CLASSICAL MECHANICS

UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DO RIO GRANDE DO SUL

INSTITUTO DE FÍSICA

PROFª. DRª. MARIA BEATRIZ GAY DUCATI

LECTURE 9

1
The Principle of Least Action

The principle of least action is another variational principle.

→ It involves a ∆-variation.

In the δ-variation, the varied path in configuration space always

terminates at the same time t1 and t2 as the correct path.

The ∆-variation is less constrained ;

I the varied path may end at different times than the correct
path
I there may be a variation in the coordinates at the end
points.

2
The Principle of Least Action (cont.)
A family of possible varied paths is defined by functions
qi (t, α) = qi (t, 0) + αηi (t), (8.72)
where α is an infinitesimal parameter that goes to zero for the
correct path.

Figure 8.3 illustrates the correct

and varied path for a
∆-variation in configuration
space.

Figure: 8.3 The ∆-variation in

configuration space. 3
The Principle of Least Action (cont.)

Let us evaluate the ∆-variation of the action integral:

Z t2 Z t2 +∆t2 Z t2 +∆t2
∆ Ldt ≡ L(α)dt − L(0)dt, (8.73)
t1 t1 +∆t1 t1 +∆t1

where L(α) means the integral is evaluated along the varied path
and L(0) correspondingly refers to the actual path of motion.

We may therefore write the ∆-variation of the action integral as

Z t2 Z t2
∆ Ldt ≡ L(t2 )∆t2 − L(t1 )∆t + δLdt. (8.74)
t1 t1

4
The Principle of Least Action (cont.)
The end point terms arising in the integration by parts must be
retained, and the integral term on the right appears as

∂L 2
Z t2 Z t2    
∂L d ∂L
δLdt = − δqi dt + δqi .
t1 t1 ∂qi dt ∂ q̇i ∂ q̇i 1

By Lagrange’s equations the quantities in the square brackets

vanish, and the variation ∆-variation therefore takes the form
Z t2
∆ Ldt = (L∆t + pi δqi )|21 . (8.75)
t1

It is clear from Fig. 8.3 that these two variations are connected
by the relation

∆qi = δqi + q̇i ∆t (8.76)

5
The Principle of Least Action (cont.)
Hence, Eq. (8.75) can be rewritten as
Z t2
∆ Ldt = (pi ∆qi − H∆t)|21 . (8.77)
t1

To obtain the principle of least action, we restrict our further

considerations by three important qualifications:
I 1. Only systems are considered for which L, and therefore
H, are not explicit functions of time, and in consequence H
is conserved.
I 2. The variation is such that H is conserved on the varied
path as well as on the actual path.
I 3. The varied paths are further limited by requiring that
∆qi vanish at the end points (but not ∆t).

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The Principle of Least Action (cont.)
With these three qualifications satisfied, the ∆-variation of the
action integral, Eq. (8.77), reduces to
Z t2
∆ Ldt = −H (∆t2 − ∆t1 ) . (8.78)
t1
But under the same conditions, the action integral itself becomes
Z t2 Z t2
.
Ldt = pi qi dt − H (t2 − t1 ) (8.78)
t1 t1
the ∆-variation of which is
Z t2 Z t2
∆ Ldt = ∆ pi q̇i dt − H (∆t2 − ∆t1 ) . (8.79)
t1 t1
Comparison of Eqs. (8.78) and (8.79) finally gives the principle
of least action:
Z t2
∆ pi q̇i dt = 0 (8.80)
t1
7
The Principle of Least Action (cont.)
In nonrelativistic mechanics the kinetic energy is a quadratic
function of the q̇i ’s:
1
T = Mjk (q)q̇j q̇k . (8.83)
2
When the potential is not velocity dependent, the canonical
momenta are derived from T only: piq̇i = 2T .

Therefore we can write Z t2

∆ T dt = 0 (8.84)
t1

If there are no external forces on the system, then T is

conserved along with the total energy H.

The least action principle then takes the special form

∆(t2 − t1 ) = 0.
8
The Principle of Least Action (cont.)

We already discussed the infinitesimal interval in a metric space

giving the interval as

ds2 = gµν dxµ dxν (7.320 )

We can do something entirely similar here whenever T is of the

form of
1
T = Mjk (q)q̇j q̇k . (8.83).
2

A configuration space is therefore constructed for which the Mjk

coeÿcients form the metric tensor.

Generally, the space will be curvilinear and nonorthogonal.

9
The Principle of Least Action (cont.)

The element of path length in the space is then defined by

(dρ)2 = Mjk dqj dqk (8.86)

so that the kinetic energy has the form

1 dρ 2
 
T = , (8.87)
2 dt
or equivalently
dρ
dt = √ . (8.88)
2T

10
The Principle of Least Action (cont.)
Equation (8.88) enables us to change the variable in the
abbreviated action integral from t to ρ, and the principle of
least action becomes
Z t2 Z ρ2 p
∆ T dt = 0 = T /2dρ,
t1 ρ1

or, finally
Z ρ2 p
∆ H − V (q)dρ = 0. (8.89)
ρ1

Equation (8.89) is often called Jacobi’s form of the least action

principle.

It now refers to the path of the system point in a special

curvilinear configuration space characterized by a metric tensor
with elements Mjk ·

11
The Principle of Least Action (cont.)
• The system point traverses√the path in this configuration
space with a speed given by 2T .

• For no external forces , T is constant, and Jacobi’s principle

says the system point travels along the shortest path length in
the configuration space.

• The Jacobi form of the principle of least action is concerned

with the path of the system point rather than with its motion in
time.

• Equation (8.89) is a statement about the element of path

length dρ; the time nowhere appears, since H is a constant and
V depends upon qi only.

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