Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr.

Hamid Al-Jameel

CHAPTER SEVEN GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF

VEHICLE AND ROAD

7.1 Introduction

Geometric design deals with the dimensioning of the elements of highways,

such as vertical and horizontal curves, cross sections, truck climbing lanes,
bicycle paths, and parking facilities. The characteristics of driver, pedestrian,
vehicle, and road, some of these discussed before and the others will be
discussed in this chapter, serve as the basis for determining the physical
dimensions of these elements. The fundamental objective of geometric design
is to produce a smooth-flowing and safe highway facility, an objective that
only can be achieved by providing a consistent design standard that satisfies
the characteristics of the driver and the vehicles that use the road (Garber and
Hoel, 2009).
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) serves a critical function in developing guidelines and standards
used in highway geometric design (Garber and Hoel, 2009).
7.2 Factors influencing highway design
Highway design is based on specified design standards and controls which
depend on the following roadway system factors:
• Functional classification
• Design hourly traffic volume and vehicle mix
• Design speed
• Design vehicle
• Cross section of the highway, such as lanes, shoulders, and medians
• Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades
• Topography of the area that the highway traverses
• Level of service
• Available funds
• Safety
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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

• Social and environmental factors

7.3 Highway Functional Classification
Highways are classified according to their functions in terms of the service
they provide. The classification system facilitates a systematic development of
highways and the logical assignment of highway responsibilities among
different jurisdictions. Highways and streets are categorized as rural or urban
roads, depending on the area in which they are located. This initial
classification is necessary because urban and rural areas have significantly
different characteristics with respect to the type of land use and population
density, which in turn influences travel patterns. Within the classification of
urban and rural, highways are categorized into the following groups:
• Principal arterials
• Minor arterials
• Major collectors
• Minor collectors
• Local roads and streets

Urban Principal Arterial System. This system of highways serves the major
activity centers of the urban area and consists mainly of the highest-traffic-
volume corridors. It carries a high proportion of the total vehicle-miles of
travel within the urban area including most trips with an origin or destination
within the urban area. The system also serves trips that bypass the central
business districts (CBDs) of urbanized areas.
Urban Minor Arterial System. Streets and highways that interconnect with
and augment the urban primary arterials are classified as urban minor arterials.
This system serves trips of moderate length and places more emphasis on land
access than the primary arterial system. All arterials not classified as primary
are included in this class. Although highways within this system may serve as
local bus routes and may connect communities within the urban areas, they do
not normally go through identifiable neighborhoods. The spacing of minor
arterial streets in fully developed areas is usually not less than 1 mile, but the
spacing can be 2 to 3 miles in suburban fringes.
Urban Collector Street System. The main purpose of streets within this
system is to collect traffic from local streets in residential areas or in CBDs
and convey it to the arterial system. Thus, collector streets usually go through
residential areas and facilitate traffic circulation within residential,
commercial, and industrial areas.
Urban Local Street System. This system consists of all other streets within the
urban area that are not included in the three systems described earlier. The

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

primary purposes of these streets are to provide access to abutting land and to
the collector streets. Through traffic is discouraged on these streets.

Figure 7.1 Schematic Illustration of the Functional Classes for a

Suburban Road Network

Rural Principal Arterial System. This system consists of a network of

highways that serves most of the interstate trips and a substantial amount of
intrastate trips. Virtually all highway trips between urbanized areas and a high
percentage of trips between small urban areas with populations of 25,000 or
more are made on this system. The system is further divided into freeways
(which are divided highways with fully controlled access and no at-grade
intersections) and other principal arterials not classified as freeways.
Rural Minor Arterial System. This system of roads augments the principal
arterial system in the formation of a network of roads that connects cities,
large towns, and other traffic generators, such as large resorts. Travel speeds
on these roads are relatively high with minimum interference to through
movement.

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

Figure 7.2 Schematic Illustration of a Functionally Classified Rural

Highway Network.
Rural Collector System. Highways within this system carry traffic primarily
within individual counties, and trip distances are usually shorter than those on
the arterial roads. This system of roads is subdivided into major collector roads
and minor collector roads.
Rural Major Collector System. Routes under this system carry traffic primarily
to and from county seats and large cities that are not directly served by the
arterial system. The system also carries the main intracounty traffic.
Rural Minor Collector System. This system consists of routes that collect traffic
from local roads and convey it to other facilities. One important function of
minor collector roads is that they provide linkage between rural hinterland and
locally important traffic generators such as small communities.
Rural Local Road System. This system consists of all roads within the rural area
not classified within the other systems. These roads serve trips of relatively short
distances and connect adjacent lands with the collector roads.

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

Key controls in geometric highway design are the physical characteristics and
the proportions of vehicles of various sizes using the highway. These selected
vehicles, with representative weight, dimensions, and operating characteristics
used to establish highway design controls for accommodating vehicles of
designated classes are known as design vehicles.
Four general classes of design vehicles have been established:
(1) Passenger cars (2) buses (3) trucks, and (4) recreational vehicles. The
passenger car class includes passenger cars of all sizes, sport vehicle, minivan,
vans and pick-up trucks. Buses include intercity (motor coaches), city transit,
school, and articulated buses. The truck class includes single –unit trucks,
truck tractor-semitrailer combinations, and truck tractors with semitrailers in
combination with full trailers. Recreational vehicles include motor homes,
cars with camper trailers, and cars with boat trailers.
Maximum weights and dimensions of vehicles permitted on various types of
highways should be determined because of its importance in geometrical and
structural design of highway and parking facility.
a. Dimensions (length, width and height)
Should be limited by standards to make the vehicle fit the geometrical
specifications of highway system.
b.Weight of Vehicle
Must be suited to the limitations of structural standards of pavement and
bridges. Design vehicle is a selected vehicle of a designated type, whose
weight; dimensions and operating characteristics (turning radii, acceleration
and braking) are used to establish highway design controls to suit vehicles of
that type. AASHTO “ American Association for State Highway Officials” has
established four design vehicles to be used as controls in geometric
design.(see table below).
Table (7.1): AASHTO design vehicles (Policy, 2004)
Passenger Single-unit Semi-trailer Semi-trailer
Dimensions(Ft.) car vehicles , truck or bus combination combination
PC SU or Bus WB-40 WB-50
Wheel base 11 20/25 13+27=40 14+36=50
Front overhang 3 4/7 3 3
Rear overhang 5 6/8 2.5 2
Overall length 19 30/40 45.5 55
Overall width 7 8/8.5 8 8.5
Height 4.25 13.5/10.5 13.5 13.5

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

7.4 Operating Characteristics

7.4.1 Turning Radii
 Radius controlled by the minimum vehicle turning path
 The vehicle turn at low speeds, its rear wheels track the front wheels on a
shorter radius.

Figures (7.3) to (7.6) show minimum turning paths for passenger car, single
unit truck, intercity bus, city transit bus, semitrailer and double-trailer
combination design vehicles.

Figure (7.3): Minimum turning path for passenger car (P) design vehicle

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

Figure (7.4): Minimum turning path for single- unit (SU) truck design
vehicle

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

Figure (7.5): Minimum turning path for semitrailer (WB-50) design vehicle

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

Figure (7.6): Minimum turning path for double-trailer combination

(WB-67 D) design vehicle

7.4.2 Acceleration
Acceleration data are used to determine:
a- The time required to cross an intersection from a standing start.
b- The distance required to pass another vehicle.
c- The gap acceptance.
The rate of acceleration of passenger cars is (12-16) kmphps while for trucks
is (5-7) kphps.

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 Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

7.4.3 Super elevation

This Figure shows the relationship of forces when a vehicle traverse a
super elevated curve.

Figure (7.7): Forces analysis

ΣFh=0 Total resist sliding &overturning

W sin θ +F=CH
W sin θ + f w cos θ = cos θ

tan θ + f = (÷ cos θ)

e+f=

R=
W: weight of vehicle
θ : Pavement slope angle
e : Superelevation = tan θ= (0.04 – 0.12)
f: Side friction ( 0.08-0.40) for 130 and 15 Kph
C : Centrifugal force
V : Design speed (Km/hr).

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

Figure (7.8): Super elevation attaining method

Table (7.2): Maximum relative gradient

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

7.5 The Roadway and Geometric Design

The geometric design of highways includes the visible elements of the
highway or street. It deals with the grade line (profile), horizontal alignment,
components of cross-section, sight distance and intersections.
7.6 Higway Classification (policy, 2004)
All highway systems involve a hierarchal classification by the mix of access
and mobility functions provided. Highway system can be classified or grouped
into a number of different classifications for administrative, planning and
design purposes.
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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

In Rural areas
Class Principal service function To link
Interstate Through movement exclusively Major cities
&freeways Through movement , some land access Small cities
Primary Through movement and land access Small cities and some
Secondary regions

In Urban areas
Class Principal service function To link
Expressway Through movement exclusively CBD, major generator
Arterial Through movement , some land CBD, secondary cities
Collector (distributor) access Local areas
Local Through movement and land access Land sites
Land access

7.7 Highway Alignment

7.7.1. Horizontal Alignment
The horizontal alignment of a highway is shown on the plan view and is a
series of tangents connected by circular curves. It is good practice to provide
transitional or spiral curves between tangents and circular curves to achieve
comfortable gradually change in direction.

Sight distance for horizontal curve

If a vehicle is located at point A on the curve and the object is at point B, the
line of sight is the length of chord AB. The horizontal distance traversed by
the vehicle when moving from point A to point B is the length of arc AB. The
central angle for arc AB is defined as 2u (in degrees). Thus, the expression for
SSD is

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

Figure 7.9 Horizontal curves with sight-distance restrictions and range of

lower values for stopping sight distances.

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

7.7.2 Simple Circular Curve Properties

Figure (7.10) Properties of simple horizontal curve

The arc defines the curve in terms of the angle subtended at the center by a
circular are 100 ft in length. The Do is the angle in degrees (degree of
curvature), then:

D=

T= R tan (Δ/2)

E=R[1/cos (Δ/2)- 1]

M=R(1-cos Δ/2)

L=length of curve= R* Δ* /180

L= 100

Lc

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

Recommendations have to be considered in horizontal alignment:

1. Avoid using reverse curves and broken-back curves;

2. For each degree reduction in ∆ there is an increase in L by 30m (100ft).

3. When using compound curve R2 must be not more than 1.5R1.

Mainly, there is a safety element in horizontal curve:

1. Super elevation criteria.

2. Widening of roadway in circular curve.

3. Sight distance regulations.

Types of horizontal curves:

1. Simple circular curves are widely used in highway and railway.

2. Compound curves consists of two consecutive circular curves

which concave in the same direction are joined together at point
of tangency called P.C.C (point of compound curvature).

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

3. Reverse curves consist of two curves that defect in opposite

direction from a junction point on a common tangent called PRC
(point of reverse curvature).

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

4. Broken-back curve as shown in figure below.

Example Design of a Simple Horizontal Curve

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

Example: calculate the station of PI and RC, R, Lc, M and E for horizontal
curve with D=1.35o, ∆=21o45', sta., PT=100+39?

Solution:

T
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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

Sta. PI=sta.PT-T=10039-815=9224=92+24

Sta. PC=sta. PI-T=9224-815=8409=84+09

Lc=2Rsin =1601.4m, M=R(1-cos =76.22m

E=R(sec

Spiral (Transition) curves

The spiral transition curve is a curve with radius equal ∞ in PT and change to
radius of R at point of curvature, normally used to reduce the effect of
curvature on the speed of vehicle and to attend the super-elevation. The most
logical choice from a theoretical standpoint, and the only one discussed here,
is the clothier spiral, for which the radius of curvature varies as the inverse of
the distance along the curve from its beginning.

Figure above shows how spirals connect circular curves to tangents, and
illustrates the nomenclature of spirals. Critical points in moving through the
curve are the tangent to spiral point (TS), the spiral to curve point (SC), the
curve to spiral point (CS), and the spiral to tangent point (ST). The effect of
using the spirals is to shift the circular portion of the curve inwards, so that it
no longer fits to the original tangents. It now fits to what are called offset
tangents, which are shifted in by a distance p, measured perpendicular from
the original tangents. The distance from the TS to any point on the curve is L;
if L is measured for the entire distance from the TS to the SC, it is referred to
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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

as Ls. likewise, the angle between the tangent and a line tangent to the spiral
at any distance L is referred to as ɵs. The distance along the extended tangent
from the TS to a point opposite that at which the circular curve is tangent to
the offset tangent is referred to as k, and the distance from this point to the P.I.
as T'. The length of the circular portion of the curve is Lc, and the coordinates
of any point on the spiral, measured relative to the tangent are X and Y.

When vehicles enter or leave a circular horizontal curve, the gain or loss of
centrifugal force cannot be affected instantaneously, considering safety and
comfort. Two spiral curves and central one circular curve with (Lc, Rc).
A basic expression used for computing the minimum length of a spiral

L=

Where :
V= Design speed (Km/hr)
R= Circular curve (m)
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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

C=Rate of increase of centrifugal acceleration (m/sec3)=(0.3 -0.45 m/sec3 )

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

7.8 Pavement widening

The amount of widening of the traveled way on a horizontal curve is the
difference between the required width on the curve and the width used on a
tangent as indicated below:

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

7.9 Vertical Alignment

The grade line is shown on a profile taken along the centerline of the highway,
and is a series of straight lines connected by parabolic vertical curves to which
the straight lines are tangent. The design requirements are sight distance,
earthworks, cost, comfortable, drainage, ….. etc.

Figure (7.11): Vertical curve types

Minimum length of Crest Vertical Curve
The minimum lengths of crest vertical curves are dictated by sight a distance
requirement that is the ability of the driver to see an obstacle over the crest of the
curve, within safe stopping distance. Figure (7.13) shows sight distance of
crest vertical curves.

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

Figure (7.12): Minimum length of crest vertical curve

h1= Height of driver eye=1.08 m (3.5 ft)

h2= Height of object = 0.6m (2ft) and 1.30 m for stopping sight distance and passing
sight distance respectively.
S= Stopping or passing sight distance (m)

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

Minimum Length of Sag Vertical Curves

The criteria generally used are (1) Headlight sight distance (2) rider comfort (3)
drainage control.

(1) Headlight Sight Distance on Sag Vertical Curve

Figure 7.13 Minimum length of sag curve.

Case S<L , the length of curve (L) is

L=
For case S>L , the length of curve is
L= 2 S –
Where:
S= Stopping sight distance (m)
=Angle upward divergence of the light beam from the longitudinal axis of the
vehicle= 1 degree
Headlight beam height = 0.600 m
= Algebraic difference in grade (%)
(2) The Rider Comfort : The discomfort experienced by users of sag curves is
greater than experienced with crest curves because gravitational and centrifugal
forces are combining rather than opposing.
L=
Where :-
V= Design speed (kM/h)
a = Centrifugal acceleration rate= 0.30 m/sec2

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

(3) Drainage Control

The drainage criterion for sag vertical curves must be considered when the road
is curbed. This criterion is different from the others in that there is a maximum
length requirement rather than a minimum length. The maximum length
requirement to satisfy the drainage criterion is that a minimum slope of 0.35
percent be provided within 50 ft of the lowest point of the curve. The maximum
length for this criterion is usually greater than the minimum length for the other
criteria for speeds up to 60 mi/h and is usually equal for a speed of 70 mi/h.

Max. L= 51 A
(4) For general appearance of sag vertical curves
L=30 A (m)

Length of Crest and Sag Vertical Curves Based on K Factors

L =KA
Where K is the length of the vertical curve per percent change in A.
Since K is a function of design speed, it can be used as a convenient “
shortcut” to compute the minimum length for a crest vertical curve.
Table values for K are based on level roadway stopping sight distance
requirements. The use of K as a design control is convenient, since the value for
any design speed will represent all combinations of A and L for that speed.
Similarly, K values can be computed for the case where the sight distance is less
than the vertical curve.
In using Eq. 15.3, it has been found that the minimum lengths obtained for the
case of S greater than L do not produce practical design values and generally are
not used. The common practice for this condition is to set minimum limits,

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

which range from 100 ft to 325 ft. Another method to establish minimum lengths
when S > L is to use three times the design speed. This has appeal as design
lengths are directly related to the design speed.

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

(5) Minimum Length at Underpass

When a sag vertical curve occurs at an underpass, the overhead structure may
create a problem by shortening the sight distance.

Case I: Sight distance less than length of vertical curve (S<L)

Case II: Sight distance greater than length of vertical curve (S>L)

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

Where:

C= Vertical clearance of underpass (≈5.2 m)

h1 and h2 = height of eye`s driver and object above pavement, respectively
(m). S= Stopping sight distance (m).
An eye height (h1) of 2.4 m [8.0 ft] for a truck driver and an object height (h2)
of 0.6 m [2.0 ft] for the taillights of a vehicle,

Elevation of Crest and Sag Vertical Curves

The minimum length of a crest and sag vertical curve must be known if the
elevations are to be determined. As was the case for formulas to compute
length, the method for computing elevations relies on the properties of the
parabola. Consider a crest vertical curve as illustrated in Figure 15.15. (A
similar diagram if inverted would apply to a sag vertical curve.) The
beginning of the curve is the BVC, and the end of the curve is the EVC. The
intersection of the grade lines (tangents) is the PVI, which is equidistant from
the BVC and EVC.

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

Using the properties of a parabola, Y =ax2 + bx +c, where a is constant and b

and c are 0, the locations for the minimum and maximum points and the rate
of change of slope are determined from the first and second derivative:

When x= L/2, the external distance E from the point of vertical intersection
(PVI) to the curve is determined by substituting L/2 for x in the equation
below:

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

Where; N is the length of the curve in stations. The vertical offset Y at any point
on the curve can also be given in terms of E. Substituting 800E/L for A in the
equation below will give:

The highest point on the curve can be determined by considering the expression:

Example::::Design of Crest Vertical Curve

A crest vertical curve joining a +3 percent and a -4 percent grade is to be
designed for 75 mi/h. If the tangents intersect at station (345 + 60.00) at an
elevation of 250ft, determine the stations and elevations of the BVC and EVC.
Also, calculate the elevations of intermediate points on the curve at the whole
stations. A sketch of the curve is shown in the figure below.
Solution

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

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Traffic Engineering Third Stage College of Engineering Kufa University Asst. Prof. Dr. Hamid Al-Jameel

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