An introduction to contemporary work psychology

Edited by Mario C.W. Peeters, Jan de Jonge and Toon W. Taris

2014
Chapter 6.2-6.5

By: Derya van Berkel

Chapter 6: Qualitative demands at work
6.2 A general framework for dealing with demands: action regulation theory
Dealing with any demand requires cognitive activity, since a worker needs to perceive what happens and
interpret the situation in terms of available possibilities and necessities for action. This occurs in relation
to goals, general (maintaining a good reputation) to rather specific ones (satisfying the current
customer). Through these cognitive activities we regulate our action. We do not know how to do an
action, because we do not know someone’s mental model (also referred to as image or operative
image, since it is not an abstract concept). On the basis of such mental models, people develop plans or
action programs for carrying out specific actions. Than someone can receive feedback to adjust things.
The repeated cycles of monitoring (testing) and acting (operating) are well known as TOTE units (test-
operate-test-exit).

The sequential aspect: An action has to go to several stages.

1. One must have a goal

2. One has to monitor the environment with regard to the possibilities for pursuing the goal
(orientation phase)
3. One must develop an action plan or several options for such a plan
4. One has to decide on a particular plan from available plans
5. One must execute the plan an monitor plan implementation so that feedback is obtained in
terms of process and result. It might be changed during execution due to feedback

Some explanations for the order of the stages are that the order is absolutely not fixed. The goal is often
already given by the organization. Goals have cognitive and motivational aspects, where motivation
alone is often not enough. Demands for regulating one’s own motivation and volition are growing to the
extent that restrictions on people’s work behavior are reduced, resulting in not only cognitive demands,
but also motivational and volitional demands.

The hierarchical aspect: Humans are very flexible and even simple and repetitive acts are never exactly
the same. This is only possible when there is no fixed sequence in our memory which is activated when
we act. Thing must be flexible in our memory and it must be adjustable, therefore, one must assume
hierarchy. Here higher-order elements trigger more elementary acts as they are needed (example call a
customer triggers find out her number or press buttons on a phone or etc.).

Another idea of the hierarchical aspect is the idea of psychological automatization or routinization. A
large part of our everyday behaviour is more or less automatic and became natural. Because it has
become normal, less cognitive resources are needed, implying a qualitative difference in the way we
regulate actions (different load for individuals depending on experience).

Automatized processes:

 Are fast
 Allow us to do other things in parallel
 Do not require much attention and thus cognitive capacity
 Often happen outside conscious perception
 Are not easily changed once they have been triggered
When things are new, it is reversed, which are called controlled processes.

Automatization makes us very efficient and flexible, but also has downsides. When triggered by a
situation which is similar but not the same, it could result in errors. There are different levels of
regulation:

 An automatic mode, which is basically unconscious

 A knowledge-based mode, which is partly conscious
 An intellectual mode, which implies problem solving and is conscious

The middle class is referred to as chunks, which can be combined into routine procedures. The units
form patterns which can be triggered by stimuli.

The action regulation theory is a framework that focuses on describing ideal processes and has a
number of implications, for instance in terms of better understanding and prevention of errors or in
terms of suggestion for effective training methods. Task design as well as training processes should take
account of action regulation principles. Three aspects are distinguished:

 The regulation requirements of a task

 The resources for regulation
 Regulation problems

Regulation requirements: From an action-oriented perspective, task should be designed in such a way
that they can follow the sequence given above. They should be hierarchically including routinized parts
and requiring problem-solving activities. Sequential and hierarchical completeness are related. The
involvement of higher levels of action regulation implies a minimum of complexity and variety,
otherwise regulation requirements are too low. There is also a certain amount of regulation possibilities
called for, resulting in autonomy. This leads to more job satisfaction and work motivation and less job
strain.

Regulatory resources: refer to aspects of the work situation that make action regulation easier. The
most important one is job control.

6.3 Physical demands

Physical demands is a term for any kind of environmental demand. Physical demands can result in
psychological aspects, such as stress. When working memory capacity is not available for the task at
hand it may be experienced as an interruption and hinder performance, in which case the
environmental demand creates regulation problems. The following physical demands can be
differentiated:

 Environmental demands (also imply psychological demands)

o Physical (noise, temperature, vibration, radiation etc)
o Chemical (asbestos, smoke, poisonous gases etc)
o Biological (bacteria, viruses, fungi etc)
 Heavy loads
o Lifting loads
o Carrying loads
  Unusual or tiring body position and movements
o Standing
o Repetitive movements

6.4 Cognitive demands

Cognitive demands refer to information processing. We have to deal with the given information and use
it for making a decision by combining it with knowledge out of our memory. Working memory has
limited capacity. Old models assumed that there was a single capacity model, whereas new models
assume that different demands consume different resources (listening can during looking), with an
overlapping central executive which manages the allocation of cognitive resources. Taxing the capacity
of working memory is one of the most important sources of human error, caused by an information
overload that is difficult to manage and/or by reduced capacity due to fatigue. People tend to revert to
strategies that reduce cognitive demands by simplification, increasing risk and making one more
vulnerable to additional demands. High demands can result in tunnel vision. Fatigue lead to less focusing
and less systematic information processing. Low stimulation results in that vigilance can only be
maintained for about 30 minutes. High cognitive demand (for example by maintaining attention for long
periods of time) quickly results in fatigue, which can be prevented by short breaks.

Qualitative and quantitative overload and underload: Quantitative overload means that you have too
much to do, which usually goes along with time pressure. Qualitative overload involves complex tasks
that are too difficult to carry out, it exceeds a person’s skills. Qualitative underload implies that carrying
out work tasks does not require substantial requirements of conscious thinking and planning, which
leads to boredom ore the experience of monotony, a person has too few opportunities to use his/her
working skills. Quantitative underload means that there is too little to do, which is usually associated
with boredom, but can also cause more serious aversive states.

The role stress concept: The role stress concept is based on the idea that members of an organization
often take one or more roles in it. A role implies role expectations, so what an employee is expected to
do in order to complete a job. Sometimes goals may be complementary, and sometimes in conflict.
When goals are in conflict, role conflict can occur, resulting in role stress. Three role demands in the
experience of stress at work and detailed how they can lead to higher job strain are:

 Role conflict: job demands that compete or conflict with each other
 Role ambiguity: job demands that are unclear
 Role overload: job demands that exceed an employee’s ability to complete work successfully.
Since it is more quantitative, it will not be discussed further.

Role conflict: arises when there are different contradicting expectation of one or more persons. Intra-
sender is conflict created by one person, inter-sender is conflicted created by multiple persons with the
same role. If there are different role that partly contradict we speak of a role-role conflict. A person-role
conflict occurs when a person do not want to do something (might be ethically not correct in their eyes).

Role ambiguity: occurs when it is unclear what is actually expected to fulfil the work role. It arises when
employees are unsure with regard to expectations from supervisors and co-workers as well as the scope
and responsibilities of their job. Often high when starting a new job.
Meta-analyses report moderate to medium association between role demands and various measures of
psychological strain and with low job performance. Role demands have been linked to reduced job
satisfaction. Role conflict and ambiguity both create uncertainty, which can be regarded as a central
element of many stress experiences. Uncertainty is related to well-being and to physiological stress
activity.

6.5 Regulation problems

Stress concepts converge in regarding a threat to goal attainment. Since work implies goal-directed
action, it is useful to ask in what way demands can make it difficult to reach goals. In the framework of
action regulation theory, this implies disturbing action regulation, creating regulation problems. One can
distinguish between:

 Regulation obstacles: are events or conditions that are directly related to the task at hand and
make it harder or even impossible to pursue a goal and to regulate an action. Extra effort has to
be spent to reach work goals. It are called daily hassles. This kind of work obstacle is the best
predictor of psychosomatic complaints and burnout. Interruptions that are produced by
unpredictable outside events (can be due to people, technique or the organization) and induces
negative emotions. Regulation obstacles are seen as potentially avoidable and demands falling
in this category are often strongly correlated with irritation.
 Regulation uncertainty: means that one does not know how to achieve a certain goal, which
kinds of plans are useful and what feedback is to be trusted. Can be because of too difficult task
(qualitative overload), unclear or delayed feedback, role ambiguity and role conflict.
 Overtaxing regulation: refers to taxing the person’s capabilities by the speed and intensity of
regulation or by information overload of short-term working memory during action execution.
Too much information has to be kept and processed in the working memory at the same time. It
reflects quantitative demands.