gradual regrouping of the scarteredelements
into well-defined and balanced activity cenrers-each with its support-
ing servicesand adjacent worker housing-creates a much more Jesir-
able environment for living the good, full life.
Zoning
conventional zoning as it is commonly practiced is as harmful as it is
archaic. In traditional zoning pracrice, large areasofland are ser asideand
restricted to a single type of use,as for detachedsingle-family homes, row
houses,or apartments, or, again, asfor commercial Jevelopment, business
Grouth Management 329
 office, light or healy industry, institutional, recreational,or open space.
The zoned areasare often delineatedwithout thought of topography,the
rransportationnetwork, or evenabutting land uses.usually they are over-
by
sized "to be sure of sufficiency,"and in resPonseto political pressure
landownerswho buck for the highest potential salesvalue of their prop-
erty. Suchoverzoningresultsin largeun-built-upon tractswithin the met-
ropolitan the .Lrt, of interconnection by road and
"r."-i.t.i.asing
utiliries and encouraging, rarher than discouraging, scatteration even
within the city.

An advanced,and highly successful,form of zoning is that of planned

unit development (PUD), which is especiallydesignedfor complete-and
balanced community or activiry center planning. In each case, for a
given parcel or rract, existing zoning restrictionsare relaxedand creativ-
i,y i, .rr.orrraged. Homes oth.r buildings may be arranged freely.
"nd
They need l-roi f".. upon a public srreer.They may instead front upon
off-street coufrs, plazas,or dedicated walkways-with parking bays or
compounds locat.d besideor underneath.They may be designedwith a
mix of low ro high-rise buildings and with such supporting uses and
servicesas may be neededto make the community or center complete.

Such PUD-designed activity centersare in all ways superior to the tradi-

tional partern o? structures lined out along streetsand highways, with
their danger, fumes, and noise, and without ready accessto recreation,
schools,or convenienceshopping.'\rith such attractive in-ciry commu-
nities and educational,commercial, or other centersas can be produced
under PUD zoning procedures,there is far lessincentive to flee the ciry
and follow the highways to somewhereout beyond.

Construction Regulations. One of the common inducements to

The frontiers of waste management are yet
to be explored. Beyond the exclusion of
trash landfill mountains and offshore refuse
mantle.
urban sprawl is the lack of siting and building regulationsin the outly-
ing distiicts. \X/hile some may have zoning and building codes,they are
usually loosely enforced, if at all. This invites an invasion of those who
seeka place in the woods or besidea stream or along some countl'y farm
road, where they may clear and grade out a level spot and build a cabin'
shack, or house, or haul in and hook up a trailer. It is to be noted that
throughout the countryside there are many attractive mobile home
parksihat show the multiple advantagesof grouping isolated units into
ihtirri.rg communities. Even the most modest rural intrusion causesdis-
ruption, but when extensiveclearing and grading is involved the result
may be a neighborhood disaster.In lessthan one day, the gung-ho oper-
ator of a bulldozer or chain saw can trash a whole hillside and subject it
to ever-deepeningerosion-or causemiles of streampollution and silta-
tion in the drainagewaybelow.

Needed is a mandatory statewideland use and construction code that is

strictly enforced. The provisions will vary with the geographic loca-
tion-as for coast,prairie or plain, mountains, river basins,or wetlands.

330 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 E
E
o
U
U
i

plonning
I Positive lpprooch. Beochond wetlondsore preserved;residentiol
clusters,homsingle-fomily
neighborhoodsto towers,ore'confined
to the uplonds;
thereis roisedbeochoccessfor oll.

In each case, however, the following subjects should be among

those
addressed:

. Land use
. Impact statement
. Slope protection
. Clearing of natural vegetation
. Earthwork (excavation, filling, and grading)
. Topsoil conservation
. Drainage of wetlands
. Blocking of natural drainageways
. \Varer supply
. Road frontage

\without suchregulation,the blight

of sprawlis bound to spread.\7ith
enforcedlegal controls, urban sprawl can be stopped ir, ravages
healed. ".rd-

Groutth Managemenr 33,|

 ational land use planning can stop at no properry line or jurisdic-
tional boundary. Streams flow, ffafficways must interconnect, and
polluted air, for example,is wafted whereverthe winds may blow it.

Every land or water holding abuts other properties and should respect
the relationship. Every downstream properry is influenced by all that
transpires in the watershed above. Each habitation, communiry and
municipaliry affectsand is affectedby conditions within its surrounding
social,economic, political, and physical region. Since theseare not syn-
onymous, what should the regional boundaries be? They will vary,
depending upon the nature of the study.

I n t e r r e l o t i o ni pssh
For too long the city has been considered a circumscribed entity. By
tradition we have thought of the city versusthe farmland, the city ver-
sus the suburbs, the city versusthe townships or counties in which the
city lies. Many serious and often needlessconflicts have resulted from
a lack of coordinated planning. There have been costly duplications of
administration and facilities. Animosities have been generatedthat will
for yearspreclude intelligent cooperation on even the simplest of inter-
area issues.There is, however, a wise and growing tendency to plan for
the development of the city and its surrounding matrix as a unified
region.

333
I would begry fellou, conseruationists,as I
would begmyfellou farmers, to realize that
we must quit thinking of our countryside
piecemeal,in termsof separate products
or enter,rises:tobacco,timber, liuestoch,
uegetabla,feedgrains, recreation,and soon.
Wemust begin to thinh of the human useof
eachof our regionsor localitieslzsone econom!,
both rural and urban, inuoluing all the local
products.
Wendell Berry
Theproblem of the landscapssv6hissss-svsn
as ofthe architect,the totunplanner, the
enigineer,and indeedall men of good will-is
nou and utill be moreacutelyeueryday, the
deuelopmentof waysand meansfor bridging
thegap betweentown and country,the
antithesisbetueenurban and rural life-more
spectficallybetweenthe masonry,the asphah,
and the dingbat constructionof the town and
the quiet greeneryof meadow,forest,and
shore.Hota t0 oPenuP the t7wn t0 the c7untry),
hou to bring tbe torun cuhuralfuto the
countrt-thatisourprimar t;:JlX;r.lUo
334 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
Concurrent with the trend to broaden the scope of planning from an
urban to a regional basisis the drive to structure or restructureresiden-
tial districts into more self-sufficientneighborhoods.These, surrounded
by greenbeltsand connected by freewaysto the manufacturing com-
plexes,the urban cores,and the outlying hinterlands, give promise of a
more humanized living environment.
Our homes, neighborhoods,and cities are telltale physical expressionsof
the way we think and live. Their plan layout and form are in a state of
continuous evolution to reflect our changing ideas about living, as we
constandy seek a better fit with our natural and built environment.
\With this in mind, it might be well to study the broad outlines of our
presentpatterns of socialand land use organization. Perhapswith better
understandingwe can improve the relationshipsand our way of life.
TheFomily
In our democratic sociery as in most cultures of the past, the family is
the smallestand yet most significant social unit.
Family lifestyles as we know them today are far different from those of
the log cabin, the working farm, or the plantation. The free and rigorous
life of the pioneer has given way to the more ordered routine of the
farmers on their acreageor the conformity of confined city dwellers.
Parental attitudes have changed. The discipline of once paternal- or
maternal-dominated family living has become more relaxedand casual.
Salons,grand balls, and great dinners are almost a thing of the past, as
are the chambermaid. the cook. and the well-trained staff of seryants.
Life has become so automobile-oriented that many families have taken
their carsinto their homes or parked them at the front door. Homes and
gardensare lesspretentious,lessornate. They are mechanized,lessclut-
tered,more open. Front and rear porcheshavedisappearedalong with the
stable and alley.The wide front lawn has been replacedby the walled gar-
den courts of patio homes and town houses.Exterior house walls have
been opened up to let in more air and sunlight and to enframe the views
of garden, sky, and landscape-to provide more contact with nature and
with the stone,water,and plants of the earth.fu conceptsof family'living
have changed, the forms of our dwellings have changed to reflect them.
TheCluster
It has been learned that from 3 to 12 families consritute the optimum
interfamily social group. If their dwellings are clusteredin a convenient
plan arrangement, kaffeeklatsches,parties, childrens play and games,
and "get-togetherness"on a first-name basis are natural ano sponra-
neous. Neighbors borrow cups of butter or sugar and exchangeviews
and form friendships ar the parking compound; children sharetoys and
Toseethe interdependence of ci4t and
countr!, . . . to appreciatethat thereis a iust
and a harm,,rtiousbalancebetweenrheiwo-

Centered oboutshoredoreo The neighborhood

or groupfocillties

Lewis Mumford
The community
Centeredoboutitselementory
school,porks,ond shopping
center
As /ongas mltn'sactiuitiesare in sympathy
with nature, or are on sosmall a-scalethat
Centered oboutitshighschoolond
s u p p o r t i nj ugn i ohr i g hs c o l s ,p o r k s ,
c h u r c h eos n, d s h o p p i n g n t e r s .

fhe region

Centeredobout itscommunities,
conscious
par,r in the land.scape's
euolution. itscentrolbusinessdistlci, ond
Sylvio Crowe its urbon institutions

Cenleredoboutitsiownsondcilies,its
regionol
porks,
ilsogriculturol
ondindustriol
centers
ondregionol shopprng
cenrers

turf. Ideally, the families in such a clusrer would have the same general
goalsand standardsbut a diversiry of individual statusand interesrs.

As a group exceeds12 to 16 householdsin number, it becomesunwieldy,

tends to lose its cohesion, and auromatically breaksup inro smaller social
alliances.
EdmundN. Bocon
The most desirable plan arrangemenrsfor the cluster will afford an oF
streetparking compound, freedom from the noise and danger of passing
traffic, pedestrian interaccess,and a focal place or feature su;h as ...rtrJ
lawn panel or a childrens play court. The grouping will have a" harmo-
rrchitectural character and physical separation from adja-
structures.Compactnessand the sharingof parry walls are
my successfulclusrers,where the normally unusableside-
ueezedout and aggregatedfor group use and enjoyment.
Henry S. Churchill

Ihe Nerghborhood
A neighborhood is ar besta grouping of residentialclustersaround shared
open space.It should be small enough to encouragepanicipation of all
families in group activities and large enough to contain a convenience-
shopping center, playfields, and buffering.An enduring neighborhood
plan and one thar has accommodatedchanging conceptsof socialbehav-

The RegionalLandscape 335

 ior and educationis one formed around and providing safewalkway access
to an elementaryschool. In size and population it is shapedto yield or
contribute to the approximatenumber of studentsrequiredfor a balanced
schoolfaciliry.It is essenrial,however,that either the school,shopping,
"tt
or other shared amenities be centeredwithin the single neighborhood
confines.It is often more desirablethat they be placedoutside or between
subneighborhood enclavesof varying character and size and be laced
togetherwith interconnectinggreenways,walks, and bicycletrails.
Fort Detrich

In the well-conceivedneighborhood, peripheralroadswill provide access

and vehicular connection to free-flowing regional parlcrvays.Ttrrough
traffic will be precluded. Ideally, the neighborhood will be composedof
planned tract; grouped around and between lobes of semiprivate park
ih", op.r, into the larger communiry school-park system. Fach such
tract, Jeveloped as an entiry would be freed of all arbitrary lot restric-
tions. On the PUD model its proposedlayout would be subjectto review
by the planning agenciessolely on the basisof livability. Land use pat-
t.rrr, densities, as approved, would then be fixed by coyenants
"rrd
betweenthe landownersand the municipaliry.

TheCommunify
E o s tH i l l s
A planned communiry as differentiated from the neighborhood, would
ar besr comprise rwo or more neighborhoods separatedby greenbelt
--
F, d
o

o
3

o
o

Welwyn Gorden Cit'y

]X IC
Rodburn

Fivecul-de-soc crrongements thot provideo

c l u s t eor f f o m i l yd w e l l i n g s

Plonnedcommunitieswiih regionol chorocter

336 LAND SCAPEARCHI TECTURE

 To indusir rt pork,
f ro.'0,.**o, spaces.It will be interconnecred with controlled-accessparkways
and
oriented to the more important communal featuresand nodes.
lt need
not be contained within the limits of a city.Satellitecommunities,
or rhe
larger new towns, spacedout in the open countryside and served
by free-
ways and rapid transit, have many advantages.

Being more self-sufficient, they reduce the number of external vehicular

trips required and thereby conservefuel and energy.They are lessdisrup-
tive of neighboring ffafficways, land uses, .rt"blirhed systemsthan if
developedwithin or immediately contiguous "nd
ro other residentialareas.All
planned communities, whether perforceimpacted or formed more freely
N e g h b o r h o cpJl c nd i o g r o mn u m b eLr assatellites,have the great advantageofbeing brought on areaby areaand
opprroxi.notel., I 2OOfomilies (one+hird in stageby stagein accordancewith a balanced o,r.rJr .orr..p..ri diagram.
m u l ' i f o mui lnyl s ) The ultimate capacitiesof roadways,schools,parks, and fresh*at.r ripply
mains, for example,can be predeterminedand facilitiesphasedin without
the need for costly periodic enlargementor reconsrruction.

The land usepa*erns, ffaffic-flow diagrams,and population cap will be

determined initially. There will be defined flexibiliry zones (the more
extensivethe better) within which the approved uses and number of

The York Riverd

I
Preserve
A Consoilaton CDmmunity
Ns Kent County,Mrginia
tut'l@

Area/WatsAcffi Ie,(!.@

Nei<;hborhooc rlondiogromnumber2:
opproxmotelyI 2OOfomilies (one+hird
in
m ut io m i l yu n i r ; )

CENTER
Mixedu€e

Neighborhood

N e i g h b o r h o opo, l o dn i c g r o mn u m b e3r:
opprr>ximotely I 2OOfomilies (one-third in
m u l t i f r m iul yn r It s Plonnedcommunity
with conservotion
os the orgonizingelement

The RegionalLandscape 337

 .l dwellings may be freely arranged on the basisof subsequentand more
ql.li detaileistudy and changing long-range needs. Environmental Protec-
tion covenants,perform".r.. ,t"nd"rds, and design guidelines are to be
formulated and enforced from rhe start. Such planned communities,
having clearly demonsrratedtheir many benefits, are the promise of the
f.rt.rr.I There can be no better answer to regional growth and resource
management.

Theoretically,the ideal community will be composedof severalto many

\ interrelatedneighborhoodsof diversesocial,architectural,and landscape
characrer.Eacli neighborhood, while separateand unique, will share
twhen fully built out, in
d tw e l l i n g se,o c h
A n e i g h b o r h o ofdo p o r t m e n common parhways,amenities,and open space.
relotedto on exi ior opproochond on interior a processwhich may take severaldecades,a communiry will usually
soclolcourtond lo o lorgecenlrolporkoreo irril,rd. and support a high school and one or more junior high schools,
Therelotively hlghdensilyo[ theoporime
within r-hool-p"rk campus and community center, with game
groupsyieldslorgeopenspocewhereit unts each "
courts, sports fields, meeting rooms' auditorium, and library' There will
b. shopping attd butinessoffice mall aswell asthe deployed
".o-^-.rniry
neighborhood .on,r.rri.nt. ...rt"rr. A transit station and light manufac-
,.rrlrrg or businesscampusare normally planned, and a wide rangeof cul-
t,rr"l, r..r."tional, and employment opportunities afforded'

Sincewe are creaturesof our environment' better communities will fol-

low as new and better concepts of communiry living, land ownership,
and land use evolve.The superior community, as we envision it today,
witl be distinguished by the following features:

. A natural periphery demarcatedby highway, greenbelt,river, ridge,

cliff, ravine, or other physical barrier'
. communiry identity. orientation to a symbol, such as a high school,
church, shopping center,or park that givesit focus and meaning'
. Provisio" fot o"tdoor communal activities in clean, sunlit, and
shadedspacesuninterrupted by vehicular traffic flow'
. Minimum friction and danger in use of the automobile, coupled
with maximum convenience.Free-flowing trafficways,with no on-
grade crossings.
. A communiry open-spaceframework, around which the buildings
are grouped.

TheCity

t{**tilkp#:'L'':.**}-
Our cities can be only as good as enlightenedpublic opinion permits or
demands them to be. This education and persuasiontoward civic action
and progressis an often neglectedphasein contemporaryurban planning.

338 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE

Thecil.yin its regionolcontext:Wolkiki.
The city in it, completesense,then, is a
geographicpl '^us,an economicorganization,
an institutiot,al process,a theafteof social
action-and 4n estheticsymbolof collectiue
uniry. On tlx t,nehand it is a physicalframe
for the commonplacedomesticand economic
actiuities;on ,rheother,it is a consciously
dramaric sett;ngfor the moresignificait
ltctionsand t,',t'moresublimatedurga of
hunnn cultu.,e
Lewis Mumford
In the ciry. . .
Peoplego where peopleare,
sit where rhereis placeto sit,
Iook when there are things to see,
and like f:Lce-to-face
.t.Jrr.t.rr.
(,o
The form of a city will be, at besr, the three-dimensionalexpressionof
its varied functions working well together.A good city is expressiveof
our times, our technology, and our ideals. It is an evolving organic
entity, with its roors in the past and its orientation to rhe future.
The thriving city must be a growing, functioning organism, requiring
and capableof providing light, air, warer, food, circulation, elimination
of waste, and regeneration,or elseit will wither and die. Desirable ciry
featuresinclude:
. The most of those high qualities that civilization has attributed to
urbaniry; the leastof those evils that the ageshave condemned
. A harmonious fit with the natural landscapeserring and surroundings
. A cohesiveand comprehensiblemetropolitan diagram
. A well-designed, compacr, and intensive central businessdistrict
(CBD) with outlying satellite 5u[ggn1ss5-all interconnected with
rapid transit
. A differentiation sf 76ns5-1he cenrerciry inner ciry outer ciry and
5u[u1[5-sach with its own development codesand regulations
. A circumferential freeway and parkway system with radial boule-
vards to the CBD bypassring road
The RegionalLandscape 339
In eueryhixorical epochexceptour own,
the cu[tiuatedandinfluentiil person,the
ciuilized,polite and urbane citizen, ineuitably
liued within the city. . . . Indeed the classical
namesfor the city exPress theseueryuirtues:
civis- city; ciui li zed, cia i lization ; urbs-
urbane;polis-polite and elegant.
lon L. McHorg
Freewoys shouldsurround rotherlhonpeneirote
thecenterclly,withcollector-distributor
highwoysprovidinglnteroreo movement
construction of freewoys through on urbon
centerwheretroffc is olreody ol o sotlrotion
p o i n ct o no n l yr e s u li tn c h o o s
Regionalplanning is the conscious direction
and collectiueintegrationofall thoseactiuities
which restupon the useof earth as site, as
resource,Asstructure,, , ,
Lewis Mumford
The neutregionalpattern will be determined
by the characterofthe landscape:its
geograP h i caI and topographicaI features, its
natural resources, by the useofland, the
methodsof agricubure and industry, their
decentralizationand integration;and by
human actiuities,indiuidual and socialin all
their diuersin.
"
Ludwig K. Hilberseimer
A regionalplan that piecestogetherthe
disparateplansof the variousmember
jurisdictionsand blanketsthe whole with a
layerof further restrictionsdoesmore harm
than good.
\Torthy regional planning startswith an
understandingof human needsand the
landscape.
340 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
Separation, by alignment and level, of vehicular accesswaysand
transportation routes
Tiaffic and parking accommodated but made incidental to the
higher aspectsof ciry life
An expressionof the ciry dwellers gregariousnature-congregating
placeswhere people can meet to exchangegoods' seryices,and ideas-
the marketplace, the shopping mall, the park, the square' and the
plaza
Human scale,so that city dwellers,workers, and visitors feel them-
selvesin agreeableproportion to what they seeand hear and so that
they sharea senseof being pleasantlyrelated to the city and thus to
the ambient world
Handsome architecture and landscapearchitecture enriched with
sculpture, murals, and fountains
Order, efficiency, beauty, and a milieu conducive to the develop-
ment of the full human Powers
a Clean and healthful surroundings
a A free-flowing and easy transition between urban, suburban, and
rural areas
The
The Region
A region is a large and generallyunified, but loosely defined, geograPh-
ical area that provides the supporting basefor one or more centers of
population concentration.To simplify the complex problems of regional
planning almost to the point of naivetd,it might be proposed that each
region should be analyzedand planned for its highest and best use in
relation to the land and its resources.
Planning on a regional basis,whether in terms of geographic,political,
social, or economic regions, provides a more comprehensiveand effec-
tive frame of referencethan the considerationof any community, town,
city, or county alone.
Regional planning agenciesare at best nonpolitical and service-oriented.
They provide planning coordination, regional information, and techni-
cal assistanceto the member jurisdictions. Their primary functions are:
. Data gathering, analysis,storage,and distribution
. The preparation and updating of a comprehensiveregional plan
. The conduct of studiesfor various planning elementssuch as hous-
ing, transportation, and open space
. The provision of liaison with state,federal,and local jurisdictions
. The processingof state and federal grants-in-aid to local governments
. The recording and coordination of all proposalsrelating to the pro-
tection, alteration, or development of salient land and water areas
. Recommendationsas to the significanceof regional environmental
impacts
 Thegridlock,:dmetropolis (hyporhericol), stilloll too
c o m m o ni n r r l t o n i z i n gA m e r i c oN
. e g o t i v ef e o t u r e s :
. Buildin:1 frontogeon trofficwoys
o Centro l>usiness district(CBD)tronsected
r Troffic:rictionond congestion
tuh
. C o m m r , , r : isotlr i pc o o g u l o t i o n
. Sprowlcrndscotterotion
. R e s u l t i rvgo c o n c i eosn d o b s o l e s c e n c e
. Lockof focileinterconnection betweenoctivitycenters
^_ (t
o Disorgrrrizotiond inefficiency
e U n c o n s icd o t e dl o n du s ed i s t r i c t s
o No opr:n-spoce systemor preserves
r Lockof coostolond woterwoyprotection
e Littlere,pronse to topogrophy
-r' uFeded

) \" r l

/---..--\.
i-tfr

( )

\
I
vxis{r^o
d<vel"fun+^l 0 ) 1 4 5yo trpp.o,J I
;
o
:
-
o

Urbcrn servicelires As o devicelo ensure E

o
infillond prote: open-spoce ronos,some
m u nc i p o l i l i eIse i n c l u d r nogs c n e l e m e notf ]
rc
t h e i cr o m p r e h c r s ;pvleo n so m o po f u r b c n o
E
s e r v: e r n e ss r c , w i nbgy y e o rt h el i m i t o w h i c h
publc servicer;reto be extendedWithin o

ihe 6reriod not;rl, development will notbe

pernittedbe,7,,rc thedesignoted line N

U
*
o
o
o

o
o
o
E
o
rc

-o5
o

A city for ihe lwenlyJirst

century(hypotheticol).
A prototypeconceptuol
o
plonfor phos,,rcJlong-rongedevelopment, redevelopment, ond renewol. ti
Shownis o cc;nceptuol plon,or model,for o typicolurbonizingregion.As EE*

con be seen, t preserves ond conserves(protects)the bestof the dominont o

o
iopogrophicf r:oiures.Development oreosond routesof interconnection ore I
fittedcompotiolywiih ihe noturollondscopeenfromement.

The Regional Landscape 341

The goal of regionalplanning is to develop
through intergovernmentalcooperation-the
bestpossiblediagrammatic fametuork of
land usesand trafficways,to provide the
evolvingperformancestandardsrequired to
ensureenvironmentalintegriry and then to
encouragethefee and creatiueexpression of
priuate enterprise.
T h eh i g h w o yc n d o d l o c e nut s e sA h l g h w o y
olmostony"where in olmostony stote:fifty
d r i v e w oey n i r o n r : p ees rm i l e ;u n p l o n n e d ,
u n z o n e du,n i n i e l l ' g e n t -sot u d yi n f r l c t i o n ,
c o n f u s i o lnn,e f f i c i e n coyn,d c h o o s
P l o n n e dz, o n e d , i n t e il g e n t .h i g h w o yi r o f f i c
f l o w sf r e e y ; f u n c t i o nos r e g r o u p e d ;h o m e s
o r i e n tl o p o r k ;s , : h o o, c h u r c h o, nd shopping
oreos nove occess
342 LANDSCAPEARCIIITECTURE
R e g i o n oFl o r m
The land use and trafficway patterns of each region, if well considered,
on-grade trafficway crossings.They will provide economies in travel
time and distance and in construction, operation, and mainti3nance
cosrs.They will provide a setting within which and around which devel-
opmenr may take place freely and creativelyas the direct expresr;ionof
human needs.
Desirablefieaturesof the resion will include:
Compact and thriving, off-highway neighborhoods, commrrnities,
and citieswithin an open-sPace surrounding
Phaseddevelopment contours precluding the uncontrolled i3rowth
and sprawloFurbanizingareas
The "land banking," in public or tax-adjustedprivateownersrhip'of
all holdings nor foreseeablyneeded or desirably suited for d,:velop-
ment
'Sflide,
allocatedfor farmsteads,forest,
free, uninterrupted preserr1es
recreation,wildlife management,and conservation
The location of all new activity centersin optimum relationship to
land and water resources, topographicalfeatures,and other planned
USCS
R e g i o n odle v e l o p m e snht o u l dr e s p o n dt o t h e " w o n it o b e " o f t h el o n d
 Regional planning agenciescan be effective Nonfrontage expresswaysand circumferential and radial roadways
.^
i
onlv rl
with parkway characteristicsproviding free-flowing regional access
to urban centersand satellites
Direct rapid transit interconnection of the regional hubs with sub-
surfaceor overheadapproachesto the station plazas
. C^ounq rnembershipin, and support Separate, consolidated transmission-truckrvay corridors linking
oF.rhe regionalagencyis mandiredby major production, processing,and distriburion centers
the St2trl. The programmed provision and strategicallocation of all basic ser-
vice centersand amenitiesneededfor living the good, full life
a
A unified park, recreation,and open-spacesysrem
a
Arterial parkways,with scenic-historicby*"y loops rraversingareas
of natural and historic sisnificance

Most municipalitiesand regionshavezoned

developmentland far in excessof
foreseelblenr:eds.Not only doesthis
encouragesc rrteredparcel-by-parcel
construction,it resultsin rax assessments
disproportiorrateto productiviry and drives
homeownersfrom their propertiesand
farmersfrom their farms.

Nern'constru.:tionwould be better
accommodat,:dby the infill of existing
centersuntil cheywere built out and
unified. Vhe n additional land might then
be neededfor developmenr,new ciohesive
communitiescould be defined throueh .- the
processof cornprehensive planning.
o

I
o
:tr

TheI mitedoc(essconceptof freewoy
deveopments"c,ud be extended
feosiblelo ol irrcughor distributor
w i t h i nt h em e t r r . ; ipt o nr e g i o nW
frontoge woulcnotbe permitted
thoro.;ghfores, :r:nnectlons
wouldbe enccu'oged
Open-Spoce
Frome
The regional open-space frame will embrace and separate the various
land uses and activiry nodes. It will provide background, base, and
breathing room, and when so arrangedasto preservethe bestof the land-
where
scapefeatures,it will give each region its unique landscapecharacrer.
roods
. h i l eb u i l d i n g
on these Perhapsthe most important task of regional planners is to define and
to locolstreets help to bring into being a spacious,inrerconnecting, and permanenr
ond focilitoted
open-spacepreserveas the framework for ongoing development.

The Regional Landscape 343

 Greenwoysand Bluewoys
Greenways are paths of movement for vehicles,pedestrians,and migrant
wildlife. \way, b..",rr. they are paths; green becausethey are enveloped
in foliage. They may vary in scalefrom a woodland trail to a national
taxedaccordingly.
parkway through mountainous terrain.

Bluewaystrace the flow of surfacerunoft-from rivulets to streams,to

broad and sometimes raging rivers. Like the veins and arteries of the
human body, they tend to serve as an interconnecting system. They
rransport nutrients from the uplands, and feed and drain the bottoms.
\(Zithin the flow ways are to be found the most verdant foliage and abun-
dant bird and wildlife populations of each region. In all seasonsthey
ameliorate the climate and add interest to the landscape.They are best
'W'hen preservedin their natural state.
and only when adequatepublic
servicescan be assuredthrough the 3n E
economic extensionof existing trafficways or
6:? .0
mains (or bv a centralizedinstallation,in
i
the caseof satellitecommunities)should J<
oo
"preserve"land be rezonedand development >g -o
pc
bi allowedto proceed. !

(Jjj
66
;d
9o

{<
As a counteractionto urban sprawlwith its
destructionoFwildliFehabirar-many
landownersare establishingtheir own 6i
on-sirehabitatsand wildlife preserves. o.

"dl

oo
>g
.sg
It is foolish to permit satelliteshopping UJ
;od
malls to be built if they reducethe vitaliry 9..

of existingcommercialcenters.
o9
New regionalshopping nodesshould be i<
oermitted only as their needcan be
i.-o.rrtr"ted.
ondbluewoys.
Greenwoys

By a single regulation, and without cost, the most rational of all open-
spacediagramscould be establishedby and for each region. To wit:

From this date neither unauthorized construction of any t)?e,

nor the destruction of natural yegetation shall be permitted
within the 50 year flood limits of a stream or waterbody.

The result would be a protected flow way of privately and/or publicly

owned lands that would reduce the surface runoff of precipitation,
reduce erosion and siltation, conserYewater, moderate the extremesof
climate, and enhancethe landscape.As a border to tillable or buildable
lands it would provide windscreen and flood control.

344 LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTT]RE

 A completer.gional recrearionsysrem Vhen by.reasonof public ownership, or by easemenr,a greenwaycan
providesinscfar as feasiblethe whole ranse --th. be
of opporrur.iries,from rhe childt play lot"
aligned through or contiguous ro a blueway corridor, b.rr.fit,
within the residentialclusterto the siateor manifold. "r.
national park.
On the as<:ending order of social
groupings-,i.e., home, clustet TheEssentiols
neighborho,r<ls,community, etc.-each mav
be expectedro provide for its own particulai It is believedthat the evaluation of sound regional developmenr can be
recreationnr:eds.Beyond these,two or more reduced to four simple tests:

r' Doesit belong? Is the use of the land or water areaconsistentwith

federal, srate, and regional plans and with communiry goals?
2. Is it sustainable? can it be built without exceedinglhe carrying
botanicalgardens,or major marinasrequire
capacity of the land? The use should nor be permittid if it woulJ
areawidesuJ,port, asdo expansive regional
parks and fo:e'stpreserves. impose significant long-term srresson the naturar ecological sys-
On an ev:n grander scale,state and tems. Should there be question, the filing of an environmental
nationalparfs providefor recreationwithin impact assessmenr might well be required.
the contextr,f scenicor historicsuperlatives.
3.would it be a good neighbor? Is the proposed use compremenrary
and complimenrary ro the existing and proposed usesin the neigh-
borhood?or would it haveharmful physicaior visual effects?rflould
'would
it reduce properry values? it desuoy, or preserve,cherished
landmarks?A well-conceived,well-designedproject should enhance,
not harm, its environs.
4. Are adzquateleuelsofpublic seruicein place? At all stagesof project
construction and use,the proposed improvement should have avail-
able all public servicesrequired, without overloading of trafficways,
power or water supply systems, storm sewers, waste treatment
plants, fire and police facilities, and (in the caseof residentialdevel-
opment) schoolsand recreationareas.Not only should all such facil-
ities be online when needed, but the local government should also
be assuredthat the developersand userswill bear their fair shareof
the cost.

If these four conditions can be satisfied, rhere should be no causero

oppose the project, for it should becomea welcome regional asset.

Zoning ascornmonlypracricedis nor

R e g i o n oPl l o n n i n g
workable. There are three approaches to regional planning-four, really. The
fourth is the do-nothing courseof just letting things drift-to watch the
landscapedisintegrate areaby area, undl ir comes apart at the seams.
Scatteration, rrafific glut, and loss to the many for the gain of the few are
the inevitable consequences.

In a more rational approach, the regionaljurisdictions form a voluntary

In the creationof healthvenuironmentnature's associationcomprising selectedlocal officials as representatives.
\with a
collaboration,,snot onb important, but also
small paid staff, they undertake studiesand make recommendationsro
indispensable.
Eliel Soqrinen th-evarious responsibleagencies.such an associationhas the advantage
of political clout, but the disadvantageof political jousting.

The Regional Landscape 345

 A more effectiveadvisory group is civic in nature' In form it may well be
a citizen'scommittee or council initiated by one or more public-spirited
individuals who assemblea team of nonpolitical but highly respected
leaders in various aspectsof regional life. Representativesof business,
educational, financial, scientific, social, labor, and agricultural interests
are among the potential participants. Again, with a small but well-
trained staff they define the goalsand objectivesand set about on a com-
prehensivecourseof phasedstudies.The council may meet as a body no
-or. th"r, once a yi"r, but their consensusrecommendations, when
adopted, carry impressiveweight with the officials and agenciescon-
cerned.

A third meansof addressingregional issuesis the formulation of an offi-

cial regional planning commission with responsibiliryfor certain metro-
politai programs.Such a metro commission receivesits charter from the
state,with well-defined powers and provisions.The commission mem-
bers are electedby the regionwide constituency.A professionaldirector
and staff are appointed. In the areasof assignment,the focus is on coor-
dinated pl"ttttittg, and construction and oPeration in the best interest of
the entire metropolitan region and all of its citizens.

Governonce
The citizens of each locality and jurisdiction like to handle their own
affairs-and should, within reason.It is reasonablethat they have their
own school boards, committees, councils, and elected officials to keep
an eye on things and respond to local needsand aspirations.

It is unreasonable,however,that within a cohesivemetropolitan region

such common and overriding concerns aS transPortation, transit and
transmission, regional land use planning, resource management, law
enforcement,and recyclingshould be handled in such a fragmented and
inefficient manner as is usually the case.Most cities, towns, and bor-
oughs now do their own independent thing-in disregard and often
defianceof what goeson just acrosstheir borders.Those responsiblefor
essentialregional servicesare thus confounded by the need to patch
togerher a host of disparatelocal programs rather than put into opera-
tion coherent, regionwide plans. It can be seenthat the multitudinous
duplications of staff., administrative overhead, and equipment-let
alone the resolution of conflicts-is costly and wasteful in the extfeme.

By all reason,most (though not all) regional planning, construction, and

implementation proceduresshould be systematizedand centrally con-
trolled. This calls for a metro form of government. \7here this has been
most successful,severalbasicshave applied:

. The metro government concePtwas voted into being by all citizens

affected,after an educational campaign and seriesof public fbrums.

346 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE

Tbun and cluntryt must be married and out
oJrhe union will.spring a new life, a new
hope,a new ciuilization.
EbenezerHoword
The enabling legislation and charter delegate
broad powers, but
limit,the. initial responsibilitiesto a few weri-defined
prigr"-, ,lr*
are clearly of regionwide.scope._Responsibilitie.
."r be"expanded
r '
from time to time on the basii of prorr.n p.rform"rr...
C^e^nainpowers and tasks ,.r.rrr.d ,o ih. locar jurisdictions and
"r.
officials ro ensuretheir independent authoriry ir'rpport.
The metro council membership-iscomposed of"rd
elect.i l."d.r, ..p-
resentingthe various interesrsof the ,.g1orr.
Generally it can be stated as observabrefact that whatever
is good for the
region as a whole is good for the whole of its people.
The Regional Landscape 347
!gI

tt-* &

.*"1
rt

Y Y
€;
1
.l
**J

t
*
.f'
:i
 ur country has passed,or perhapsis still passing,through a pio_
neering stage.Until very recently,one of ouruugged fr..do-,
h",
been our freedom to do with our land whatever *e might wish.
In the
exerciseof this dubious right we have voraciously exploited our
narural
wealth and ravishedthe land.

\7e havereducedmillions upon millions of acresof forestedwatershed

to
eroded gullies and ruin. \7e have gouged enormous tracts of fertile
land
into barren wastesin our strip-mining operations.\7e havewatched
bil-
lions of cubic yards of rich topsoil *"ih t,r,, irretrievably,ro the
sea.\7e
have grosslypolluted our srreamsand rivers with sewageand industrial
waste.twe have plundered our natural environment to a"degreeunprece-
dented in other civilizations. \fe have erred, and g.i.uouiy. Now, late
but at last,we havecome to recognizethe error of Jr.rr*"yr.

In seeking to curb the waste and destrucrion, our presenr planning

philosophy has been mainly one of restriction and piohibition. It hai
I
been, to a large degree,negative.No doubt ,,r.h .onrt.aints have been
helpful, but they are nor enough. It is high time now that we reap_
/ praise our whole physical planning process,so that we may devisea
positive approach more in keeping with our new understanding of
land use.

349
 of dynamic conserva-
Much of the new thinking falls under the category
of.the need for
tion. This concepthasits ioot, i., the emergingrealization
a sustainableliving
stewardship,of iaring for the earth, and of providing
land useplanning'
..rrrirot*..tt. All poiit to the need for comprehensive
to achieve.Not a
Not a stancefo, ih. sratus quo, which is impossible
;.;;; of ,rn.o-p,omising opposition' block and delay' and
"pfro".h to growth' which in the
.nll.r, litii"tiorr. Not a stubborn "ii"*tt
for the fore-
pr.r.n, ,.h?-. of things is in most areasdestined to occur
public agencies
seeablefuture. But rath'era cooperativeapproach by the
evolving
and private enterpriseworking iogeth.r to outline a long-range
and development may
ciry-regionalcore. l"rri.rr. plan by which orderly regional growth
best be accommodated.

Credo
A Conservotion
For what does the conservationmovement stand?

. A long-term strategy for the wise and sustainableuse' restoration'

and replenishment of our natural resources
. The p..r.r,r"tion of our ecologic,historic, and scenicsuperlatives
. Public accessto beaches,shores,and open-spacelands for compati-
ble use and enjoYment
. The provision of scenicparkways,hiking and biking trails, and cross-
country greenwaycorridors
. Conrrollid-accesshighways that sweep around, not through, plant
and animal communities and human settlements
. The logic of carryingcapacity in land use management, rather than
(superficial)areazoning
. Communities fitted to a.td around the best featuresof the landscape
. An end to urban sprawl and the scourgeof scatteration
. More compact anJ efficient citiesand towns spacedout within a Pro-
tected opeJt-spaceframe of productive farmland, forest, and nature
Preserves
. Th. fostering through education of a caring concern for the well-
being of planet Earth

lssues
Environmentol
\ffeve heard much in recentyearsof environment concefn' The concern
is worldwide. Among the more knowledgeable,it often extends to the
dimension of human survival. For many, the term enuironmenl is so
vague and generalthat it has come to have little meaning. Yet while the
ter"m *ith lts problems and possibilities has become so complex, the
issuesto be addressedare clear. Since they all affect or are affected by
land planning, they are listed asfollows, with brief comments suggesting
proven solutions.

350 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 Billions E

OE

A.-
-48
E
t
o

o
-? zE
E
I
l

.t7fi
1800 1850 1$0 1950
Long-termworld populotion growth, l75OIo 2050.

PopulotionExplosion

1850'sand t,,t 2 billion mark in the 1920's.

Eue.q.more dt,4'uieting the rate of i ncreasehas
ako beensrea.t.'lyincreasing.Ar'the presenr
rate rodayipt,,ulation wjll double'irself in less
ftrail fUtl lea 's
Julion Huxley
GrowfhMonogemenf

RegionolPlonning
The.number of people in an areais often lessimportant rhan the
way
in which their centersare arranged.There is a common misconception

'EdwardO. Wilson,
TheDiuersity Lrfr,W \({ Norton,1993.
"f

The Planned Enuironment 351

 thatthemorepeopletobeattractedtoliveorworkinagivenjurisdic-
most existing conditions
tion, the ,rror. i,,.o-e and tax benefits' Under
the reverseis true. Costly
of uncontrolled land use and scatteration,
fire and
road and .*r..rrio.r, combined with schooling, welfare,
",ii; tax yield. Moreover,
police, and other servicesSoon overtakethe overall
original owners away'
increasedtraffic and disruption usually drive the

The officials and staff

local good rather than
niry. There are manY I
regionalcouncils devo
there not more?It is si
quish their sovereignt
to constituents and fr
areawidePetition to tl
planning agencYwith
enforce them. Such P'
biliry of a single juris'
transportationnetworks,utilirySystems,waterresourcemanagement'
and recycling.

As to land use, an evolving long-range regional plan should designate

and
only generalizedzones foi reriJ.ntial, institutional, commercial,
need, adequate water, and
recreationalcenters-all placedwhere there is
into the
other required resourcer--"nd where they would fit compatibly
\il/ithin the generallydefined zones, local
natural and built environment.
rights to
governments and officials would still have their continuing
aswell,
iubdivide and regulate.They would retain their other functions
aslong asthey.Jnfor..r.d ro rhe official regional plan and its overriding
ordinances.

MefroGovernmenf
A further steP,with g
-With metro governr
ter by the state.AIth<
major duties of regi
ments are assuredth,
and effectivenessof such a government-one unified government over a
multiplicity of jurisdictions-is soon aPParent'

Civic Action
\rhere political favors and patronage have become an environmental
rhrear, a civic action group may be needed.The Allegheny conference
of'Western Pennsylvaniaii an example. Over a period of more than 50
years it h", tr"nrformed this once desolatelandscapeinto one of the
most livable cities in America.

352 LAND SCAPE ARC HI TE C TURE

 Essentially,the conference was founded by several
businessmenwho
returned from the Second\world \flar to find living
and working condi-
tions intolerable and corrupdon rife. They form.i"
nonpolitical coun-
cil of civic leaders.It meets once a year to propose
priority needs for
improvement and to hear of progress.It has a small executivecommittee
and staff, raisesfunds from private individuals and foundations,
and,
project by project, is transforming the region.

civic action groups may be_ofmany sizesand forms. They

need only be
composedof one or more dedicatedcitizens.Sometimes
their member_
ship is numbered in the thousands.Such examplesasthe Sierra
club and
the American conservation Foundation are -"king an immense
contri-
bution ro our living environmenr.

ConservotionEosements
or Gifts of Lond
one promisin-gmeans of preservingthe integrity of the landscape
is by
leaseor saleof conservarion."r.-.rrtr. This fimits the useto
that which
exists.A farmer may thus maintain full use of a farmsteadwhile
enjoy-
ing a one-time easementprofit and continuing tax relief.

Significant unused portions of a properry may arso be sold or donated,

with restrictions,to a conservariongroup for profit or tax benefits. per-
I
sl manent open spaceis thereby built into the regional plan.
o'l
:Bl
t-.

'{r
,E
, .gs
#

Londscope
iniegritycon be protectedby conservotion
eosements.

The Planned Enuironment 353

 p

o
o

o
o
o
o
o
rc

Noturol sireom systemrestored.

Wqfer ResourceMonogemenf
Plannershavebeen slow to recognizethe shortageof freshwater'In many
regionsthis has reachedcrisisproportions. Along_both coaststhe well
fields and water tables of urbanizing centershave been drawn down to
a level where saltwater is intruding. Upland rivers, already stressedby
deforestationand irrigation, have been further depleted to supplement
the huge and wasteful demands.Some of our inland rivers,studde'dwith
reservoirs,have been reduced to a trickle or seasonalmudflat.

Clearly, our narional freshwaterconsumption must be reducedand con-

trolled. \7e can no longer afford millions of acresof sprinkled lawn or
the washing of streetswith freshwater.Nor can irrigation, with potable
warer, of millionr of acresof marginal farmland be afforded. Soon, irri-
gation for the mosr parr will be by treatedwastewater.Communities will
f,",r. ,.p"r"t. pot"b1. water and treated wastewatersystems.Advanced
water managemenr will work to restore, replenish, and sustain,fresh-
water reserves.It will regulate the draw from sourcesto meet clemon-
strated area needs. It will promote regional and open-spaceplanning,
reforestation,and wetland protection. The natural flow of major streams
and drainagewayswill be restoredand maintained. River basinswill be
studied and planned from sourceto outfall as integrated units.

354 LAND SCAPE ARC H I TE C TURE

 Soi/ loss
The basic wealth of a nation is its fertile topsoil mantle. our entire food
chain is utterly dependent upon it. \flithout topsoil we would have no
vegetation ro rerain precipitation and transpire it in the fresh air we
breatheand upon which life depends.Nor would it retain the falling mois-
ture to gradually seepinto the underlying warer tables.The desert coun-
tries, or vast areasthereof are examplesof erosion in the extreme. They
were once forestedor grasslandswith flowing streamsand abundant water.
Shipbuilding, lumbering, and the clearing of land for vineyards,orchards,
and farms allowed the soil to erode in deep gullies and wash irretrievably
to the sea.Barren Greece,Israel, Syria, and Spain were once entirely green.

AmericohoslostoneJhird
of itstoosoilto erosion.

In our short historf, and mostly within the past century,America haslost
one-third of its precioustopsoil ro erosion by wasteful farming practices,
deforestation,and construction. Neededis educationand the recognition
of the topsoil value, coupled with strictly regulatedand enforced excava-
tion and grading controls by which all topsoil is replacedor stockpiled.

Of near equal concern to the loss of soil by erosion is the dissipation of

farmland. A major reasonis that an owner is tempted or forced to sell
becauseof high tax assessmentsbasedon land value determined by rezol-

Tbe Planned Enuironment 355

 ing or the sale of neighbors' land for other than agricultural use. only
*iih assessments basedon productiviry and with regional land useplan-
ning and zoning, can neededcroplands be preservedand essentialfarm-
ing be ensured.

Pollution
Our once pristine living environment is now polluted shamefully. In
many districts the air we breathe is so polluted that health is aff-ected.
People die, livestock dies, wildlife and vegetation die from noxious fumes
andacid rain. Even the global climate is adverselyaffectedby the sheath
of carbon dioxide which is increasinglyenveloping planet Earth. It will
take time, public ourcry, legislation, and immense funding to reduce
and, hopefully, eliminate theseproblems'

our warer is polluted, too. conraminated runoffand seepagefrom sur-

rounding lands has so polluted our streams,aquifers, and water bodies
that it is no longer safeto eat fish in quantity if taken from even the far-
thest reachesof the Great Lakes. Farming and development must be so
controlled as to ensure that contaminated surfacerunoff is intercepted
and filtered.

Even the seeminglyinert soil is being polluted-as by absorption of air-

borne fumes, fertilizing, insectand weed control, misnamed sanitaryfills,
and the disposalof atomic waste.

The public views pollution with varying degreesof alarm and is demand-
ing governmentalaction and relief.\7e are beginning to realizethat pol-
lution abatement and control lie at the very heart of environmental
planning.

Sofefy
Saferyat home, at work, or in travel is dependent uPon thoughtful design.
Vehicles,be they autos, trains, boats, or barges,are undergoing constant
changesand improvements. So, too, must our land planning and routes
of interconnection. Designated traffic-free walkways and bikeways will
soon thread through our citiesand acrossthe countryside.Limited access
parkwaysand freewayswith no roadsideintrusion will link our centers.
On-grade street and highway crossingswill be all but eliminated. Inter-
area transit routes, elevatedor depressedat crossings,will swerye not
through but around communities, with ramp aPProachesat the sides.

Design for the disadvantagedwill be universally mandated. In all plan-

ning, the elimination of hazard will be a fundamental. Crime and the
new threat of terrorism are spreadingdarkening and dangerousshadows
on rh€ American scene.The planned elimination of unkempt districts,
obsolescence, and vacantlurking placeswill do much to abatethe blight.

356 LAND SCAPE ARC HI TE C TURE

 More than that. our revitalization of rowns and cities must provide
employment and recreation for those who seek it. There is much that

Climote
Some like it hot, some like it cool or cold. A first considerationin plan-
ning is that the prospectivebuilder make an early choice. For climate
affects not only temperature, but plan location, orientation, materials,
and form. (SeeChapter 3, pages22, 23, 24, and 25.)

climate is more than high or loq wet or dry, or rangeson the thermome-
ter. It involvesqualities of light (from desertglare to forest glimmer) and
marked differencesin humidiry. The seasonsand their characteristicsare
dramatic climatic factors.

'Weather,
breeze,wind force and direction, fog, precipitation, flood, and
drought-all are functions of climate.

!
o
od

o
$

Nofuro/ Disosters
Cyclones,hurricanes, earthquakesand floods arc a fact of life. \7e can
only avoid them to the extent possible.That extent has been significantly
increasedin recentyearsby improved detection and monitoring capabil-
iry. Untold thousandsof lives have been savedby early warnings and the
evacuationof threatenedsettlements.

The Planned Enuironment 357

 This daily risk of their lives is increasinglya matter of choice, as our sci-
entists becomeable to trace and record fault lines, fire- and flood-prone
areas,and the paths of high-velocity storms'

Wor
'War
is the ultimate environmental disaster.Villages and cities are shelled
into stinking ruin. Regionsareblasted,gouged,and denuded.Populations
aredecimated,and combatantculturesdemeanedand demoralized.Com-
batantsand noncombatantsalike aremutilated or killed.'War is shecrhell.

\(ars won or lost have never ended war and never will. They are the result
of the human condition-overcrowding, hunger, poverry inequalities,
greed,and national yearning for freedom, expansion'or Power.Only by
addressingand curing wrongs in the human condition can war be a'rerted.

No singlemind or nation will everbe able to find the solution. This sug-
gestsan evolving super, multinational civic action group comprised of
recognizednonpolitical leaders.Call it "The International Council for
Humanity" or the like. Membership would be one of a nation's lLighest
honors.

Council membership of admired and influential world leaderswould be

by invitation only and limited to one per nation. The exception would
be a small executive committee with staff, which would worl': year-

:
E

E
o
z
o
:

to poor lond usep onning

directlyoitributoble
New OrleonsFlood,2005. A disoster

358 LAND SCAPE ARC H I TE C TURE

 t?"ld. Its purposewould be to gather background
information for use
of the members and for pr.r.nr"iio'at the .o.rf.r.rr... Govern-
"'rrr,r"r
mental officials might be called upon but would
have no voice or vote in
the annual repoft recommendations.Such a council
would meer once a
year for an intensive conferenceto discussworld
problems and alterna-
tive solutions. Each conferencewourd end with
of recommen-
"..po.
dadons for priority acrion by governmenrs, exisring
o, n.*ly creared
agencies,private foundations, or orher groups able
to-make a difference.

The council would have no authoriry or power of enforcement,

yet its
annual report and recommendations, being the concerred
opinion of
international leadersand their supporrers,would have
tremendous influ-
ence for good.

Conservotion
Although addressedelsewherein this volume, conservation
asan issueof
the environment is worthy of repetition. In tending to human
needs,we
cannot afford to neglect or despoil the setting in which all life
is lived.

Experienced landowners and developers have learned the value

of land
appreciation.A property is first surveyedfor its positive on-site and
off-
site features.

These_are to be preserved,protected, and built into the plan. \x/herepos-

sible they are to be sharedwith adjacentpropertier. E r.ry project
when
completed should add to, rather than detracr from, the d'esirabiliry
of
the site and its surroundings.

\Tithout exceprion,site reconnaissanceshould take detailed account

of
the notable features.These may be such naturar featuresas a single
tree,
a grove, spring, pond, or scenicview of river, lake, forest, or mountain.
It may be a drift of rare plants or the nest of an endangeredspecies
of
bird. Perhapsit may be a historic place or monumenr. AII are to be
con-
servedand built into the plan for the enjoyment and uplift of the users.

The Planned Enuironment 359

 ooking back, I feel fortunate ro have been in the Harvard Graduate
School of Design during the period 1936-1939, in the rumulruous

to wane. But blazing or waning, it was gone by the time I arrived there.

Disovowolond Quest
Dean Joseph Hudnut, one of the first of the architectural educarorsro

hymns in praise of vignola, beginning to question the very morality of

the pilaster applied, and stuffed to their uppers with pagan acanrhus
leaves,the words of thesenew professorswere both cathartic and tonic.
Their vibrant messagewith its recurring and hypnotic texr from Louis
Sullivan, "Form follows function," was strangelycompelling. \7e began
to seethe glimmer of a beckoning light.

'A
system of architectural and design insrruction that held almost complete sway over
American schools from the beginning of the century to the early 1940s.
-hr stoondJeonne-Cloude
TheGotes.
Centrol
Pork.
Ne v /orkCiry,1979-2OO5.
Photo:
Wolfgong
Volz
Copyrighi
Christo
ondJeonne-Cloude
2005.

361
 A fervor almost religious in quality seemedto sweep the school' As if
cleansingthe temple of idols, Dean Hudnut ordered the Hall of Casts
clearedof .rr.ry vestigeof the once sacredcolumns and pediment. The
egg-and-dart fiiezewas carted away.The holy Corinthian capital was rel-
.g"t.d ro rhe cobwebsand mold of the basement.'Wehalf expectedsome
sign of God's wrath. But the wrath did not come, and the enlightenment
continued. The stodgy Hall of cas$ becamean exciting exhibit hall.

As the architectssought a new approachto the designof their structures,

the landscapearchitects sought to escaPethe rigid plan form of the
major and minor axis, which diagram, inherited from the Renaissance'
had become the hallmark of all polite landscapeplanning. Inspired by
the exampleof our architecturalcolleagues,we assiduouslysought a new
and parallel approach in the field of landscapedesign'

Through the resourcesof Harvard's great library of planning we peered

into hiitory. \7e pored over ancient chartsand maps and descriptions.'We
scannedthe classicworks of Europe and Asia for guidance.\7e searched
for inspiration in the relatedfields of painting, sculpture,and evenmusic.

our motives wefe good; our direction excellent.But, unknowingly, we

had made a fatal error. In searching for a better design approach, we
sought only to discover new forms. The immediate result was a weird
ne* variery of plan geometry,a starding collection of novel clichds.\7e
basedplan diagrams on rhe sawtooth and the spiral, on srylized organ-
isms such as the leafstalk,the wheat sheaf,the fern frond, and the over-
lapping scalesof a fish. \fle sought geometric plan forms in quartz
.ryrtak.'We adapted "free" plan forms from bacteriacultures magnified
to the thousandth power. \7e sought to borrow and adapt the plan dia-
grams of ancient Persiancourtyards and early Roman forts.

\7e soon came ro realizethat new forms in themselveswerent the answer'

A form, we decidedwisely, is not the essenceof the plan; it is rather the
shell or body that takesits shapeand substancefrom the plan function.
The nautilus shell, for instance,is, in the abstract,a form of greatbeaury
but its true intrinsic meaning can be comprehendedonly in terms of the
living nautilus. To adapt the lyric lines of this chambered mollusk to a
schematic plan parti came to seem to us as false as the recently highly
respectableand generallytouted practice of adapting the plan diagram
of say,the Villa Medici of Florenceto a Long Island country club.

'We
determined that it was not borrowed forms we must seek,but a cre-
ative planning philosophy. From such a philosophy, we reasoned,our
plan forms would evolvespontaneously.The quest for a new philosophy
is no mean quest. It proved as arduous as had been that for new and
more meaningful forms. My particular path of endeavorled in a search
through history for timeless planning principles. I would sift out the
common denominators of all great landscapeplanning. At last, I felt
sure, I was on the right track.

362 LANDSCAPE ARC HITE CTURE

 Findings

Like good christians who, in their day-by-day riving are confronted with
a moral problem and wonder, "\il/har would chrisi do if he were here?',
I. often find myself wondering at some obscure crossroad,s of planning
theory, "\(/hat would Repton sayro rhar?" or "Kublai Khan, old -"rt.i
what would you do with this one?"

But back ro our landscapeclassesand our student revolution. sure that

Upon graduation, after sevenyears' study in landscape architecture and

a year.of roaming abroad, and with a hard-earned mastert degree, I
seemedto share the tacit feeling of my fellows that while we had learned
the working techniquesand terms of our trade, the indefinable essence
had somehow escapedus. The scope of our profession seemedsome-
times as infinite as the best relating of all mankind to narure, sometimes
asfinite as the shaping of a brasstube to achievevarying spouting effects
of water. \we still sought the poles to which our professionwas oriented.
For somehow it seemedbasicthat we could best do the specificjob only
if we understood its relationship to the total work *. *.r. attempting.
\fle sought a revealing comprehension of our purpose. In short,-*h"t
were we, as landscapearchitects,really trying to do?

Like the old lama of Kipling's Kim, I ser out once again to wander in
searchof fundamentals, this time with a fellow srudent.2our iourney

2lester
A' Collins, later chairman of Harvardt department of landscape architecture.

Perspectiue 363
 into
took us through Japan,Korea, China, Burma, Bali' and India and up
Tibet. From i"rbor to palaceto pagodawe explored, always attempting
to reduce to planning basicsthe marvelousthings we saw'

In the contemplativeattitude of Buddhist monks, we would sit for hours

absorbedin the qualities of a simple courryard spaceand its relationship to
a srrucrure.\Westudied an infinite variety of treatmentsof water, wood,
-we analyzed the
metal, plant material, sunlighr, shadow, and stone.
function and plan ofgardeni, national forests,and parks. Ire observed
people in theii -orr.r.r.nt through sPaces,singly,in small grouPs'and in
crowds. \7e watched them linger, intermingle, scatter,and congregate.
\7e noted and listed the factorsthat seemedto impel them to movement
or affectedthe line of their course.

\We talked with taper-fingered artists, with blunt-thumbed carPenters'

with ring-bedecked princes, and with weathered gardenerswhose cal-
loused hands bore the stainsand wear of working in the soil. \7e noted
with fascination the relationship of sensitivelandscapeplanning to the
arc of the sun, the direction and force of the wind, and topographical
modeling. \7e observedthe development of river systemsand the relation
of riverside planning to the river character,its currents, its forests and
\Wesketchedsimple village
clearings,and th. varying slopesof its banks.
squaresand attempted to redu.e to diagram the plan of vast and magnif-
'\7'e
icent cities. teited each city, street' temple group, and marketplace
-Wheredoes it fail?
with a seriesof searchingquestions.\X/hy is it good?
\what was rhe planner amempting?Did he achieveit? By what means?
.what can we learn here?Discovering some masterpieceof planning, we
sought the root of its greatness.Discovering its overall order, we sought
theLasis of order.Noting uniry in order,we sought the meaning of unity.

This consuming searchfor the central theme of all great planning was
like that of the old lama in his searchfor truth. Always we felt its presence
tVhat were theseplan-
to some degree,but it was never clearly revealed.
ners really seekingto accomplish?How did they define their task?How
did they go about it? Finally, wiser, humbled, but still unsatisfied,we
rerurned to America to establishour small officesand be about our work.

lnsights
Yearslater, one warm and bright October afternoon I was leaning com-
fortably in the smoorh crotch of a fallen chestnut tree, huntinggray and
fox squirrels,the timelesssport of the dreamer.My outpost commanded
alazy sunlit hollow of white oak and hemlock. The motionless air was
soft and lightly fragrant with hay fern. close by, beyond a clump of dog-
wood still purple with foliage and laced with scarlet seedpips, I could
hear the squirrels searchingfor acorns in the dry, fallen leaves.An old
familiar tingling went through me, a senseof supremewell-being and an
indefinable something more.

364 LAND SCAPE ARC H ITE C TURE

 Ryoonii
Archirectures againin rransirion.This time
in a knee-jerl reacrionro rhe bombasric
excesses of la.er postmodernismto a time of
searchingint,c,spection.A rurning from
builJingscor ceivedprincipallyas-design
obJectsro stn 1rls1, lesspretenrious,
and
more human: structures.From those
designedto dominate their sitesro those
fitted compariblyto ground forms,drainage
patterns,vegrt:rrion,and the arc oFrhe
sun. From shlwpiece mechanismsto
environment friendly, indoor-outdoor
habitationsconduciveto living the good,
full life.
povilion.
Silver
I half recalledthat the samesensarionhad swept through me years
ago,
when I first looked acrossthe city of peking, one dusky Jrr.rri.rgfro-
ih.
Drum Tower ar the Nonh_ Gate. In
Japa.rit had come again in the gar-
dens of the Karsura Detached palace,overlooking the qriiet water
of its
pine-clouded pond. And again I recalledthis same,..rr",io'when I
had
moved along the wooden-slattedpromenadeabovethe courryard garden
of Ryoanji, with its beautifully spacedsrone composition in a panel
of
raked gravel simulating the sea.
Now what could it be, I wondered, that was common to these far-off
placesand the woodlot where I sat?And all at once it came to mel
The soul-stirring secrerof Ryoanji lay not in its plan composition but in
what one experiencedthere.The idyllic charm olthe Silver pavilion was
sensedwithout consciousnessof contrived plan forms or shapes.The
pleasurableimpact of the place lay solely in the responsesit evoked.The
most exhilarating impacts of magnificent peking came ofren in those
placeswhere no plan layout was evident.
\7hat musr count, then, is not primarily the designedshape,spaces,and
forms. \fhat counts is the experience!Thefact o?this discoverywas for
me, in a flash, the key to undersrandingLe corbusier's power as a plan-
ning theorist. For his ideas,often expressedin a few scrawledlines, dealt
not so much with massesor form aswith experiencecreation. Such plan-
ning is not adapted from the crystal. It is crystalline. It is not adapted
from the organism. It is truly organic. To me, this simple revelationwas
like staring up a shaft of sunlight into the blinding l.rc"nd.scence of
pure truth.
\with time, this lesson
of insight (perception and deduction) becomes
increasinglyclear.one plans not places,or spaces,or things; one plans
experiences-first, the defined use or experience,then the empathetic
design of those forms and qualities conceived to achieve the desired
Persltectiue 365
 direct-
results.The places,spaces'or objectsare shapedwith the utmost
yield the experience
nessto best serveand exPressthe function, to best
planned.

ond Revolution
Evolution
teach-
That was long ago. Now with more rhan 50 yearsof practiceand
to the days of the
ing behind #, i look back with widened perspective
strident rebellion, and the subsequentyears of searchand application.
In that time there have been other revolts in the fields of architecture
and landscapeplanning. The first was a counterrevolutionarymovement
againstthe stark geometri. forms and overutilitarianism of the Bauhaus,
iropir^ and "Corbu" and their fervent disciples,myself among them'

This mellowing phaseof the raw post-Bauhausevolution added a wel-

come warmrh;;d richness.It produced what many believe to be the
finest designsof the century. Not only in architecture, but in the related
arts and sciencesas well. *'trit. the direct fulfilling of need remained a
given, and while "sryles"and ornamentation were taboo-the hard lines
i".r. ,oft.rred; textures and colors were given full play; and sculptors,
weavers,and artists were welcomed back into the fold. Buildings were
opened up to the sun, the breeze,and the view. Nature was rediscovered.

In landscapeplanning the trend veeredabruptly away from the formal-

ism of th. Enrop.an Renaissance-ro one of resPectfor topographical
form and fe"tur.s. Hillocks, ravines,and wooded slopeswere left intact
to be admired-as were rock outcroppings, springs,srreams,dunes, and
tidal estuaries.It seemeda near return to Olmstedian times, with echoes
ofThoreau. One could hear Aldo Leopold calling'

Then came postmodernism, the "full flowering" of the revolution. In

At every turn in the progressive
there is need
developmentof our ptoFession
for experimentation and innovation. There
is need.too, for a constantinfusion of new
ideasfrom the world of art and from artists
on the leadingedge.It is essential,however,
that we differentiate between the timely and
welcomecontributions of landscapeartists
and the timelessand far broadermission of
the landscapearchitect.
the name of free expression,it elaborated.It distorted. It fantasized.In
its heyday it createdsomeof the most bizarre,flamboyant structuresand
artifatts yet foisted on the public. tue-banks, office buildings, and
private homes no longer resembledthe BeauxArts Greek temples,Tudor
p"I"..s, or Georgian countinghouses.Nor the sometimesbrutal conctete
glas constructionsof Bauhaustimes. Instead,the postmodern "blos-
"rd
,o-Lg" brought on a fanrasylandof urter nonfuncdon. Office towers
built in regions of blazing summer heat and winter chill, for example,
*.r" .o.r..ived as glittering Valhallas-with cooling and heating loads
that sank their sponsorsfinancially. No matter, the creations "made a
powerful statement."Too often, however,the only statementwas, "Look
at me. Look at me. Look at me."
In the extreme,somelandscapearchitectsaswell came to violate the nat-
ural sitesto which, by rights, their projects should have responded.Self-
conscious "landscapeaft" was "designed" for its shock value. Human
needs,natural systems,and ecologic factors were blithely ignored and,
bv some. even ridiculed.

366 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE
 Apex. Masterworks As by:
Mature,reasoned, Olmsted Naguchi
strong,and direct. Corbu O'Keeffe
Expressiveof time, Picasso Sullivan
place,and purpose. Burle Marx Wright
Peak per-formance
a
a

Refinement

o Synthesis
tr Studentquestioning
o
q

U
Analysis

Decadent
Experimentation

Revolt (back to basics) The bottoming out

(bizarre,nonfunctional.
shock value mainly)

Time ---->

Thecycles
of designexpression,
osln theorts,orchitecture,
ond
londscope
orchitecture.

Some yearsago Henry Elder, a brilliant archirectural historian,

shared
with his srudenrshis concept of the cyclical nature of design. By
a sim-
ple looping diagram, with examples, he rraced through ,I..rr, history
the periods of creative innovarion, the maturing towaj the classic
ideai,
and then the decline into the fanciful and effeie. Elder noted that
well
before the bottoming out there always appear the dissenters who,
in
revulsion, buck the sysremin protest and start the next upward loop.
In
their own rebelliousways rhey re.k a new direction-a fresh sramin
which
design, lean and clean, once again leads the way ro expressiveand mean-
ingful form.

It may well be time for another revoh, this time with an environmenral
thrust and-an ecological spin. A time when once again "form follows
function," but in which rhe contexr of "function'is eipanded to include
the accommodation of all human needsand aspirations.

Viua la reuolution!

ThePlonnedExperience
One plans not places,spaces,or things; one plans experiences.

Essentially,the bestliving space,indoors

and out, is that bestsuited io the needsand
desiresofthe users.

Perspectiue 367
Tb undersmndlife, and to conceiue form- to
expressthis life, is the grcat art. ' . . And l
h)ue learnedrc know that in orderto
understundbothart and life onemustgo

or ihings ' oneplonsexpertences'

or spoces,
Oneplonsnotploces,

faction and a minimum of friction. Many of the serious failures of

...
American roadwaysstem from the astounding fact that, in their plan-
influence.
'
The moreue study natureiform-uorld, the ning, the actual experienceof their usewas never eYenconsidered.
moreclearlyit becomes euidenthow rich in
inuentiuen-ess, nuances,and shi/iings ndture's The best community, by this test, is that which providesfor its habitants
deeplywe
-form-language is..Andthe more the best experienceof living. A garden, by this standard,is not designed
learn to realize, in naturei realm,
expressiueness is "basic' .".r.ise in geometry; it l, .ro, a self-consciousconstrucrtionof
", "r,
Erier sqorinen globes,cubes,prismr, and planeswithin which are contained the garden
Jl.-.n,r. In such a geometric framework the essentialqualities of stone,
warer, and plant materialsare usually lost. Their primary relationship is
not ro the tbserver but to the geometry of the plan. Final plan forms
may be, in some rare cases,severelygeometric, but to have validiry, a
form must be derived from a planned experiencerather than the experi-
ence from the preconceivedform.

A garden,perhapsthe highest, most difficult art form, is best conceived

as seri.s of planned relationshipsof human to human' human to struc-
"
ture, and human to some facet or facetsof nature' such as the lichen-
encrusted tree bole of an ancient ginkgo rree, a sprightly sun-flecked
magnolia clump, a trickle of warer, a foaming cascade,a pool, a collec-
tion of rare tree peonies,or a New Hampshire upland meadow view.

368 LANDSCAPEARCHITECTURE

For to liue, wl,,olly to liue, is the manifest
consurnmat i oti of exi stence.
louis H. Sullivon
A city, also, is best conceived as an environment
in which human life
patterns may be ideally related to natural or constructed
elements.The
most pleasurableaspectsof cities throughout history
have not derived
from.their plan geometry. Rather, th.y h"rr. resurted
from the essential
fa^ct.that,
in their planning and growth, the life functions and
aspirations
of the citizenswere consiJ.r.d,-".co-modated, and
expressed.
To the Athenian, Athens was infinitely more than
a patrern of srreets
and structures.To the Athenian, Athens was first of ail
a glorious way of
life. \flhat was rrue ofAthens should be no resstr.r.
of o.ri,.enlightened,,
urban planning of today.
The designapproach then is nor essentialrya searchfor form,
nor prima-
rily an application of principles. The true design approach
stems from
the realization that a plan has meaning only i p-pr. for
whom it is
planned, and only to the degree to which it brings
a.ilry, accommoda-
tion, and delight to their senses.It is a creation oflptimum relarionships
resulting in a total experience.
\we make much
of this marrer of relationships. \x/hat then is an optimum
relationship berweena person and a given thingi It is one that
revealsthe
highest inherent qualities of that which is perceived.
In the final analysis,in even the most highly developedareasor details
one can never plan or control the transient nuances, the happy acci-
dents, the minute variables of anything experienced;fo, -ori things
sensedare unpredictable and often hold their very inrerest and value in
this quality of unpredictabiliry. In watching, for insrance,an open fire,
one sensesthe licking flame, the glowing coal, the .rr"rr.r..rrt the
"sh,
Perspectiae 369
 the.sharpcrackle'
spewing gas,the writhing smoke, thesoft splutterings'
*a,nJi""cing lights rh"do*s. One cannot control theseinnumer-
"nd experience'
p.r..ptio.t", tf,"t, in their composite, produce the total
"bl. funcdon' plan a
O.r. ."n otly, fo, a given circumstanceor for a given
the max-
pattern of harmonio,is relationships,the optimum framework'
imum opportunitY.

If the relation-
The perception of relationshipsproducesan experience.
relationships
ships'are ,rrrpl."r".rt, the experienceis unpleasant'-If the
thor. of fitness,convenience,and order, the experience is one
,.rrrad
"r. of fit-
of pleasure,and the degreeof pleasureis dependent on the degree
ness,convenience,and order.

right
Fitness implies the use of the right material, the right shape,the
size,and the right volumetric .Jr"^.-.nt. Convenienceimplies fac.il-
ity of -o,r.-.It,, lack of friction, comfort, safery,and reward' Order
implies a logical sequenceand a rational arrangementof the parts'

an
The perception of harmonious relationships, we learn' produces
beaury'-il4rat is
."p.r'i.rr..'of pleasure.It also producesan experience of
this elusiveani magical quality called beauty?By reasoning'it becomes
evident that beaury i, r-roii., itself a thing primarily planned for. Beauty
is a result. It is a phenomenon that occurs at a given moment or place
when, and only when, all relationshipsare perceivedto be harmonious.
If this is so, then beaury aswell ,rr.frrlrr.rs should be the end result of
",
design.

All planning of and within the landscapeshould seekthe optimum rela-

tionship b.w..n people and their living environment and thus, Pef se,
the creation of p"t"dise on earth. Doubtless this will never be fully
"
accomplished. Humans are, sadly, too human' Moreover, becausethe
,r.ry l-t",,rr. of nature is change, such planning would be continuing'
*itho,rt possible completion, without end. And so it must be. But we
-"y l."m from history th"t the completion is not the ultimate goal.The
goal for all physicalplannersis an enlightenedplanning approach.Again,
For instruction on this point, we may turn to the wisdom of the East.
Becauseof the dynamic nature of their philosophies, the Zen and Taoist
conceprionsof perfectionlay more srressupon the processthrough which
p.rf..tion is sought than upon perfection itself. The Zen andTaoist art
tf m. lies in a consrant and studied readjustment to nature and one's
surroundings, the art of self-realization,the art of "being in the world."

PIan not in terms of meaninglesspattern or cold form. Plan, rather, a

human experience.The living, pulsing, vital experience,if conceivedas
a diagram of harmonious relationships,will develop its own expressive
for-r. And the forms evolvedwill be as organic as the shell of the nau-
tilus; and perhaps,if the plan is successful,it may be as beautiful.

370 LAND SCAPEARCH ITE CTURE

And so we come full circle.

\flhat, again, is the work of the landscapearchitect?

It is believed that the lifetime goar and work of

the landscapearchitect is
to.help bring people,.the things they build,
their communities, their
cities-and thus their lives-into harmony with
the living Earth.

Perspectiue 371
 Retrospective
I gl 3-2005
JohnCrmsbeeSimonds

in Jamestown,North Dakota, in I9l3,John Simonds

$ R,:- was the
€ lJtourth of five sonsof a circuit-riding minister,
the ReverendGuy\fal_
lace Simon, and his y.ife, Marguerite ormsbee Simon.
Recalring the
words he heard at his father's knee, rearned the principle that would
John
guide him throughout his life: "Son, rhe most import"rrt thirrg
in life is to
leavethe world a better placc becauseyou h"rr. tr'"rr.l.d thro.igh
it.,,years
later, John would reflect, "In trying, I've come to believe
that no other
profession affords a better oppott,tniry than landscapearchitecrure.,,

rn 1920' ar ageseven,John moved with his family to Lansing,

Michigan.
on graduation from high school, urged by the own., of
whom he had worked during the sumr ""rr,rrr.ry-fo,
State Universiry to study landscap
learned, from a missionary friend,
with the Bridsh North Borneo Timl
hood by sroriesof the "wild men" of Borneo,
John made a bold, almost
unheard-of step for.a young man of only 20 years.Taking leave from
his
studies,he traveledby steameron a solo trip around the'iorld. The jour-
ney would turn our to be a career-definingexperienceand confirmation
that travel should be a cornerstone of a l".tdr."p. architect's education.

\with a bus ticket to Seattle,

a third-classpassageon the Dollar Line, and
$200, he headed for Borneo. The route of Ih. voyage included brief
in Shanghai,Tokyo, and Yokohama.He would wi=itein his journal,
l1ops
November 12, 1933: "Japan is a garden! Beautiful! r must come back."
In Borneo, "worli' would have required of him a three-yearcontract.
However, he decided to remain there until his money ran out. Through
a chance meeting with a young native man,
John was virtually
by the family and experiencedthe life of Borneo, not the life"doptld
of the
British planters. He titled his unpublished memoir of those months
"Headhunters and Cannibals I Have Known."

After six months, money gone, he reluctantly headed for home, this
time as a common seamanon the Dollar Line. A kindly bosun helped
him to jump ship in Italy, where he acquired a bicycreand pedaled his
wal from Naples to Florence.He enjoyedthe peopl., th. ,..n.ry, the art
and sculpture, and the wine but was rot orr.rly impressedby the classi-

373
 in time for his
cal architecture. He arrived in New York in September
final year at school.

period in a letter to Stuart Dawson:

and the Bauhaus.

tural modernism, Simonds, already anointed with Eastern thought, set

our ro pursue not only new design and form but, in the tradition of
Frederiik Law Olmsted, embracethe big picture-people and the envi-
ronment, man and nature-making the world a better place'

The travelers'journey was to take them to Thailand, Cambodia, Bali,

India, and just over the passinto Tibet but was cut short by the outbreak

37 4 Retrospectiae
 'world'war
of II in Europe. They returned home by the way they had
come.

Facedwith the decision of making his start in the practice

of his profes-
sion, John recalled a conversationwith Harvard iean Hudnut. 'when
the dean had asked him where he might be considering "setting
up
shop," John had told him that he had a jossible residential]ob
o, *. i"
Pittsburgh, where his elder brother lived, but he really liked
the pacific
Northwest. The deant advice: 'John, in the pacific Northwest,
God will
be your competition; in Pittsburgh you are needed."So offto pimsburgh
it was, where his younger brother, philip, who had completed.rrgi.r.Jr-
ing studies at Harvard, joined him to form rhe fitm of Simonds
and
Simonds (later to become The Environmental planning and Design
Partnership.) As with landscape architects of the i"y, .h. ."ily
T"ry
focus was on military housing, *hi.h was soon ,.pI"..i by hrge.
municipal projects and reviralization. As the firm gr.*, and phiiip
John
together, convinced of the benefits of travel, gaue .ach-of the key
staff
members one month off eachyear expresslyfoi that purpose.

rn 1942 John met his bride-to-be, Marjorie Todd. Filled with fond
memorie-s,Marj recallsthe circumstancesof their meeting: "\7e had
a
mutual friend, Paul Johnston, who kept saying, ,John, gor ro
forrr.
meet Marj Todd' and 'Marj, you've gor to meet O. Simondr.i Orr.
J.
Sunday afternoon I thought I had a date with paul, who drove up in his
convertible.Another girl was in the front seatand
John in the ba.k. the
rest is hisrory." They married the next spring and went on to raisefour
children, sharing a life of 63 yearstogether. In Marjt words, "For all
those years,he taught me design and I taught him music and how to
dance. John was a devoted father and family man and never neglected
his family for his work."

Duringthe next 20 years,Johnb work and influence would expand rap-

idly with projects ranging from the chicago Botanical Garden (orr. of
John's favorite designs) to major new communities and. new towns in
Florida. concerned with the degradation of the environment by insensi-
tive and poorly planned growth, John becamea pioneer in conservarion-
oriented communities, creating places for human habitats that were
indeed compatible with the environment. He led the early way in creat-
ing multidisciplinary reams ro solve the complex problems oi bringing
people and the land together while protecting and enhancing resources.
rn 1965, John was commissioned by the legislarureof the common-
wealth of virginia to lead a multidisciplinary team in the creation of a
statewide environmental protection plan and to draft legislation to
implement the plan. virginia:s commonvealth, as the plan ii titled, was
cutting-edge environmental planning of its day and is still in use.

Although John was nor an avant-garde designer and form was nor
his focus, the need for good-qualiry design was firmly implanted in

Retrospectiue 37 5
 "form must take its
his philosophy and methodology' John believed
from
,h"i. frorn- the planned e"perience, rather than the experience
living, pulsing, vital experience' if
th.'pr..orr..i r.i form. . . . tl.
its
.orr..i',r.d as a diagram of harmonious relationships' will develop
the
own expressire forts. And the forms evolved will be as organic as
they may
shel of the nautilus; and perhaps, if the plan is successful,
be as beautiful."

environmentally compadble
Johns successin planning and designing
i.,o.lop-.rr, ."rrr.d him the respecrof state and national leaders.He
*", adviserto then-governor Robert Graham of Florida and advised
",
president Lyndon Johnson as a member of the President'sTask Force on
Resourcesand the Environment.

In view of all his other activities,John was a remarkably prolific writer'

His writing talents extended not only to landscapearchitecture,but he
wrote extensivelyabout his travelsand his time in the Civilian Conser-
vation corps, about humor, and he even plied his hand successfullyto
childrens btoks. His professionalpublications, including the classictext
LandscapeArchitecture, have shaped generadons of landscapearchitects.

"he felt
Marj Simonds said John wrote LandscapeArchitecture because
compelled to get the word out about the comprehensiveprofessionof
landscape She recallsthat while spending summers on Lake
"rchit..t.r.e."
Charlevoix in Michigan, John would set aside severalhours a day, drive
ro a remote wooded spot on the lake, and write. LandscapeArchitecture
was first published in ig6t and many believeit was his crowning profes-
sional achievement.

the most unPreten-

John was a man of great presencebut also one of
tious, selfless,and self-effacingpeople one could ever meet. He always
had great respectfor his peersand treated them with admiration and the
urmost courtesy, even though he might not agree with their view or
direction. In a letter to LandscapeArchitecture magazine following the
death of his former classmateDan Kiley in 2004, John wrote:

At Harvardt Graduate School of Design, Dan was one of the

rebels,along with Garrett Eckbo, JamesRose, and myself who
were looking for ways to make landscapearchitecture meaning-
ful again. During his long career,he also made architects con-
scious of the role of the landscapearchitect. Dan believed that
by using a grid, you related structures to landscape.You cant
argue with that. If I thought he moved too far toward geometric
concepts, I could tease him about that. . . . Dan Kiley was a
great man and a good friend.

He was
John loved children and loved to help shapetheir lives and futures.
a menror and teacher of people of all ages,including not jusr landscape

376 Renospectiue
 Perhapsmore rhan any rwentieth-century landscapearchitect,
John was
broadly focusedand comprehensivein his work and contributions to the

insignificant group of landscapearchitectsto the highry effectiveorgan-

ization it is today.

As a part of its 1O0th-yearanniversarycelebration in 1999, ASIA cre-

ated a one-rime centennial Presidentt Medal to recognizea living land-
scapearchitect who, through achievement, excellence,and service to the
profession,srood our among his or her peers.In selecting
John simonds
for this high honor, the ASLA noted:

John has done it all-exemplary public service, a leading private

practitioner, a major contributor to the literature of our profes-
sion, an outstanding teacher and unsurpassedserviceas ASLA
Presidentand co-Founder of the LandscapeArchitecture Foun-
dation. He has done all of this unselfishlywith graceand humil-
ity over 50 years, leading by example and never tooting his
tr
own norn.

\when notified of his

selection,John responded in his typical modest,
self-effacingand humorous manner:

Your letter announcing the award of the ASLA "Centennial

President'sMedal" is overwhelming.

My first reaction was to make a mental list of those who

deservedit more. On second thought I have decided never to
record the list in caseothers might seeit and agree.

It was enough to realize what the profession and the ASIA have
become.To be so honored for my dedication to the drive is more
than could be imagined. You musr know the glow of such an
honor.

John died May 26,2005,leaving an unsurpassedlandscapearchitectural

legacy.

Retrospectiae 377
 ProiectCredits
Positiononpageisindicatedasfollows: T = top; B = bottom; =
M middle;L = left; R= riehr.

Pageand
Position ?roject Location Architect/Designer
t2 B:rnyanTiee Bintan Resort Bintan Island, Indonesia Belt Collins
17 fhe Sanctuaryat Hastingspark Vancouver,British Columbia Phillips FarevaagSmallenberg
20 lraditions, a FestivalMarkerplace Budaghers,New Mexico
'$Thistler, Design'Worlchop
22 Illackcomb British Columbia, Canada Design'Workshop
23 llawk fuse Nantucket, Massachusetts StephenStimsonAssociates,Landscape
Architects,Inc.
24 :-Iarbourfudge St. LucieCounry Florida Edward D. Stone,Jr. and Associates
25 t.llarkCounry GovernmentCenter LasVegas,Nevada Civitas
26 TR lriestaAmericanaGrand Los CabosResort Los Cabos,Baja California, Mexico Edward D. Stone,Jr. and Associates
26TL l,arkAvenueRedevelopment South LakeThhoe,California Design\Torkshop
27 LeviPlaza SanFrancisco,California
'llnner LawrenceHalprin, FAS[-{
28 Fountain, Harvard Universiry Cambridge.Massachuserts Peter\Talker and Panners
30 \/illage of \Woodbridge Irvine, California SVA Group
30 ML (.)orporateHeadquarters,Embarcadero
SanFrancisco,California Olin Parcnership,Ltd.
Building
30 MR SranfordUniversiry Stanford,California SVA Group
30 BL l:olk Art Park Atlanta, Georgia Robinson FisherKoons, Inc., Ecological
Planning & Design
30 BR (lreekfront
Denver, Colorado Venk Associates,Inc.
31 AIL ( livic Plaza
Reno, Nevada Peter\Talker and Partners
32-33 tr.{ountainReuear Aspen, Colorado DesignlW.orkshop,Inc., LandscapeArchitecrs/
Cotde, Graybeal,Yaw Architects
4l Flirer Islands SanJoaquinValley,Lathrop, S\7A Group
California
45T trlonrageResortand Spa LagunaBeach,California Burton LandscapeArchitecture Studio
46 (.lark County \Tetlands LasVegas,Nevada Design'Worlahop
47 SrrrryCounry \Taterfront AccessStudy Surry Counry Virginia Earth DesignAssociates,Inc.
52 (,lenlyon Foreshore.Wetland Burnaby,British Columbia Phillips Faarevaag
Smallenberg
53 R.ioGrande Botanic Gardens Albuquerque,New Mexico Design'Workshop
56 L,:(hmereCanal Park Cambridge,Massachusetts Carol R. JohnsonAssociates,Inc.
57L \illad'Este Tivoli, Ita.ly Pirro Ligorio
57 R Flolon Park Holon, Israel M. Paul Friedberg
58 TL S:arRiver Panyu (Guangzhou),China Belt Collins
58 TR The Rain Garden,OregonConvention Silverton,Oregon Mayer/Reed
OenterExpansron
58 ]v{L Srarfuver Panyu (Guangzhou),China Belt Collins
58 lvlR PrtrsburghNorth ShoreRiverfronr park Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania EDA\7, Inc.
58 BL V'arerCultureSquarein Dujiangyan, SichuanProvince,China Kongjian Yu/Tirrenscape
SichuanProvrnce
60-61 ClarkCounry'Wedands LasVegas,Nevada Design Worlahop
62 TR PrivateResidence Aspen, Colorado Design'Worlshop
62 BL Buttercup Meadow,CrosbyArboretum Picayrrne,Mississippi Edward L. Blake,Jr., ASI.A, Andropogon
Associates,Ltd.
66 SantaBarbaraBotanicalGarden SantaBarbara,California Dr. FredericClements
68 BL ShengyangJianzhuUniversiryCampus Shengyang,China Tirrenscape
69 ShadyCanyon Irvine, California S1WAGroup
70-7I BanffDowntownEnhancementPlan Banff, Alberta, Canada Design'Workshop

379
Page and
Location Landscape Architect/Designer
Posidon Project
Denvet Colorado Burnman Hoy't, Architect
/o Red Rocks Amphitheatre \William de Volpiano
Mont Saint-Michel Normandy, France
79 Edward L. Blake,Jr., ASLA, Andropogon
81 Pinecote Pavilion, Crosby Arboretum Picayune,MississiPPi
Associates,Ltd'/Fay Jones,Architect
Schiers,Switzerland Robert Maillart, Architect
82 Salginatobel Bridge
BearRun, Pennsylvania Frank Lloyd Vright, Architect
83 Fallingwater
\WallaceRobertsTodd, LLC
84L Overtown Pedestrian Mall Miama, Florida
Cincinnati,Ohio HargreavesAssociates
84R Campus Green, University of Cincinnati
EastHampton, New York ReedHilderbrand AssociatesInc. Landscape
86 Hither Lane
Archirecture
SantaFe,New Mexico DesigntVorkshop
86 Rancho Viejo
Nishi Harima, Japan Peter\Talker 6c Partners
88-89 Nishi Harima Conference Center
France
Terrasson-Lavilledieu, Kathryn Gustafson,JenniferGuthrie and
91 Les Jardins de l'Imaginaire
ShannonNichol, GustafsonGuthrie Nichol
Ltd.
Alexandria,Louisiana Moore Planning GrouP, LLC
92 Deck Overlook, Compton Park
Sherborn,Massachusetts StephenStimsonAssociates,Landscape
93 Woodland Home
Architects,Inc.
'W'ukesong Beijing,China SasakiAssociates
98-99 Cultural and Sports Center,
2008 Beijing OlymPic Green
'Washington,DC Maya Lin, Architect
102 Vietnam Veterans Memorial 'Washington CharlesAndersonand EDA\f
r04 Mount St. Helens National Volcanic
Monument
'Weyerhaeuser Tacoma,\Tashington Peter\Talker and Partners
105 Headquarters
Lathrop, California S\WAGroup
106 River Islands
Xochimilco, Mexico City Grupo de Disef,oUrbano,S.C.
107 Xochimilco Ecological Park
'World
Tiade Center Memoria.l New York, New York Peter\Talker and Partners/MichaelArad,
117
Architect
Abbotsford, British Columbia Inc.
CatherineBerrisAssociates,
118 Fishtrap Creek Nature Park
lWhisder,British Columbia, Canada Design'Workshop
120-121 Blackcomb
Cambridge,Massachusetts ReedHilderbrand fusociatesInc. Landscape
122 Upland Road
Architecture
SantaFe, New Mexico DesignrVorkshop
124 La Posada
Blue Ridge Farm Upperville,Virginia Earth DesignAssociates,Inc.
tl)
YamanashiPrefecture,JaPan Tooru Miyakoda, Keikan SekkeiTokyo Co., Ltd
127 Hotarumibashi Park
University of Georgia Robinson FisherKoons, Inc., Ecological
128T, B Mary Kahrs Memory Garden
Planning & Design
Los Angeles,California Olin Partnership,Ltd., Landscapefuchitecc/
129 J. Paul Getry Museum
Richard Meier 6c PartnersArchitects,LLP
Xochimilco, Mexico City Grupo de DisefioUrbano,S.C'
1 3 0T Xochimilco Ecological Park
Edgartown,Massachusetts StephenStimsonAssociates,Landscape
1 3 0B Boldwater Farm
fuchitects, Inc./Mark Hurker & Associates,
Architects
Xochimilco EcologicalPark Xochimilco, Mexico City Grupo de DisedoUrbano,S.C.
I32BM
132 BR The W'oodlands Athens,Georgia Robinson FisherKoons, Inc', Ecological
Planning& Design
132TL RobertJ. \7agner,Jr. Park New York, New York Olin Partnership,Ltd.
132TR Blackcomb
'Whistler,British Columbia, Canada DesigntVorkshop
134 Green Diamond Residence ParadiseValley,Arizona Floor & Associates
137 ALL Villa d'Este Tivoli, Italy Pirro Ligorio
141T HeritageView Condominium Singapore Belt Collins
l42T D&R Canal Tienton, NJ Arnold Associates
Los Angeles,California Olin Partnership,Ltd., LandscapeArchitect/
1428 J. PaulGetty Museum
fuchard Meier & PartnersArchitects,LLP
144-145 PrivateResidence Aspen,Colorado Design\Torkshop
147 BanyanTiee Bintan Bintan Island, Indonesia Belt Collins
149 R Maymont Park Richmond, Virginia Earth DesignAssociates,Inc.
150TL Apollo and Daphne,Little Sparta PentlandHills, Edinburgh,Scodand Ian Hamilton Finlay

380 Project Credits

Page and
Position Pro.ject Location Landscape Archi rect/Designer
I 5 OT R \l/alt Disney Concert Hall Los Angeles,California Melinda Thylor and LawrenceReedMoline,
LandscapeArchitecture/FrankGehry,
Architect
150 BL ilhlt DisneyConcertHall Los Angeles,California Melinda Taylor and LawrenceReedMoline,
LandscapeArchitecture/FrankGehry,
Archirect
150 BR \pollo, Little Sparta PentlandHills, Edinburgh, Scotland Ian Hamilton Finlay
15l TL lolmood Farm SantaFe, New Mexico Design\Torkshop
I 5I TR ,rloyalBotanic GardenEdinburgh Edinburgh,Scotland
151 BL ExxonCorporateHeadquarcers Irving, Gxas S'WAGroup
15 I BR I)rivate Residence Design'Workshop
153 L l)rivateResidence Design'Workshop
153 R tlopia, The AmericanCenrerfor \fine, Napa, California Peter\Talker and Partners
Food,and Arts
154 L, R fhe ChildrensGardenatThe Oregon Silverton,Oregon Mayer/Reed
Garden
155 L ,.llarkCouny GovernmenrCenter LasVegas,Nevada Civitas, Inc.
155 R llnsleyAvenue Los Angeles,California OrangeStreerStudio, Iinc.
156-157 r.l,rntemplationGarden,LG Chemical Seoul,Korea Mikyoung Kim Design
ResearchCenter
158 . UizonaCenrer Phoenix, Arizona SIVA Group
160 L ..)ellas'Wesr End Historic District Dallas,Texas SIVA Group
160 R lit, RegisResort6r Spa Bali, Indonesia Belt Collins
164 ldo GrandeBotanicGardens Albuquerque,New Mexico DesignrVorkshop
166TM l3trnkerHill Steps Los Angeles,California LawrenceHalprin, FASLA
166 TR ( lcntral Park, New York City/The Gates New York, New York FrederickLaw Olmsted and Calvert Vaux/
Christo and Jeanne-Claude
166 BR lltLnkerHill Steps Los Angeles,California LawrenceHalprin, FASLA
168 L ,rulingtonNationalCemerery Arlington, Virginia Modern day projectsby M. Meade Palmer/
SasakiAssociates/EDAWInc./Rhodeside&
Harwell,Inc., et al.
168 R \,/ietnamVeteransMemorial
Vashington, DC Maya Lin, Architect
'l-he 'Washington
l73TL Promenadeat Marion Oliver Seattle, GustafsonGuthrie Nichol Ltd.
McCaw Hall
173 TR l'JovaSoutheasternUniversiry Family Davie, Florida Edward D. Stone,Jr. and Assocrates
CenterVllage
I73 BL I'rrvateResidence Aspen,Colorado Design\Workshop
173 BR LlsieMcCarthy SensoryGarden Glendale,Arizona Floor & Associates
I75 Llsie McCarthy SensoryGarden Glendale,Arizona Floor & Associates
176 L ( )ne North rVackerDrive Chicago,Illinois PeterValker & Partners
176 R LastbankEsplanade Portland, Oregon Mayer-Reed
178 li.oyalBotanic GardenEdinburgh Edinburgh, Scotland
179 L l'4ecArthur Place OrangeCounry California LandscapeArchitect M. Paul Friedbergand
Partners
179 R \{4rcerworks/Bearry
Mews Vancouver,British Columbia Harold Neufeldt
180 ( lentennialOlympic Park Atlanta, Georgia EDA\( Inc.
182 I:oLkArt Park Atlanta, Georgia RobinsonFisherKoons,Inc., Ecological
Planning& Design
183 Ileatrice\7ood Centerfor the Arts Ojai, California Unidentified
184 (lentralTlain StationPlaza Muragame,Japan Peter'W'alker& Partners
186-187 I'rivateResidence Aspen,Colorado Design Workshop
188 TirpeloFarm AlbemarleCounry Virginia Nelson Byrd'Woltz LandscapeArchitecs
191 l-uck Residencc Manakin-Sabot,Virginia Earth DesignAssociares,lnc.
193 llanyanTieeBintan Bintan Island,Indonesia Belt Collins
195^IL AshleyFarm Delaplane,Virginia EarthDesignAssociates, Inc.
(lolonial rWilliamsburg 'Williamsburg,
195TR Virginia Colonial \WilliamsburgFoundarion
195 BL ( )c,lonial'W'iiliamsburg \Williamsburg,Virginia Colonial Villiamsburg Foundation
195 BR AshleyFarm Delaplane,Virginia Earth DesignAssociates,Inc.

Project Credits 381

Page and
Position Project Location La ndscapeArchi rect/Designer

195 Arc de Tiiomphe & Champs Elysdes Paris,France JeanChalgrin/Andrd Le N6tre, Baron
Haussman
'W'ashington,
198 Monumental Core Framework DC PierreCharlesLEnfant, Original Design/
NationalCapitaiPlanningCommission
201 Court of the Lions - The Alhambra, Spain Granada,Spain
204L Campus PIan, Universiryof California, Berkeley,California FrederickLaw Olmsted
Berkeley
204 R CampusPlan, Universiry of California, Berkeley,California John GalenHoward
Berkeley
205 L CampusPlan, Universiryof California, Berkeley,California ThomasChurch
Berkeley
205 R CampusPlan, Universiryof California, Berkeiey,Califor'nia Sasakifusociates,Inc.
Berkeley
207 ForestPark and Central Sectionof Beiiing, China Kongjian Yu/Turenscape
Olympic Park, Beijing City
209 The Gardenof PerfectBrightness,Old Beijing'W'est,China Unidentified
Summer Palace
2I4 BoldwaterFarm Edgartown, Massachusetts Stephen Stimson Associates, Landscape
Architects, Inc./Mark Hutker & Associares,
Architects
221 L Little Sparta Pentland Hills, Edinburgh, Scotland Ian Hamilton Finlay
221 R Walt Disney Concert Hall LosAngeles,California Melinda Thylor and Lawrence Reed Moline,
Landscape Architecture/Frank Gehry,
Architect
224 ALL Franklin Delano RooseveltMemorial \Tashington, DC Lawrence Haiprin, FASLA
227 Arctic Ring of Life, Detroit Zoo Detroit, Michigan Jones & Jones Architects and Landscape
Architects, Ltd,
230TL YerbaBuenaGardens San Francisco, CaiiFornia Landscape Architect M. Paul Friedberg and
Partners
230TM Overtown PedestrianMall Miama, Florida \Tallace Roberts Todd, LLC
230 BL Maymont ParkJapaneseGarden fuchmond, Virginia Earrh Design Associares.Inc.
241TR The Commons Denver,Colorado Design tVorkshop
'Wallace Roberts Todd, LLC
241 BL BaitimoreInner Harbor Baltimore, Maryland
'Washington,
243 ExtendingtheLegaq,Plan DC National Capital Planning Commission
245 J. PaulGetty Museum Los Angeles,California Olin Partnership, Ltd., LandscapeArchitect/
fuchard Meier & Partners Architects, I-LP
245 BunkerHill Steps Los Angeles,California Lawrence Halprin
246 AnaheimRedevelopment Anaheim,California SW'A Group
247 ParkAvenueRedevelopment SouthLakethoe, California Design'Workshop
248-249 lilalt Disney Concert Hall Los Angeles,California Melinda Taylor and Lawrence Reed Moline,
Landscape Architecture/Frank Gehry,
Architect
251 FanueilHall Markecpiace Boston,Massachusetts \Tilliam Pressley and fusociates, Inc.
252 W'altDisneyConcertHall Los Angeies,California Melinda Thylor and Lawrence Reed Moline,
Landscape Architecture/Frank Gehry,
Architect
260 SokaUniversiry AiisoViejo, California S\WA Group
262TL ZhongsouShipyard ZhongshanCiry Guangdong,China Kongjian Yu/Turenscape
2628L Changi Village Hotel Singapore Belt Collins
'Walkway
262 R Coal Harbour \Taterfront Vancouver,British Columbia Urban Design/Civitas;Concept Plan/Phillips
'Wuori
Long, Inc.; DetailedDesign/Phillips
FarevaagSmallenberg
264-265 StoneVilla Aspen,Colorado Design\Workshop
269L BrenrwoodResidence Los Angeles,California Mia Lehrerand Associates
269 R RegusCrestGrand Golf Club Hiroshima,Japan SW'AGroup
272 Gardensat El Paseo Palm Desert,California Design'Workshop
273TL The lVilshire Los Angeies,California S\WAGroup
273 BL Toad Hall, SantaBarbaraBotanicGarden SantaBarbara,California Patrick Dougherry

382 Project Credits

Page and
Position Project Location Landscape Architect/Designer
273'fR The PatraResort& Vilias Bali, Indonesia Belt Collins
273 BR SpringHill Farm Casanova,Virginia Earth DesignAssociates, Inc.
271 I\lountainRetreat Aspen,Colorado Design\Torkshop
27> L ConradBali Resort& Spa Bali, Indonesia Belt Collins
27i R BedontAlley Charleston,SouthCarolina Nelson Byrd'Woitz LandscapeArchitects
276-277 ShadyCanyon Irvine, California S\WAGroup
283 The W'oodlands Athens, Georgia RobinsonFisherKoons,Inc., Ecological
Planning& Design
28t RefugioValley Communiry Park Hercules,California S\WAGroup
286 PelicanBay Cluster Development Collier Counry Florida EPD
287 ShadyCanyon Irvine, California SVA Group
288 Viliagesof'WestPalmBeach \WestPaIm Beach,Florida EPD
289 T lillages ofrWestPalm Beach \7est Paim Beach,Florida EPD
'W'est
289 B lillages of\7est Palm Beach Palm Beach,Florida EPD
290 lillages of WestPalm Beach rVestPalm Beach,Florida EPD
'West
291 \illages of W'estPalm Beach Palm Beach,Florida EPD
291TL Arbolerade Vida Redevelopment Albuquerque,New Mexico Design W'orkshop
294 BL SeibertCircle Vail, Colorado Design'Workshop
'W'alton
291P. WaterColor Counry Florida Nelson Byrd Voltz LandscapeArchitects
298-299 ExtendingtheLegacyPlan rWashington,DC NationalCapitalPlanningCommission
303 C)entralPark New York, New York FrederickLaw Olmsted and CalvertVaux
304'fL FalseCreekNorth, ConcordPacificPlace Vancouver,British Columbia Don VaughanAssociates/Phillip'WuoriLong
301BL BryantPark New York, New York Olin Partnership, Ltd.
'Wallace
304 R BaltimoreInner Harbor Baltimore,Maryland Roberts& Todd, LLC
30i PlannedCBD Shanghai,China SasakiAssociates,Inc.
306 Proposed\JflorldTiade Cenrer Memorial New York, New York Peter$/alker and Partners/MichaelArad,
Architect
307 TM C)ldHarbor Park Boston,Massachusetrs Caroie R. JohnsonAssociates
307 TR EmeryBarnesPark Vancouver,British Columbia Stevenson& AssociatesLandscapefuchitects
307 BL J he Residences
on Georgia Vancouver,British Columbia Phillips FarevaagSmallenberg
307 BM 888 BeachAvenue Vancouver,British Columbia Phillips FarevaagSmallenberg
307 BR lhe Crestmark Vancouver,British Columbia Harold Neufeldt
309 PaseoColorado Pasadena,
California MeldndrezLandscapeArchitecture,Planning &
Urban Design
311 L, R "Uptown Rocker,"Hope StreetOverpass Los Angeles,California Lloyd Hamrol, Sculptor
'Washington
3I3'tL SeatdeCity Hall Plaza Seattle, GustafsonGuthrie Nichol Ltd.
313 TR LosAngelesPublicLibrary Los Angeles,California LawrenceHalprin, FASLA/Campbell&
Campbell/JudFine,Sculptor
313 BL lhe FullertonHotel Republicof Singapore Belt Collins
313 BR lbkyo Museumof Scienceand Innovacion Tokyo, Japan HargreavesAssociates
J2 1l +1 Lr--^--
rlyarr AL-Iry
:-- A ^
\-enler Chicago,Illinois PeterLindsaySchaudtLandscapeArchitecture,
Inc./PeiCobb Freed& Partners
'W'orkshop
31i lhe Commons Denver,Colorado Design
321 CioldenGate Narional RecreationArea Marin Counry California S'!7A Group
322 L Tide Point Promenade,Digical Harbor Baltimore, Maryland \TArchitecture and LandscapeArchirecture
322 R EmeryBarnesParkPublicArt Vancouver,British Columbia Stevenson& AssociatesLandscapeArchitects
324 PittsburghPoint Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania Griswold, \7inters, Swain and Mullin
32i ZhoungsouShipyard ZhongshanCiry Guangdong,China Kongjian Yu/Tirrenscape
327 TL $/ildcat Ranch fupen, Colorado Design'Workshop
327 TR BrokenSoundPlannedCommuniry BocaRaton,Florida S'S7AGroup
327 ML Rincon Park SanFrancisco,California Olin Partnership, Ltd.
327 MR C)larkCounry V/etlands LasVegas,Nevada Design'Workshop
327 BR (llementePark Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania EPD
331 PelicanBay ClusterDevelopment Collier Counry Florida EPD
336TL RanchoViejo SantaFe, New Mexico Design'Workshop
JJ6 TR ParkAvenueRedevelopmenr South LakeThhoe,California Design'Workshop
'I'he -Woodlands
336 BL of Athens Athens,Georgia RobinsonFisherKoons,Inc., Ecological
Planning & Design

Project Credits 383

Page and
Position Project Location Landscape Architect/Designer

336 BR Lowry Redevelopment Denver, Colorado Design rVorkshop

337 York River Preserve New Kent Counry Virginia Earth Design Associates, Inc.
342 Harbour Ridge St. Lucie Counry, Florida Edward D. Stone, Jr. and Associates
343 The Big \7ild Greenbelt, Sanra Monica Southern California Community Development by Design
Mountains Conservancy
344'fL Cedar Lake Park Minneapolis, Minnesota Jones & Jones Architects & Landscape
Architects, Ltd.
344'rP. Cedar Lake Park Minneapolis, Minnesota Jones &Jones Architects & Landscape
Architects, Ltd.
344BL Cedar Lake Park Minneapolis, Minnesota Jones & Jones Architects 6r Landscape
Architects, Ltd.
3448R Gene Coulon Memorial Beach Park Renton, W'ashington Jones & Jones Architects & Landscape
Architects, Ltd.
5)+ Tiexler Memorial Park Allentown, Pennsylvania A-ndropogon fusociates, Lrd.
357 Cedar Lake Park Minneapolis, Minnesota Jones & Jones Archicects & Landscape
Architects, Ltd.
360-361 The Gates, Central Park New York, New York The Gates-Christo and Jeanne-Claude/Central
Park-Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert
Vaux
368L Court of the Toads, Dallas Arboretum Dallas, Texas S\X'A Group
368R Portland Parks and Jamison Square Portland, Oregon Peter rValker & Partners
368 Creekfront Denvet Colorado \Wenk Associares, Inc.

384 Project Credits

 Quofofion Sources(pog")
Adams, Henrr: The Education of Henry Adams,
Houghton lvfifflin, Boston, 1928 (3O2)
Ardrey, Robert: Afican Genesis,Dell, New york,
196r(r4)
Aristotle: Rhero,ic (123)
Bacon, Edmund N.: pknning, The American
Sociery of I,lanning Officials, Chicago, 195g
1335)
Beck, Walter: Painting with Starch, yeLnNos-
trand, Prin<eron,N.J., 1956 (255)
Bel Geddes, Norman: Magic Motorways, Ran,
dom House NewYork, 1940 (231, 233)
Bendt, StepherrVincent: WbsternStar Farrar &
Rinehart, N:rvYork, 1943 (4)
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1990 (r73)
Berry \Tendel :,Another Turn ofthe Cranh,
Counterpoirrt W'ashington,D.C., 1995 (334)
Borissavlidvitcl-1,Miloutine: The GoldenNumber
AlecTiranti, london, 1958 (257)
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Braun, Ernest, lnd David E. Cavagnarc,Liuing
Water,The A.nterican\7est publishing Com_
pany, PaloAlto, Calif.,t971 (13)
Breuer, Marcel: In conversation (250)
Sun at,,a'Shadoa Dodd, Mead, New
York,1955 (t76)
Bronowski, Jacrtb:Arts and Architecture, February
and Decembr:r 1957 (115,208)
Carson, Rachel The Seaaround Us, Oxford Uni-
versiryPress,NewYork, 1951 (8)
Church, Thomrn D.: GardensAre people,
for
Reinhold, Nrw York, I95:- (236,270)
Churchill, Hen.y S.: The Ci4r Is the people,Hat-
court, Brace, \ew York, 1945 (302,335)
Clark, Kenneth Ciuilisation, Harper & Row,
New York, Ir 69 (3)
Clawson, Marion: Man and Land in the {Jnited
States,Universiry of Nebraska Press,Lincoln,
1964 (38)
Clay, Grady: Waterand the Landscape,McGraw-
Hill, NewYork. 1979 (75)
Crolr.e, Sylvia: i'bmorrow'sLandscape,Architec-
tural Press,Lc,ndon, 1956 (335)
Cullen, Gordon: Townscape,Reinhold, New
York,196r(r73)
Danby, Hope: The Garden of perfect Brightness,
Henry Regnery Company, Chicago, i950
(208)
Eckbo, Garrett: LandscapeArchitecnre, May
1 9 9 0( 1 0 1 )
Landscapefor Liuing McGraw_Hill
Information SystemsCompany, McGraw-Hill,
Inc.,Newyork, 1950 (105, 158,334)
Eiseley, Loren: The Immense
Journey, Random
House, New york, 1957 (45)
Gallion, Arrhur B.: The Urban patterz, Van Nos_
uand, New York, 1949 (302)
Gardner, James,and Caroline Heller: Exhibition
and Diglay, McGraw-Hill Information Sys-
rems Company, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New
York, 1960 (228)
Giedion, Siegfried: Space,Time and Architecture,
Harvard Universicy Press,Cambridge, Mass.,
1 9 4 1( 8 1 )
Goshorn, \Tarner S.: In correspondencewith
Harold S. \Wagner(37)
Graham,'Wade: "The Grassman," The New
Yorher,Augtst 19,1996 (52)
Guftind, E. A: Communiry and Enuironment, C.
A. \fatts & Co., London,1953 {17)
Hilberseimer, Ludwig K.: The New Regionalpat-
tern, PaulTheobald, Chicago, 1949 (231,
340)
Hubbard, Henry V, and T. Kimball: lz
Introduction to the Stud! ofLandscape Design,
Macmillan, New York, l9I7 e06)
Huxley, Julian: "Are There Too Many of Us?,'
Horizon, September1958 (351)
Kepes, Gyorgy: Language ofVision, paul
Theobald, Chicago, t944 (206)
LandscapeArchitectare, October 1994 (294)
Le Corbusier: The Radiant City, republication,
Orion Press,New York, 1964 (83,250)
Leopold, Ndo: A Sand CounryAlmandc, reprint,
Oxford Universiry Press,Fair Lawn, NJ.,
1969 (40,235)
Li, H. H.: Tianslation of Chinese manuscript (6)
McHarg, lan L.: LandscapeArchitecture
(quarterly magazine of the American Sociery
of LandscapeArchitects),January I 958 (340)
McPhee, John: Corning into the Country, Bantam,
NewYork, 1979 (36)
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tural journal), t9j7 (209)
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Murphy,Thyloe,'Adressto ASI,A Virginia Chap-
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Neutra,RichardJ.: SuruiualthroughDesign,
Oxford UniversiryPress,New york, 1954(j,
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Newton, Norman T.: An Approach to Design,
Addison-\7esley, Cambridge, Mass., tgZl (6,
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Ognibene, PeterJ. : "Vanishing Farmlands,', .gar-
urday Rniew, May t9B0 (34)
Okakura, Kakuzo: The Booh ofTea, CharlesE.
Tirttle, Rutland, Vt., 1958 (135)
Phillips, Patricia C.: LandscapeArchitecture,
December 1994 (300)
Rasmussen,Steen Eiler: Townsand Buildings,
Harvard University Press,Cambridge, Mass.,
1951 (257)
Read, Sir Herbert: Arts and Architecture, May
1954 (160)
Reed, Henry H., Jt.: Perspecta(the yale architec_
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Saarinen, Eliel: Searchfor Forz, Reinhold, New
York, 1948 (203, 253, 345, ?,68)
Santayana, George: The Senseof Beauty, Dover,
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Sert, JosdLuis, and C.I.A.M.: Can Our Cities
Suruiue?Haward University Press,Cambridge,
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Severud, Fred M.: "Tirrtles and \7alnuts, Morn-
ing Glories and Grass,"Architectural Forum,
September 1945 (9)
Shigemori, Kanto: In conversation (269)
Simonds, Dylan Todd: In correspondence(31 l)
Simonds, John Todd: In conversation (2)
385

Sitte, Camillo: The Art of Building Cities' Rein-
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Spengler,Oswald: Decline of thetVe*, NfredA'
Knopl New York' 1939 065)
Sullivan, Louis H. : Kind ergarten Chats,Vitten'
born, Schultz,NewYork, 1947 Q07'369)
Sze,Mai-mai: The Thoof Painting The Bollingen
Foundation, NewYork, 1956 (9)
Ti-rnnard,Christopher: Garfuns in the Modcrn
Landscape,Charles Scribnert, NewYork, 1948
(16,82)
386 Qaotation Sources
-X/tr1'te,Lancelot Law: "Some Thoughts on the
Van der Ryn, Sim, and Stuart Cowan: Ecological
Design of Naure and Their Implications for
Design, IslandPress, Washington, D'C'' 1996
Edrcar\on," Arts and Architecture,January
( 4 , 7, 1 1 )
1956 (2)
Van Loon, Hendrik: The Story of Manhind' Boni '$7h1'te,
Villiam lF.', lt.: The Exploding Metropo'
and Liveright, New York, 1921 (8)
/ls, Doubleday, New York, 1958 (302)
Veri, Albert R., et al': Enuironmental Qualiry by
lVittkower, Rudolph: Architecnral Princip lesin
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the Age of Humanism' IJniversity of London'
Press,Coral Gables,Fla., 1975 03,55) 'Warburg
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(13' Zevi, Bruno: Architecrureas S2aca Horizon Press'
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i5,86)

The titles lisr.edgive no more rnan a
glimpse of tl',ebroad rangeofwritings on
t h c s h a p i n g, r { o u r l i v i n ge n v i r o n m e n r .
V4rile some 5ooks may be out of print they
are availablein most universirylibiaries.
I . Historyond Theory
These selectei references provide an insight
into landscape planning history and
thought.
ASI.A: Landsc',pe Architecture magazine, prof les
in Landscap,Architecture,American Society of
LandscapeArchitects,lMashington,D.C.,
1995.
Brubaker, SterJirg: Tb Liue on Earth, Resotrces
Forthe Future Inc , Johns Hopkins Universiry
Press,Bahinrore, 1972.
Car.son,Rache : gilent Spring, BuccaneerBooks,
New York, 1 )1)4.
Clark, Kennetlr: Ciuilisation, Harper & Row,
NewYork, 1,Xi9
Conrmoner, Bzrry: The Closing Circle, Bantam,
New York, 1 )l'1.
Diamond, Hen 11-L., and Patrick E Noonam:
L,md Ue in,ltnerica,Island Press,lVashing-
ton, D.C., 1')9'6.
Dubos, Rend: 5o Human an Animal: How WeAre
S/,a?ed b), Surroundings and Euents, Charles
Scribnert Sons,NewYork, 1969.
Fein. Albert: Fn:derichLaw Olmstedand tbe
American En,',ironmental Tiadition, George
Braziller, Nerr York, 1972.
Horn'ard, Ebenezer: Garden Cities ofTomorrou
M.I.T. Press,Cambridge, Mass., 1965. (Origi-
nally publish,:din 1898.)
Hubbard, Henr,' Vincenr, and Theodora Kim-
ball: An Intro,luction t0 the Stud! ofLandscape
Design, rev.e,.1..Hubbard Educational Tiust,
Boston,1959
Jackon, J. B.: Discoueringthe Wrnacular Land-
scape,YaleUnir.ersiry Press,New Haven,
Conn, 1983
Jellicoe, Geoffrey, and SusanJellicoe: The Land,
scapeof Man; Shaping the Enuironmentfom
Prehistory to t.hePresentDa1, Viking Press, New
York, 1975.
Bibliogrophy
Leopold, Ndo: A Sand County Almanac: tX/ith
Essayson Conseruation
fom Round Riue4 Eco_
logica.lMain Event Series,Ballantine, New
York,1987.
Marsh, George Perl<tns:Man and Nature, Har-
vard Universiry Press,Cambridge, Mass.,
1965. (Originally published in 1864.)
Mumford, Lewis: The Culture of Cities, Green_
wood Publishers,\festport, Conn., 19g1.
Newton, Norman T.: Design on the Land, Belk-
nap Press,Harvard Universiry press,Cam_
bridge, Mass., 1971
Reich, Charles: The GreeningofAmerica, Ban-
tam, NewYork, 1970.
Smithsonian Annual Symposium: The Fitnessof
Man's Enuironmezl, Smithsonian Institution
Press,Vashingron, D.C., 1968.
Tirnnard, Christopher, and Boris pushkarev:
Man-madr America: Cltaosor Connol?,yale
Universiry Press,New Haven, Conn., 1963.
\X/ilkes,
JosephA., and Robert T. packard (eds.):
Enqyclopedia of Architecture: Design, Engineer-
ing and Construction, JohnWiley & Sons,
NewYork, 1988.
2. Environment
The field of environmental protection and
planning has recently assumed increased
significance as world conditions become
ever more critical. The following publica-
tions are among the more telling.
Anderson, J. M.: Ecologyfor Enuironmental Sci-
ences:Biospltere, Ecosystemsand Man, John
\Wiley & Sons (Haisted),
NewYork, 1981.
Berry, Thomas: The Dream of Earth, Sierra Club
Books, San Francisco,1990.
Berry, -Wendell:I notber Turn ofthe Cranh,
Counterpoint, Washington,D C., 1995.
Berry 'Wendell: The Gtfi of GoodLand, North
Point Press,San Francisco,1981.
Bradshaw,A. D., and M. J. Chadwick: The
Restoration ofthe Land: Tbe Ecologt and Recla-
mation of Derelict and DegradedLand,lJniver-
sity of California Press,Berkeley,Calif, 198 1.
Chase,Alson: In a DarhVood, HorgltonMif-
flin, NewYork, 1995.
Clawson, Marion: Foresx
for \Vhom and for
IVhat?,Johns Hopkins Universiry press,Balti-
more,1975.
Curry-Lindahl, Kai: Conseruation Suruiual:
for
An Ecological Strategy, ]Willirm Morrow &
Company, New York, 1972.
Fiedler, Peggy,and Subodh K. Jain (eds): Con-
seruation Biology: The Theory and practice of
Nature Conseruation, Preseruation and Manage-
ment Chapman & Hall, New yo rk, 1992.
Gore, Al: Earth in the Balance: Ecohgy and the
Human Spirit, Houghton MifTlin, New york,
1993.
Hiss, Tony: The Experienceof phce,yinage,
NewYork, 1990.
Lewis, Philip H., Jr.: TbmorrowBy Design:A
Regional Design Processfor Sustainability,
John
Viley & Sons,New York, 1996.
Lyle, John Tillman: RegeneratiueDesign
for Sus-
tainabb Deuelopment,JohnWiley & Sons,
NewYork, 1994.
McHarg, IanL.: Design with Nature,John Viley
& Sons,Newyork, 1995. (First published by
the Narural History Press,1969.)
Simonds, John Ormsbee: Earthscape:A
Manual of Enuironmental Planning and
Design,2d ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold,
NewYork, 1996.
Thayer, Robert: Gray Wnld, Green Heart: Tbch-
nologlt, Nature and the Sustainable Landscape,
John\filey & Sons,NewYork, 1994.
Van der Ryn, Sim, and Stuart Cowan: Ecological
D esign, Island Press,rVashington, D. C., 1995.
'$Vard,
Barbara, and Reni Dubos: Only One
Earth: The Care and Maintenance of a Small
Pkna, The United Nations Conferenceon the
Human Enuironment, W.W. Norton, New
York,1972.
ar
J. Lommuntfy
The arrangement and design of more agree-
able homesires,neighborhoods,and com-
munities are rreated in the following
publications:
Arendt,RandallG.: Conseruation DesignforSub-
diuisions:A PracticalGuid.eto CreatingOpen
Space Networks,IslandPress,W'ashington,
D . C . ,1 9 9 6 .
387

Dowden, C. James: Community Asociations: A
Guide for Public Oficial: Published Jointly by
the Urban Land Institute and the Comnuni1'
Associati ons Inst itute, Vashington, D' C'' I 9 80'
Hall, Kenneth B.: A ConciseGuid-eto Communiry
Planning McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994'
Harker, Donald, and Elizabeth Ungar
'Vhere
Nxrer: We Liue: A Citizeni Guide to
Conducting a Community Enuironmental
Inuentory,Island Press,'Washington,D'C',
1995.
Hester, Randolph T., Jr.: Phnning Neighborhood
Spacewith People,Van Nostrand Reinhold,
NewYork, 1984.
Little, Charles E.: Chalhnge of the Land: Open
SpacePreseruatioz,Pergamon Press,NewYork,
1969.
Moore, Colleen Grogan: PUD's In Practice,
Urban Land Institure, W'ashington, D.C.,
1 9 85 .
Smart, Eric: Mahing Inf ll Projects Vorh, Url:an
Land Institute and Lincoln Institute of Land
Policy,'Washington,D.C., 1985.
Terrene Institute (and U.S. EPA): Local Ordi'
nances:A User'sGuide, Terrene Institute,
'Washington,
D.C, 1995.
\Wh1te,Villiam H: Chuter Deuelopment,Ameri'
can Conservation Association, New York, 1964'
4 . U r b o no n d R e g i o n o l
Form
Urban and regional Patterns and form
receive attention in these references on land
use, transPortation, recreation, and resource
planning.
Arendt, Randall: Rural By Design:Maintaining
Small Tbwn Character,Planners' Press'
Chicago,1994.
Bacon, Edmund N.: Design of Cities, rev. ed.,
Viking Press,NewYork, 1974.
Breen, Ann, and Dick Ngby: The New \Vater'
Story,
font: A Worldwide Urban Succes
McGraw-Hill, New York, I 996.
Calthorpe, Peter: The Next American Metopolis:
Ecologlt Communiry, and the American Dream,
Princeton Architectural Press,New York,
1993.
Collins, Richard C , Elizabeth B. W'aters,and A.
Bruce Dotson:,4 merica\ Downtouns: Growth,
Politics and Preseruation,Preservation Press,
The National Tiust for Historic Preservation,
'W'ashington,
D.C., 1990.
Harr, Charles M.: Land Ue Planning: A Case-
book on the (Jse,Misuse, and Reuseof Uban
Land, Litie, Brown, Boston, 1976'
388 Bibliography
of GreatAmeri'
Jacobs,Jane: The Death and Life
can Cities, Modern Library, New York' 1993'
(Originally published 1961.)
Katz, Peter: The Neu (Jrbanism: Tbward an
Architecture of Comrnunitry,McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1993.
Kunstler, JamesHoward: The Geographyof
Nowhere: The Riseand Decline ofAmerica3
Man-Made Landscape,Simon & Schuster,
NewYork, 1993.
\Wiley &
Laurie, Ian C.: Nature in Cities,John
Sons,NewYork, 1979.
for America, Johns
Little, Charles: Greenways
Hopkins Universiry Press,Baltimore, 1990'
MacKaye, Benron" The New Exploration: A Phi'
hsophTof RegionalPlanning University of IIli-
nois Press,Urbana, Ill'' 1962.
Mertes, JamesD., and James R. Hall: Park,
Recreation Open Space,and Greenway Guide-
lines, National Park and Recreation Associa-
tion in cooperation with the American
Academy for Park and Recreation Administra-
tion,'Washington,D.C., 1996.
Simonds, John Ormsbee: Garden Cities 21:
Creating a Liuable Urban Enuironrnent,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994.
-X4riston: The Granite Garden,
Spirn, Anne
(Jrban Nature and Human Design, Basic
Books, NewYork, 1984.
Spreiregen,Paul D.: (Jrban Design: The Architec-
ture of Tbwn and Cities, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1965.
Vhittick, Arnold (ed.): Encyclopediaof Urban
Planning, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1974.
'$Tilliam
VhJ'te, H., Jr.: Rediscoueringthe Center
City, Doubleday, New York, 1990
5 . S i t eP l o n n i n g
Among the many excellent source books
on site and landscaPe Planning and
design, the following provide a working
introduction.
Brown, Karen M., and Curtis Charles: Comput
ers in the Profesional Practice ofDesign,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995.
Church, Thomas D., et al : GardensAre for Peo'
ple, 3d ed., Universicy of California Press,
Berkeley,Calif., 1995.
Collins, Lester A.: Innisftee,An American Gard'en,
Sagapress/HarryAbrams, New York, 1994.
Crowe, Sylvia: Garden Design,Antique Collec-
tors Club,'WappingersFalls,N.Y., 1994.
Dattner, fuchard: Ciuil Architecture: The New
Public Infastructure, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1994.
Eckbo, Garrett, Philosophyof Landscape,Process
Architecture Co., TokYo, 1995.
EDAW: The IntegratedVorld, ProcessArchitec-
ture Co., Tolq'o, 1994.
Harris, Charles W', and Nicholas T Dines:
Time-SauerStandardsfor LandscapeArchitec'
ture, McGraw-Hill, New York, I 988'
Kiley, Dan: In Step with Natura ProcessArchi-
tectureCo., Tokyo, 1993.
'$Tilliam
Lebovich, L : Designfor Digniry' lohn
'\7iley
& Sons,New York, 1993.
Oehme, \Tolfgang, and Jamesvan Sweden:Bold
Romantic Gardens,Acropolis Books, Reston'
Va., 1990.
Robinette, Gary O.: W'aterConseruationitt Land-
scapeDesign and Managemeu:,Van Nostrand
Reinhold, NewYork, 1984.
Van Sweden, James:GardeningWith Water,Ran'
dom House, New York, 1995.
'Walker,
Peter,1il/illiam Johnson, and Partners:
Art and Nature, ProcessArchitecture Co ,
ToL<yo,1994.
Zion, Robert: LandscapeArchitecture, Process
Architecture Co., Tokyo, 1994.
OtherPublicotions:
(Bookstore catalogs available)
American Institute of Architects
1735 New YorkAvenue, N.W.
lVashington, DC 20006
American Planning Associarion
122 S. Michigan Ave.
Suite 1600
Chicago, IL 60603
American Sociery of LandscapeArchitects
4401 Connecticut Avenue,N.\W.
W'ashington,DC 20008
Community Builders Handbook Series
Urban Land Institute
625 Indiana Avenue, N.-M
-Vashington, DC 20004-2930
ProcessArchitecture Publicatrons
ProcessArchitecture Publishing Co., I-td.
I-47 -2-418 Sasazuka,
Shibuya-Ku
Tokyo, Japan
SierraClub Books
2034 Fillmore St.
San Francisco,CA 941 I 5
SunsetMagazine:Sunset Gardening and Outdoor
Books publish an enduring seriesofexcellent
paperback publications relating Particularly to
residential landscapedesign.
Lane Publishing Company
Menlo Park, CA94025
 Pagenumbersin italics referto illustrations;page numbersin boldfacereferto pull-quote
authors.

Abstract comp ositlon, 2 6j Ardrey, Robert, 14 Bilateral symmetry, 202, 203

Abstract line expression,167-165, 2i5 Aristotle, 6, 123,300 Bioengineering,65
Abstract spatialcharacteristics,l1g-Lil, Arlington National Cemetery 168 Biology, 12
167-16,) Art: Biosphere,defined, l3
Activiry area:;,27l, 279, 284, 326, 330 versusarchtecture,366 Birds. Sre Wildlife
Adams, Henry,3O2 display of,268-269 Blueway, defined,344
Aerialsurveys,40,94,95-96, l0l Asian philosophy. SeeaboJapanese Boats. Saa'Waterways
Afforesration, defined, 69 philosophy Book ofZba,,4 (Okakura), 190
Agriculrure, l'ristory of,, 67-68. Seealso color theory 166 Borissavlievitch,Miloutine, 256-257
FarmlanC home-nature integration, 265, 268 Borneo, l7
Air movemerrr. Ses!trind privacy-related,176-177 Botanic gardens.Seeabo Gardens
Airport planrLing,244-245 site-structure harmony, 253-254 Chicago,77,375
Alaska,land;;rants in, 38 spacemodulation, 221-223, 226-227 SantaBarbara,66
Alberti, Leon Ilattista, 165 spatial qualiry, 169 Botany, 12-13,6445
Allegheny Cc,nferenceof Western Tao,9 Bowie, Henry P, 114
Pennsylrania, 352 versusW'estern , 17, 254-255 Braun, Ernest, 13n
A.ltitude.29 Zen Buddhism, 190,370 Breuer, Marcel, 25O, 361
American Co nservation Foundation, Asymmetrical design,204-2 | 0 Bridges:
353 Attiret, JeanDenis, 208,210 of Robert Maillart, 82-85
American So<,ieryof LandscapeArchitecture Attitude, planning, I l4-1 | 5 site planning, 55-56
(ASrA),377 Automobiles, 23 l-240, 3 | l-3 12, 383 Bronowski,Jacob,I 15, 208
Americanswich DisabilitiesAct, 312 Axis, visual, 194-200 Buckshot plan, 1j8
Amusemenrpark design, 167-168 Buddhism. SeeZen Buddhism
Analysis, sire: Backyards.Ser Indoor-outdoor living Buildings. Seeabo Structures
checklist, Lrcation apprarsd,,I 0 I Bacon, Edmund N., 335 clustering, 283-285, 334-335
cost/yield, )19 Basemap, 1ll,146 integrating with landscape,259-261
elementsot; 108-111 Baseplane: residential,27 1, 273-27 4
extensional aspects,102-106 and color theory, 766-167 asvertical plane elements,179-180
nature-dweIrn g appraisd,,266 ascomponent ofspace, 170-173 Built environment, 79-87
selectionpr ocess,100-102 and pedesrrian traffic, 229 construction,85-87
Animals. Seel-Iumankind; \fildlife Bauer, Catherine, 100 contrastprinciple, 82-85
Anthropomorphic module, 258 Bauhausinfluence, 361, 365 harmony in, 80-82, 87
Apartment co mplexes,26 1 Beaux Arts influence, 361, 374 planning issues,79-80
Appreciation, properry value, 328-329 Beck, \7alter, 254, 255n Burbank, Luther, 65
Approach dri,' es,23 5-23 8 Beijing. Sra Peking (China) Burchard, John Ely, f96
Aquifers, 47-4fi Bel Geddes,Norman, 231
Arboretums. .r'eeGardens Belluschi, Pietro, I97 Canals,54-55
Arbors, 166,..121 Bench mark, defined, 89 Carbohydrates, 63
Arc de Tiiomphe (Paris), 196 Bdnet,StephenVincent, 4 Carbon dioxide, 12,37, 63, 356
Architects,as ream members,250,296. Bergmann, Karcn, L73 Carnegie Mellon U niv ersity,37 7
Seealso Archirects,landscape Berry \fendell, 334 Carrying capaciry,40, 50, 346
Architects,landscaoe: Bicycle trails: Cars. SeaAutomobiles
evolving ph ilosophn 361-367 planning for,285 Carson, Rachel, 8
first American, 303 as regional connectors, 246 Cascades, designissues,57-58
lif-et goal of, 371 safetyissues,356,357 Cavagnaro,David E., 13n
role in planring phase,147 shaded,150,152 ccc,357,374
as team members, ll2,296 vban,326-327 Cell-bud pattern,130
Architecture, landscape.Srr Landscape waterway-related,J4 Cemeterydesign,167-169
arcnltecttlre Bigger, Frederick,23l Centercity, 302-305, 338-340

389

Central businessdistrict (CBD). Sae
Center ciry
Centrai Park (NYC),303
Champs-Elysdes(Paris), 196-197
Checkerboard plan, 138
Chicago Botanic Garden, 77,375
Church, Thomas D., 236, 27O
Churchill, Henry S., 302' 335
Circulation of peopleand vehicles:
6yaft,244 245
automobile tr affrc,23 | -240
ciry-related,303-305, 31 1-3 12
distance, features of, 220
freeway design,4, 340, 343
highway design,342
motion, principles of, 213-224
neighborhood,2S3-284
pedestrianmovement, 227 -230
pedestrian-vehicleseparation,232, 283
peoplemovers,245-247
railways,240-242
sequentialprogression,224-227
waterways, 242-243
Cities. Saea/soUrban design
geomantic harmony, 9
growth management,317 -331
site design, 122-125
Civilian Conservation Corps. Ser CCC
Clark, Kenneth, 3
Clawson,Marion, 38' 39
Clay, Grady,75
Climate, l9-31
ameliorating,26-31, 142
defined, 19-20
global warming, 21
and health, 20
in planning, 266-267, 357
plants to mitigate, 63, 152
and trafficway design, 238
zones,27-25
Cluster planning, 283-285, 334-335
Cold zones,22
Coleridge,SamuelTaylo5 208
Collins,LesterA., 363n,374
Color:
Oswald Spengleron, 165
spatial,166-167
Communities, 277-297
development problems, 27 8-282
healthissues,281
history of, 277-278
PCD,286-287, 288-291
planning considerations,282-29 1
planning guidelines,292-297
as regional units, 336-338
safety issues,281-282
Compass-and-chainsurvey,93-94
Composition, site-structure,251-259
Comprehensiveland planning, 106-1 1 1
Computer-aided planning, 97, 117-ll9
390 Index
Concealment,asdesigndevice, Development,land:
190-191 controlled,317-331
Conceptualplan, 112-l 17,121,148 history of,33-36
Conservation: ownership issues,36-40
credo,350 well-planned,40-41
energy,279 Disabledpersons:
importance of, 12-13' 359 parking areas,239
land,3641,353 ramps for, 220
PCD concept,286-287 saferyissues,356
resourcemanagement,68-69 urban design,312
sorl,355-356 Disasterplanning, 357 -359
Disease.SeeHealth
water, 4d-)4, J)4
Construction, regulating, 330-331 Dispersionof elements,138, 176, 177
Container plants, 15 4-1 5 5 Distance,dealingwith, 220, 229-230
Containment, space.SaeVolumes, site Diuersity of Life, The (\Tilson), 351n
Contours: Downtown. Sra Center city
mapping, 89-93 Drainage. Seeaho Wastewater
sloped sites, 127-129 l:aseplane,172
Contrast: graviry-assisted,44
dynamictension,253-254 site designissues,54-55
as landscaping device, 82-85 sloped sites and, 128-129
Cool-temperate zones,23 suburban,280,285
Corridor spaces,outdoot 166 systemsfor, 140
Cost/yield analysis,site, 319 Driveways,235-238
Court of the Concubine (China), Dubos, Rend,5
221-223 Dudok, \7illem, 161
Court of the Lions (Spain),201 Dwellings. SsaHabitations
Cowan, Stuart,4, 7' 11
Crime, 281-282,356 Earth:
Crosby Arboretum (Miss.), 81 abuseofr 2-5,68-69
Crowe, Sylvia, 335 human interactionwith, 15-17
Crystalline pattern, 130, 203 Eastern philosophy. SeealsoJapanese
Cul-de-sacs,237, 280, 336 philosophy
Cullen, Gordon, 173 influenceon Simonds,374
Culture, communiry 250 Tao,9,370
'Wesrern,
vs. 9, 17, 104-106' 255.
Dams,54-55 32r
Danby, Hope, 208 Zen, 190,370
da Vinci, Leonardo,258 Eckbo,Garrett,101, 105, 158,334,374,
Dawson, Stuart,374 t/o
Decks and patios,55, 271-272,272 Ecology,13-15
Desert zones,25 Edging strips, 143
Design guidelines.SeealsoSite planning; Eisley,Loren, 45
Urban design Elder, Henry 367
ro ameliorate weathe\ 27-31 Elevation,89-97. Seeala Alritude
for ciry sites,122-125 Emergency access,240
by climatic region, 22-25 Eminent domain, 306
communiry 292-297 Enclosure,elementsof, 169, 175-185
compositional,256-259 Energy conservation, 279
for level sites,130-132 Entrance courts, 237 -238
to maximize view, 188 Environment. SeealsoBuilt environment;
nature-dwellingintegration,265-267 Habitat
planting, 147-153 abuseof, 2-3,349-350
regional,345-347 and growth planning, 319-322
for rural sties,125-127 harmony in,4-6
for sloping sites, 127-729 impact assessment, 7 75-l 77
transitioning, 224-226 planning officer,296
vehicle-related,233-240 stewardship of, 349-359
water-related, 49, 54-59 Environmental impact assessmentchecklist,
Design review 6oard, 296 116
 Environmeatal Impact Statement(EIS), Gardens,163 Guidelines, design. Ser Design guidelines
1 1 5 - 1t 7 Abbott (Japan),163 Gulf Stream,8,l9
Erosion: Chicago Botanic Garden, 77, 375 Gutkind, E. A. 17
drainageissues,140 CrosbyArboretum (Miss.), 81
via farm rrismanagement,40 dwelling-nature exrension, 265-27 5 Habitat, human, l-77. SeealsoHabitations;
plant corrtrol of, 49, 54, 62-63, 149 as highestart Form,368 Urban design
and sirec.esign,48,54 Perfect Brightness (China), 208, 209 Earth as, 16-17,37-38
topsoil lc,sses,36-37, 355-356 Ryoanji (Japan), 263, 365 ecology of, 13-15
Evapotranslriration, 63 Santa Barbara Botanic Garden, 66 human impact on, 1-6
Exotic planrs,150, 155 SeaPalace(China),255 natural resources,Z-9
Expansion-,.:ontraction concept, 133 Shinjuku (Japan),163 scienceand, 10-13
Experience,as design goal, 364-37 | Soochow(China),253 Habitat, wildlife:
Exploded p.an, 125, 138 Tirileries (Paris), 197 preserves,69, 7 6, 320, 344
Extensionallandscape,103, 133, 185 Gardner, James,228 vegetation,64
Gates,The (Central Park),360-361 wetlandsas,17,44,46
Fairchild,David,65 Gattamelata(Donatello), 256, 2 57 Habitations, 265-275
Fallingwater(Pa.),Sj 85 GeographicInformation Sysrems(GIS), 40 componenrs,271-275
Family,as social unit,334 Geology, 10-11,266 evolution of htman, 268
Farmland: Geomancy, defined, 9 functions of,267-270
aerial viervs of,39, 41 Geometric design: integrating with nature, 265-267
history of 157-68 avoiding, 149, 150-153, i 53 Handicapped persons.SaeDisabled
irrigation issues,49, 354 compositional harmony, 256-259
lossof, 3'', 68,355-356 Persons
critique of, 203-204, 255, 260, 362 Harmony. SeealsoIntegration; Japanese
preserving,318,322 for formal sertings, 151 philosophy
tax incentiles, 353 sample of, 1j0 asymmetric design and, 206
Fences,qrpe,;of,179 Giedion, Siegfried,8l environmenral-experiential, 367-37 |
Fibonacci,Leonardo, 257-258 Global warming: human-narure,4-6, 13-16, 33-36
Finger plan, 138 climate change,27 indoor-outdoo r, 27 0-27 5
Fitch, James 175 and icecap meh, 48 as landscaping device, 80-82
Flat areas..-L.aLevel areas Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von,2O5 '1.
wlmln nature, / l-l-J
F l o o d i n g5
, { s ,5 5 , t , 3 5 7 ,3 5 8 GoldenNumber, The (Boissavlievitch), 256 site-structure,136-1 39, 250-261, 27 5
Flow diagran-r.113 Golden recrangle,256 spadal,165-166, 220-223
Folger,Timc,thy, 8 Golden Tiiangle (Pinsburgh),228 Harris,'W'alterD., 278
Food chain,'53, 355-356 Goshorn,\Tarner S., 37 Harvard Universiry 361-362, 374
Forbidden City. SeePeking (China) Government: "Headhunters and Cannibals I Have
Forests: communiryJevel,29T Known" (Simonds),373
characrer ,fi,72-73 environmenhl issues,352-353 Health:
preserving,318,320 establishing,297 communal issues,281
Form-functi,rrr imperative, 250, 361, long-rangeplanning, 35 I effect of climate on, 20
JO/ regional-level,346-347 environment and,3,6
Forms, natur ally occurring, 7, 362, 3Z j as servicesprovider,319-322 Heller, Caroline, 228
Fountains,57--59,58,137, 180 Grade, dealing with,229-230, 2i2 Highways, 231-235. SeealsoCirculation of
France,Raotrl, 15 Graham, Robert,376 people and vehicles;Tiafficways
Franklin, Be:rjamin,8 Graham, Wade,52 Hiking trails. .SaaValkways
Franklin Delano RooseveltMemorial, Graviry: Hilberseimer, Ludwig K., 231, 340
224 baseplane and,777 r1lrls,atteratlonot, //-/6
Freeways.Sar,(Jir6sl2siottof people and eflectsof, 128 Historic landmarks,168, 224,296, 306
vehicles as force of nature,75 Homeowners' associations,297
Freshwater.J'rc'Water role in hydrology, 11,44 Homes. .Sea Communities; Habitations;
Friction, dist,nce as,220 Greenhousegases,2l Housing
Frontage,burlding, 282-283, 293 Greenough,Horatio, g HomesteadAct, 38
Function. .la:'Form-function imperative Greenway,d,efined,344 Horticulture, scienceof , 66-67
Furnishi ngs,;ire, 274-27 5 Gropius, \falter, 361, 366 Hot-dry zones,25
Ground covers,149,153 Housing:
Gailion, Arthur B., 302 Groundwater,4748, 52-53, 129, 355 ciry, 305, 307-310
Gardening: Growth managemenr, 31.7-331 as consumer of land,278
historyof,145 guideline plan, 317-322 planned variery,294
r r e n d s I, ) 4 - l ) ) long-rangeplanning, 351 Howard, Ebenezer,347
Garden of Perfect Brightness, The (Danby), resroration,325-331 Hubbard, HenryY.,2O6
208 urban sprawl, 323-324 Hudnut, Joseph,361-362, 375

Index 391

Human habitat. SeeHabitat, human
Humankind:
environmental harmony and' 367-37 1
impact on environment, l-6, 15'17
impact on land,33-36
as naturet intruder, 80
population issues,317, 320, 351
wart effects on,358-359
Humid zones,24
Huxley, Julian, 351
Hybridization, plant, 65
Hydroelectric power, 55
Hydrology, 11
Icecaps.SaaPolar icecaPs
115-117, 319
Impact assessment,
Impoundments, 54-55
Inclined planes.SerSloping areas
Incon gruiry eliminatrng, 7 3-7 5
Indians,American, 38
Indigenousplans, defined, 155
Indoor-outdoor living, 270-27 5
Industrial Revolution, 2L, 311
Inner ciry 305-3lO
Integral planning, 134-135
Integration. SeealsoHarmony
city-nature, 314-315
human-nature,367-371
site-structure,4-5, 35, 251-259
Intelligence,defined, 2
Interdependency:
humans and nature,4-6,13-16,37
of regional units, i 33-347
Inrernet, as resource,97, 117-ll9
Intersections:
pedestrian-relarcd, 227-228
sightlines, 151,230' 234, 236
three-way,293
vehicle-related,231-232
Inward progression,133
Irrigation:
alternativesto, 52, 154-155
graviry-assisted,44
misuseof, 4849,354
Jacobs,Jane,303
philosophy:
Japanese
of composition , 258-259
Kyoto harmony, 9
sei do, 114-115
sitecharacter,104-l 05
spacialqualities,163
tokonoma,268-269
uniry concept, 138-139
view revealment,190-191
wabi, 124-125
Johnson,Lyndon,376
Johnson,\Tilliam J., f 18
Johnston,Pati,375
Johnstone,B. Kenneth, 111
392 Index
Katsura palace (Japan), 365
Kepes, Gyorgy, 206
Kiley, Dan, 374,376
Kinematics,214-216
Kipling, Rudyard,4
Kublai Khan, 199-200' 3l4n
Kyoto (Japan),9
Lakes:
designissues,50,55
human-made,54
public accessissues,51
Land, 3341. SeealsoToPograPhY
abuseof, 349-350
conservationof, 3641, 353
earth shaping, T3-79
human impact on, 33-36
managementpnnciples,40-4 1
ownership issues,38-40
as resource,36-38
Land grants,38
Landscape,visible. SaeVisible landscape
Landscapearchitects. SaeArchitects,
landscape
Landscapearchitecture. SeealsoDesign
guidelines
evolution of,36l-362
as experience,364-371
versuslandscape^rt, 366
site-structure harmony, 249-263
LandscapeArc hitecture, 294
Landscape character,7 | -87
built environm ent and, 7 9 -87
impact of traffi c on, 232-233
modification of,73-78
narural features, 7 | -7 3, 7 5-7 6
srrucrures and, 259-261
Landscapeplanting. Sar Planting
Lao-tse,161
Laser-transit srwey, 94
Lawns:
alternativesto, 154-155, 27 1
aswater conservationissue,I 1, 49, 52
Law of fitness,259
Law ofsame, 256-257
Law of similar, 256-257
Leakey,L. S. B., 14
Learning Through LandscapesTiust, 294
Le Corbusier,83, 25O, 365
Leger, Flnand,2O7
Legislation. SeealsoGovernment
environmental,322
governance-enabling, 346
zoning-related,329-331
Leopold, Aldo, 40' 50, 235
Level areas,designfor, l3O-132
Li, H. H.,6n
Lighting:
asdecorativeasset,274-27 5
natural,131
Lighting (Cont.):
overheadplane, 174-17 5
site illumination, 140-141' 239
Lines of approach,2l5
Linnaeus,Carolus,65n
Liuing"Vater (Braun and Cavagnaro), 13n
Maillart, Robert, 82-85
Maintenance:
designingfor, 143,296
oflawn areas,154-155
Maps:
contouf, 89-93
siteanalysis,101, 108-114
suwey,93-95
USGS,95-97
Materials:
cemetery-aPPropriate, I 69
ciry-site-appropriate, 724
indigenous,143
outdoor-oriented,170
pedestrian-friendly, 229
in roadway design,234-235
rural-site-appropriate,126-127
sloped-site-approPriate, 128-129
weather-resPonsive,2 I
Mathematical order,256-259. Seealso
Geometric design
McHarg, lanL.,34O
McPhee,John, 36
Mendelsohn,Eric,2O9
Metes and bounds, defined, 94
Metropolitan areas.SecUrban design
Microclimatol ory, 26-31, 44
Migration, human, 21
Millay, Edna St. Vincent, 269
Models, topographic,93
Modular design,258, 273
Moholy-Nagy, L szl6, 16l,208
Mont-Saint-M j,chel (F nnce), 79
Motion, principlesof , 213-224
Mountains, weather effectsof, 29, 30
Movement of people. SeealsoCirculation of
peopleand vehicles
imposition on landscape,85
well-designed,140
Multiple-use design:
ciry sites,122
parking arex,239
residenriil,,273
seasonal, 31
Mumford, Lewis, 292, 3O2, 335, 339,
340
Murphy, \( Tayloe, 48
Museum of Modern Art (NYC), 159
National Gallery (\Washington,D.C.), 214
Native Americans, 38
Natural disasters.SeeDisasterplanning
Naturalizedplants,defined, 155
 Natural res('urces:
land as,36-38
plunderir:.gof,2-5
preserving, 3 18, 320-322
waterwayi as,47-48
Natural Res,rurcesConservation Service,
96
Nature. See,zlsoNatural resources
elements,tl,/)-/6
harmony in,71-73
human intpact on, /-)
integratinqwith ciry, 313-315,
326-328
integratinewith dwelling, 265-27 5
modrtrcarronot,73-79
Neighborho,rd.SeealsoCommunities
crearingcharacteroe 151
p l a n n r n g3, 3 r - 3 3 6 , 3 3 7
preserving:,124-125
renewing,308-309
Neutra, RichardJ., 5, 164
New Orleans Flood (2005), j5S
Newton, Norrnan T., 6, 207
New York Cirv:
Central Park,30i
map of,30l
Museum r;f Modern Art, 159
Rockefeller Center, 159
\7orld Tia,lc Center Memo rial, 306
Nolli, Giovarni Battisra,301
Occult balan:c, 206
Oceans.See,il:oWacer
Deacnes, ) +--))
climatic eft:ects,20
currents,2'0
public use issues,51
as resource, 4445
Ognibene, Pt ter J., 34
Okakura, Kal<uzo, 135, l9O
Olmstead, Fr,:<lerickLaw, 303
On the Laws ,l'JapanesePainting(Bowie),
t14
Open space:
architecrur.rl,261-263
communip, 27 8, 284-286, 293
preserving,3lS
regional,3 i:\-345
residential,270-273
vban, 30::. 313-315, 326-328
Organic des\rn, 207-208
Organic gro\ th process,207
Outdoor livin g, 27 0-27 5
Ourer ciry 310
Ourward proeression,133
Overhead plane, 173-77 5
Ownership, properry. SeeProperty
Painting with Starch (Beck), 255n
Panorama.Sa,,View
Parking areas,| 52, 238-240 Polar icecaps:
Parks.Sre Open space;Recreation; Urban and global warming, 48
design and solar energy,20
Paths, 55. SeealsoValkways Pollution:
Patios.Ser Decks and patios city streetsas sourceof,123
PCD concept: community-related, 28 1
communiry planning, 286-287 controlling, 356
example of,288-291 development-induced, 68-69
site analysis,1 10 effect on environment, 12,349,356
Pedestrians,227-230. Seealso and global warming, 2l
Circulation of people and vehicles; humankindt history of, 2-5
\Talkways lighting assourceof, 141
Peking (China): warer sysrems,4748, 57, 356
Court ofthe Concubine, 221-223 Pools,designissues,57-58
design elementsoe 6, D9-200 Populationpressures, 317, 320, 351
SeaPalaceGardens,255 Postmodernism,366
assourceof well-being,365 Precipitation:
People..SeeHumankind as climadc factor, 19
Peoplemovers,245-247. SeealsoCircula- drainageissues,140
tion ofpeople and vehicles retenrion of, 62-63, 355
Perception: Preservarion.SeealsoConservation
conditioned, 223-224 of existing plants, 146, I 47
as deductive process,2 Land,3641,76
and insight, 365 of landscape character,7 l-7 9
manipulating, 190-191, 221J23, nature-home inregration, 266-267
269-270 PCD concept, 286-287
visual balance and, 205-206 through modification, 7 3-7 9
Phillips, PatriciaC., 300 vegetarion and wildlife, 68-69
Photogrammetry,40,94 of waterways,4g-50
Photosynthesis, 63 Preservation,conservation, and develop-
PiazzaSanMarco (Venice), 134,2OB ment. Sre PCD concepr
Pix factor, 181-182, 2 I 7 Privacy:
Planes.SeeAirport planning creatingenclosures,176-177
Plane table strvey,94 human need for, 160,269
Planned unit development. Sre PUD for level sites,131
model Private property. SeeProperty
Planning. SeealsoCommunities; Site Productiviry:
planning of land, 37
growrh management,317-322 ve1etative,64
importance of,5-6 Progression,ordered:
regional,333-345 as design device,224-226
Planting, 145455 Fibonaccinumbers,257-258
guidelines,147-153 inward-ourward, 133
process,146-147 vista revealment, 193-194
purposes,145-146 Properry:
roadway design,235 appreciating value of, 328-329
rrenos,I)r-t)) ownership issues,37-41
Plants. SeealsoPlanting; Vegetation Proportions,compositionalguidelines,
ciry-appropriarc, 124 256-259
culturing, 65-69 Public service agencies,95-97
erosioncontrol, 49, 54, 62-63 Public services.SeealsoUtilities
historical aspectsof, 67-64 city,305-305, 341
indigenous,143,149 extending,344, 345, 351-352
roles of,62-64 governmenr-provided, 3 | 9-322
selectionof,146-147 planning for,297
in site development,142-\43 PUD model:
study of,64-65 clustering concept, 282-283, 284,
water conservation, 53 285
Plato, 165 creative zoning, 330, 336
Play areas,27 7 phaseddevelopment, 292

Quadrangle, defined, 96
Rai, Sanyo,9
Railroads,240-242
Ramps,172, 220,312
Rapid transit, 240-242, 294, 343
Rasmussen,Steen,255, 299
Ratios.design.SreProPorrions
Read,Sir Herbert, 160
Recreation:
community, 284-285, 29 5
equipment storage,274
regional,345
water-related,45-46, 54-5 5
Rectilineartdeal,256
Reed,Henry H., Jr., 197
Referencefile,ll1
Regionalplanning, 320, 333-347
ciry-oriented, 338-340
environmentalissues,351-352
family-oriented,334
funcrions of,340
goalsof, 342-343
interdependencyof units,
333-334
neighborhood-oriented,335 -338
open spaces,343-345
responsibieparties'345-347
socialgroup-oriented,334-335
Regions, clinr'atic,22-25
Regulation, building. SaeGrowth
management
Renaissancelegary:
architecturalratios,258
Hendrik Van Loon on, 8
site-structureintegration, 134, 137,
268
symmetrical design and, 209-210
aswaning influence,366,374
Reservoirs,54-5 5
Residential areas:
components of,27O-275
history of, 277-278
lawn issues,11,49,52
parking, 236,238
planning, 282-297
problems,278-282
Revealment,as designdevice,190-191
237
Rhetoric(Aristotle), 300
Ribbon plan, 138
River basins,17. 48. 354
Roadways,233-234. Seeaho Streets;
Tiafficways
RockefellerCenter (NYC), 159
Rome (Italy), map of,301
Rose,James,374,376
Rudolph, Paul,252
Rural areas,125-127
Ryoanji gardens(Japan),263,365
394 Index
Saarinen, Eliel,203, 253,345, Shorelines:
designconsiderations,50' 54-57
368
Safety: recreationalwe,45-46
ciry-related,302-303, 312 Shrubs,usesfot 149, 150
communiry-related, 28 I -282 SierraCIub, 353
designingfor,356-357 Sight lines,151,230, 234' 236
disasterplanning, 357-359 Signs,informational:
dwelling-related,268 designconsiderations,141-142
lighting-related, 1 40-141 parking areas,2j9
vehicle-related, 231-233, Silver Pavilion (Japan), 365
) \(._) \7 Simon, GuyWalIace,3T3
water-edge-related, 57 Simon, Marguerite Ormsbee,373
Saltwater..SaeOceans Simonds,Dylan Todd, 3l I
Santa Barbara Botanic Garden, 66 Simonds,John Ormsbee,373-377
Santayana,George, 2O5, 2O7 Simonds,John Todd, 2
Sasaki,Hideo, 136 Simonds,Marjorie Todd, 37 5, 376
Satellitemapping, 96 Simonds,Philip,375
Satelliteplan: Site analysis.SaeAnalysrs,srte
as antidote to sPrawl,310,326 Site developmenr,T2l-143' SeealsoSite
regional,339, 344 planning
site-structure,134, I 38 ciry areas,122-125
Scale.Seeaho P roportions level areas,130-132
awe-inducing,160 rural areas,125-127
basemap guidelines,146 srte-structureexpression,121-133
for ciry sites,122, 123,340 site-structureschematics,133-136
contrasting,181,182 site-structureunity, 136-139, 250
law offitness, 259 site systems,139-143
for level sites,132 sloping areas,727-729
motion-impelling.214 Site planning, 99-119. Seeaho Sire
Scatteration.SeaSprawl deveiopment
Scenicvalue, water- related,45-46 checklist, location appraisal,I 0 1
Schematic,site-structure,1 1-l by climatic region,2I-25
Schools: comprehensiveland plan, 106-108
campus-rype,294 computer-aide d, 1 17-1 19
neighborhood,335, 336 conceptualplan, I 13-1 17
Science: defining objectives,99-1 00
advisorycouncils,296, 320-321 guidelines,106
physical,10-15 rmPactassessmerrt, | | 5-117
Screens: selectingsite, 100-102
f u n c r i o n so F , 1 7 6 - l a 7 siteanalysis,i00-106, 108-1 1 1
for privacy,131, 177 water-related,46, 50-59
wind protection,69, 146, 176 Site volumes.SerVolumes,stte
Sculpture, as decorative asset,274 Sitte, Camillo, 203, 251, 255-256, 256,
SeaPalaceGardens(China), 255 30r
Section,defined, 92 Sky,asoverheadplane,173-174,262,270
Sei do, ll4 Sloping areas:
Seneca,3 angleeffect,31
Sequence,224-227 designconsiderations,127-129
Serc,JosdLuis, 252, 3OO modificarion oF,77-78
Serviceareas,272-273 I 27-l 29. I 46
stabilizaLion,
Services,public. SaePublic services Small-scaleweather. SeaMicroclimatology
Servicevehicles,240 Soil SurveyReports,96
Severud,Fred M., 9 Soil rypes,10-11, 170. SeealsoTopsoil
Shadetrees,147, 148, 150 Space.living. SerHabitarions
Shadow,150, 177,183 Space,three-dimensional..See Volumes,site
Shelter.SeaHabitations Spacemodularion, 220-223
Shelterbelts,69 Spengler,Oswald, 165
Shigemori,Kanro,269 Sprawl,323-331
Ships.Sea\(aterways evolutionof,323-324
Shopping centers,279, 295, 338 greenspaceasantidoten,326-328,344
 Sprawl (Cont):
regionalplanning and, 352
solutions 310, 31 1,325-331
Stadia survey,94
Stairs.,SeeSreps,exterior
Stein, Clarence,280
Steps,exter:or,172, 229
Stonehenge(England), 165
Storm sewers.SaeDrainage; \(/astewater
Streets..ler,llra Circulation of peopleand
vehicles
in ciry sit,: design,123
as landsc;,pefeature,85
planting ,.,onsiderations , 150-I j2
Strip mall clurter 5
Structures,|49-263. SeealsoHabitations
composit on of,25l-258
landscapecharacter and, 259-261
well-desiE:ned, 249-25 1
Suburbs,311.-312.SeealsoCommunities;
Resider'tial areas
Sullivan,LorrisH., 2O7,361,369
Sunlight:
designco;rsiderarions,28-31, 13I
effecton ,:limate,79, 20
and photosvnthesis,63
Sunscreens, 1,
Surveying,39 40, 93-95, 109
Sustainable,.le'velopment, 320, 345
Symmetrical clesign,2OO-20 4
SzeM, ai-mai,9
Tao (theWav),9,370
Tax-relatedi;sues,252, 297, 329
TDR,292
Technology:
benefits oi,250-251
computer aided planning, 97, 1 17-ll9
Internet rcsources,97, 117_119
Temperature. Seealso Climate
ameliorating,29-31
ciry-moditied.t22, 124
effect of n,.oistwe on, 44
and elevaton,2g
global war nring, 2l
topography and,27
zones,22-25
Temple of He:rven(China), 199-200
Tension,dyrramic,253-254
Terminus, visual, 193-194, 199
Thermodynanrics,31
Todd, Marjorie. SaeSimonds,Marjorie
Todd
Tokonoma,268
Topography,89-97. SeeahoLand
ilteratron ot, / 3-/.)
contour maps, 89-92
data sources,95-97
defined, 8!)
microclimate and, 27-29
Topography (Cont.):
site analysis,108-114
surveys,93-95
Topsoil:
formation/depletion, 61-62, 63-64
lossof,355-355
pollution of,256
preservation of, 36-37, 149
Tbwnsand Buildings (Rasmussen),255,
299
Tlafficways. Seeabo Circulation of people
and vehicles
ciry-related, 123, 303-305 , 310-312
communiry 283,293294
effecton planning, 85,140
growth management, 328
as landscapefeature,85-86
plantings for, 150-152, I 53
regional, 336-343
in site analysis,1 l0
well-designed,157-1 58, 23 1-240
tansfer of development rights. SaTTDR
Tiansition:
indoor-outdoor,308
sequential,224-226
through space,22l
water-land,242-243
Tianspiration, 63
Tiansportation. SeealsoMovement of
people; Tiafficways
arterialparternsof, 85
viawaterways,44
Tiead-riser ratios, I 72
Tiees:
designguidelines,748-753
forest-type,/J
functions of, 63, I 46-149
regional examples, 152
for spacedefinition, 183-184
Tiucking, restrictionson, 293
Tirnnard, Christopher, 16, 82
Uniry site-structure,136-139. Seealso
Harmony
Urban design, 299-315
center ciry 302-305
housing issues,307-310
inner ciry 305-3lO
Iong-rangeplanning, 35 l-352
nature-friendly, 313-315
outer ciry 310
peopfe-friendly,3I 2-3 | 5
problems of,299-302
suburbs,3 1 1
vehicle circula tion, 3 10-3 12
U.S. ForestService,211
U.S. GeologicalSurveymaps, 95-96, 101,
108
U.S. Soil Conservation Service..SaaNatural
ResourcesConservation Service
Utilities. Seeako Public services
establishing,297
planning considerations,280
and regionalgrowth, 341,344
in surveyspecs,95
Van der Ryn,4,7, ll
Van Loon, Hendrik, 8
Yarx, Calvert, 30j
Vegetation, 6l-69. SeeAlso Plants
conservation issues,68-69
functions of,62-64
historical upects, 6l-62
human culture of; 65-68
identification of, 64-65
role in conservation,72-13, 53
topsoil mantle, 6l-62
water retention,53, 62-63
Vehicular traffi cways.SeeTiafficways
Venturi effect,30
Veri, Albert R., 13, 55
Versailles(France),194, 255
Vertical plane, 17 5-185
as component ofspace, 170
functions of,169, 177
in roadway design,234
Vetter, Hans, 6
Vietnam VeteransMemorial, 168
View 187-191. SeealsoVisible landscape
Viewshed,defined, 210
Villa d'Este (Tivoli), 137-138
Vines, usesfor, 149
VirginialsCommon \Yeahh(Simonds), ZZ5
Visible landscape, | 87 -21 1
asymmetrical, 204-210
axisdesign,200
management of, 210-211,
symmetrical, 200-204
vista versusview, 187-194
Vista, 191-194. Seeako Visible landscape
Visual impressions.Ser a6o Visible land-
scaPe
controlling, 177-178
environmental harmony, 7 1-7 3
and pix factor,181-182
Visual resourcemanagement,2lO-21 |
Vitruvian Man,258
Vitruvius, Marcus, 258
Volumes,site, 157-185
abstract characreristics,1 59-161,
167-169
baseplane, 170-173
color factors, 166-167
composition of, 157-158, 252
containmento[ 161, 169
definition of, 158, t69-170
designatedopen space,261-263
encfosureot, | /O-| / /, 16+-IA>
form, 165-166
overhead pIane, 173-17 5
Index 395
Volumes (Cont.): Vater (Cont.): \Tildlife:
size factors, 163-165 management and conservation, 47-5 4' preserv€s, 69, 76' 320, 344
spatialimpact, 158-160 )q4 \\4 and vegetation, 64
recre^tional,4546 water habitats,17, 44, 46
spatialqualities,161-163 'S7ilson,
as resovce,4347 E. H., 65
vertical elements,175-185
\Wilson,Edward O.,351
role ofplants in retentionof,63,149
Wabi, qtaliry of , 125, 139 shorelines,50,54-57 \find:
\7agner,Martin, 361 site design,54-59 controlling, 146, 177
'W'alker, and sloped-site design, 728-129 designingfor, 21, 28-29, 30
Ralph, 338
'S7alkways. protectiveplants,63, 142,149
SeealsoMovement of people surfacerunoff, 344-345
-Watercycle, 11 regional characteristics,22-25
hiking trails, 54,285
plantings for, 150,752 \7ater management. Sst Hydrology shelterbelts,69
powered,245 \Tatersheds: surf-relatedissues,57
saferyissues,356 abuseof, 349 and topsoil depletion, 62
vban, 123, 326-327 managementof,47-54 \flittkower, Rudolph, 258
water-related,55-56 protecting, 146,320 \7orld Tlade Center Memo rial, 306
'W'ater \7right, Frank Lloyd, 85, lO4
well-designed, 140, 228-229 tables. Sar Groundwater
'Waterways:
War,358-359 \7right, Henry,280
'Warm-humid
zones,24 designof,240,242-243
'Washington, managing,344-345 Xeriscapelandscaping, 52, 155
D.C.:
'Weather.
axial plan for, 198 Ser Climate
'Western York River Preserve(Ya.),337
FDRMemoriaI,224 vs. Easternthinking, 9, 17,
map of, 298-299 104-106,255,321 YosemiteFalls(Ca.), 210
'Wetlands:
National Gallery,2l4 Yuan Ming Yuan (China), 208, 209
'Wastewater.
SeealsoDrainage constructed, 52
managementof, 11,330 preservationof, 46-47, 49,322' 354 Zen Buddhism,190,370
recyclingof,52,354 and wastewatertreatment, 50-52 Zevi,Bruno, 175
trearmenrof,48,50-51 aswildlife habitat, 17, 44,46 Zones, climatic,22-25
'White,
Water, 43-59. Seeabo Waterways Stanley,13, 15, 86 Zomng:
and city-site design, 124 \(hyte, Lancelot Law 2 flexibiliryin,292,297
'Whyte, William H. growth management, 320,
climatology and,27, 44 Jr., 3O2
fountain displays,57-59,58, 137, 184 \Tilderness: 329-331
aslandscapingelement, 137-138, human impact on,33-36 mixed-use,309-3 l0
274-275 preservadonof,49-50 PUD,282-283

396 Index
 About the Authors

John Ormsbee Simonds, who died in May 2005, was one of the 20th
century'smost important figures in landscapearchitectureand environ-
mental planning. He was recognizedworldwide for his visionary think-
ing and innovative spirit. Mr. Simondst work and careerspanned over
70 years,bridging an era during which the professionof landscapearchi-
tecture expandedfrom a small number of individuals in the early 1900s
to today'smore than 30,000 of the most important land use and envi-
ronmental planners in the United States. His many contributions,
including LandscapeArc/titecture, helped lay the groundwork for the
focus on the environmentally responsibleplanning and design of today.
Mr. Simonds was President and a Fellow of the American Society of
LandscapeArchitects, which awarded him its highest honor, the ASLA
Medal, and its one-time Centennial President'sMedal. He was a mem-
ber of the President'sTask Force on the Environment and the Florida
Governor's Task Force on Natural Resources,and was a Fellow of the
Royal Academy of Design in Great Britain.

BarryW. Starke has been a leader in the profession of landscapearchi-

tecture for over 30 years.He graduated with a degreein landscapearchi-
tecture from the College of Environmental Design at the University of
California, Berkeley,in 1967.'!7hile at Berkeley,he was introduced to
the first edition of LandscapeArchitecture, which became a major influ-
enceon his career.In 1974, he co-founded the award-winning, multidis-
ciplinary landscape architecture and environmental design firm Earth
Design Associates,Inc., and continues to serveas President.In 1988, he
was elected to the faculty of the University of Virginia School of Archi-
tecture, where he taught ProfessionalPractice.Mr. Starke servedas the
Centennial Presidentof the American Society of LandscapeArchitects
in 1999,leadingASLA's lOOth-anniversarycelebration.He is a Fellow of
the ASLA, is a member of the American Institute of Certified Planners,
and currently servesas vice-chair of the Renewable Natural Resources
Foundation. In 2003, Mr. Starke received the inaugural M. Meade
Palmer Medal for outstanding contributions to landscapearchitecture.
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