Che02g SQB

1
LYCEUM OF THE PHILIPPINES UNIVERSITY CAVITE

INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL
General Trias City, Cavite
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CHE02G: General Chemistry 2

Course Learning Kit
Subquarter B
2nd Semester, AY 2020-2021.
This set of modules was prepared by Mr. Alvin R. Rodrigo, Senior High School faculty member
of the LPU International School. The author of the modules may be different from your actual
subject teacher. Please refer to the Class Orientation Kit for details and instructions from your
subject teacher.
The use, disclosure, reproduction, modification and/or transfer of this document for any purpose, in any form or
by any means without approval from Lyceum of the Philippines University Cavite is strictly prohibited, and may be
subject to disciplinary and/or legal sanctions.
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Lesson 1: Physical Properties of Solution

This lesson focuses on the properties of solutions, solubility, and the stoichiometry of reactions
in solutions; energy changes in chemical reactions; the rate of a reaction and the various factors
that influence it.
Learning objectives:
At the end of this lesson the learners will be able to:
a. determine and explain the heating and cooling curve of a substance.

b. use different ways of expressing concentration of solutions: percent by mass, mole
fraction, molarity, molality, percent by volume, percent by mass, ppm.
c. perform stoichiometric calculations for reactions in solution.
d. describe the effect of concentration on the colligative properties of solutions.
Key Terms:
Dilute solution is referring to as solution with relatively small amount of solute dissolved in
the solution.
Mole fraction describes the number of molecules (or moles) of one component divided by
total the number of molecules (or moles) in the mixture. And is useful when two reactive
components are mixed together, as the ratio of the two components is known if the mole
fraction of each is known.
Molarity (M) is the amount of a substance in a certain volume of
solution. Molarity is defined as the moles of a solute per liters of a solution. Molarity is also
known as the molar concentration of a solution.
Molality is a property of a solution and is defined as the number of moles of solute per
kilogram of solvent.
Solubilities is the ability of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance (referred to as the
solute) to dissolve in solvent (usually a liquid) and form a solution.
Sterling silver is an alloy of silver containing 92.5% by weight of silver and 7.5% by weight of
other metals, usually copper.
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Core content
Making connections
A Preliminary
For wired mode instruction.
Activity 2.1: i-Search, i-Present.

Instructions:
1. Search for at least five significant use of knowledge in Physical properties of Solution
in the lives of Filipinos.
2. This activity can be done through MS PowerPoint Presentations, Canva or any other
similar platform. Hence, traditional way of doing this is also accepted. Further, all
files must be saved as “pdf.”
3. The use of illustrations and pictures is encouraged.
4. This activity will be done by pair. And will be submitted on our myLPU course site in
the section/plate where it is asked to be submitted.
5. A selected two pairs of students per class will share their work during the schedule
virtual class.
Lesson proper
For wired mode instruction
There will be a synchronous session for the discussion of this lesson. And this will be
through MS Teams.
I. What constitutes a Solution?
Our lesson about intermolecular forces let us explore more of the gases, liquids, and solids.
However, most the examples our discussion focused on pure substances. Where in fact,
almost of matter that we encounter in our daily lives, such as air, seawater, and sand, is
usually composed of mixtures.
This lesson will help us understand as to what constitutes a solution by examining mixtures
beyond those that are homogeneous. As previously taught to you that a homogeneous
mixture is called a solution.
Usually the first thing came to mind when someone thought of solutions are liquids, such as
a solution of salt in water, like the seawater. Sterling silver is an example of a solid solution,
which is used in jewelry, is also a solution-a homogeneous distribution of about 7% copper
in silver. Sterling silver is an example of a solid solution.
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Solutions are bound in the world around us, some solid, some liquid, and some gas. The air
we breathe is a solution of several gases; brass is a solid solution of zinc in copper; and the
fluids that run through our bodies are solutions that carry a variety of essential nutrients,
salts, and other materials.
Each of the substances in a solution is called a component of the solution. Every solution
has a solvent that normally has the greatest amount in the solution. If there is solvent of
course there should be solutes.
Since liquid solutions are the most common, we will focus our attention on them in this
lesson – particularly with aqueous solutions, which contain water as the solvent and a gas,
liquid, or solid as a solute. Our primary goal is to examine the physical properties of
solutions and comparing them with the properties of their components.
Solutions may be gases, liquids, or solids. And are formed when one substance disperses
uniformly throughout another.
Figure 2.1: Types and Examples of

Solution:
Source:
http://www.brainkart.com/article/Types-
of-solutions_36393/
The substances ability to form

solutions depends on two factors:
a. the types of intermolecular
interactions involved in the
solution process, and
b. the natural tendency of

substances to spread into larger
volumes when not restrained in
some way.
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What is the role intermolecular interactions to the solution’s process?
Any of the intermolecular forces we discussed in sub-quarter A operates between solute and
solvent particles in a solution.
For example, Ion-dipole forces, dominates in solutions of ionic substances in water. Dispersion
forces, on the other hand, dominate when a nonpolar substance such as C6H 14 dissolves in
another nonpolar one like CC14 (Carbon tetrachloride). This basically means, that the major
factor determining whether a solution forms is the relative strengths of intermolecular forces
between and among the solute and solvent particles.
Also, keep in mind that, solutions form when the magnitudes of the attractive forces between
solute and solvent particles are comparable to or greater than those that exist between the
solute particles themselves or between the solvent particles themselves.
Example: the ionic substance NaCl dissolves readily in water because the attractive
interactions between the ions and the polar H20 molecules (solute solvent interactions)
overcome the attraction between the ions in the solid NaCl.
Figure 2.2: Dissolution of an ionic solid in water.

In this figure:
(a) A crystal of the ionic solid is hydrated by water molecules, with the oxygen atoms of the
water molecules oriented toward the cations (purple) and the hydrogens oriented toward
the anions (green).
(b) (b, c) As the solid dissolves, the individual ions are removed from the solid surface and
become completely separate hydrated species in solution.
Source:
https://s3.amazonaws.com/files.haikulearning.com/data/tusd/cms_file_22871897.pdf?AWSAcce
ssKeyId=AKIAJEU6QIBAPM43PEMQ&Expires=1615013643&Signature=%2F1UL4XId6DzKiaE
1d4tI9dC825M%3D: Properties_of_Solutions.pdf
6
Solution Formation and Chemical Reactions

In understanding solutions, we have to be careful in distinguishing the physical process of
solution formation from chemical reactions that lead to a solution. For example, nickel metal is
dissolved on contact with hydrochloric acid solution because the following chemical reaction
occurs:
Ni(s) + 2 HCl(aq) ~ NiC12(aq) + H2(g)
In this instance the chemical form of the substance being dissolved is changed from Ni to
NiC12. If the solution is evaporated to dryness, NiC12• 6 H20(s), not Ni(s), is recovered
(Figure2.3). When NaCl(s) is dissolved in water, on the other hand, no chemical reaction
occurs. If the solution is evaporated to dryness, NaCl is recovered. Our focus throughout this
chapter is on solutions from which the solute can be recovered unchanged from the solution.
Figure 2.3: The nickel-acid reaction is not a simple dissolution.

In this figure:
(a) Nickel metal and hydrochloric acid.
(b) Nickel reacts slowly with hydrochloric acid, forming NiCI2(aq) and H2(g). (c) NiCI2•6H20
is obtained when the solution from (b) is evaporated to dryness. Because the residue left
after evaporation is chemically different from either reactant, we know what takes place
is a chemical reaction rather than merely a solution process.
Source:
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II. Saturation and Solubility of Solutions
What is a saturated solution? Saturated solution contains a

maximum amount of a solute that will dissolve in a given solvent
at a specific temperature.
How about unsaturated solution? Unsaturated solution
contains less solute than the solvent and has the capacity to
dissolve at a specific temperature.
And a supersaturated solution contains more solute than is

present in a saturated solution at a specific temperature.
For example: Sodium acetate crystals rapidly form when a seed

crystal is added to a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate.
Figure 2.4 Dynamic equilibrium in a saturated solution.
In a solution in which excess ionic solute is present, ions on the surface of the solute are
continuously passing into the solution as hydrated species, while hydrated ions from the solution
are deposited on the surfaces of the solute. At equilibrium in a saturated solution, the two
processes occur at equal rates.
Figure 2.5: Sodium acetate readily forms a supersaturated solution in water.

Source:https://s3.amazonaws.com/files.haikulearning.com/data/tusd/cms_file_22871897.pdf?A
WSAccessKeyId=AKIAJEU6QIBAPM43PEMQ&Expires=1615013643&Signature=%2F1UL4XId
6DzKiaE1d4tI9dC825M%3D: Properties_of_Solutions.pdf
8
When a solid solute begins to dissolve in a solvent, the concentration of solute particles in
solution increases, thus increasing the chances of the solute particles colliding with the surface
of the solid. Because of such a collision, the solute particle may become reattached to the solid.
This process, which is the opposite of the solution process, is called crystallization. Thus, two
opposing processes occur in a solution in contact with undissolved solute.
This situation is represented in a chemical equation by use of two half arrows:
Source:
When the rates of these opposing processes become equal, there is no further net increase in
the amount of solute in solution. A dynamic equilibrium is established similar to the one between
evaporation and condensation.
Solutions that is in equilibrium with undissolved solute is saturated. Also, solute will not dissolve
if added to a saturated solution. And the amount of solute needed to form a saturated solution in
a given quantity of solvent is known as the solubility of that solute. The solubility is the maximum
amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specified temperature, given
that excess solute is present.
As our example, the solubility of NaCl in water at 0 oC is 35.7 g per 100 mL of water. This is the
maximum amount of NaCl that can be dissolved in water to give a stable equilibrium solution at
that temperature.
If we dissolve less solute than that needed to form a saturated solution, the solution is
unsaturated. Thus, a solution containing only 10.0 g of NaCl per 100 mL of water at 0 oC is
unsaturated because it has the capacity to dissolve more solute.
Under suitable conditions it is sometimes possible to form solutions that contain a greater
amount of solute than that needed to form a saturated solution. Such solutions are
supersaturated. For example, considerably more sodium acetate (NaCH3COO) can dissolve in
water at high temperatures than at low temperatures. When a saturated solution of sodium
acetate is made at a high temperature and then slowly cooled, all of the solute may remain
dissolved even though the solubility decreases as the temperature decreases. Because the
solute in a supersaturated solution is present in a concentration higher than the equilibrium
concentration, supersaturated solutions are unstable. Supersaturated solutions result for much
the same reason as supercooled liquids. For crystallization to occur, the molecules or ions of
solute must arrange themselves properly to form crystals. The addition of a small crystal of the
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solute (a seed crystal) provides a template for crystallization of the excess solute, leading to a
saturated solution in contact with excess solid.
III. Molecular view of the solution process
What are the different interactions in the solution process?

a. Solvent-Solvent Interaction
b. Solute-Solute Interaction
c. Solvent-Solute Interaction
Figure 2.6: Molecular view of the solution process

Source: https://www.toppr.com/ask/content/story/amp/solubility-solid-in-liquid-73227/
SOLVENT TO SOLUTE INTERACTION

One factor that determines the solubility is the natural tendency of substances to mix (the
tendency of systems to move toward a more dispersed, or random, state).
If this were the only factor involved, however, we would expect all substances to be completely
soluble in one another. This is clearly not the case. So, what other factors are involved? the
relative forces of attraction among the solute and solvent molecules also play very important
roles in the solution process.
Although the tendency toward dispersal and the various interactions among solute and solvent
particles are all involved in determining the solubilities, considerable insight can often be gained
by focusing on the interaction between the solute and solvent.
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In general, when other factors are comparable, the stronger the attractions are between solute
and solvent molecules, the greater the solubility. Meaning, two substances with similar
intermolecular forces are likely to be soluble in each other.
• non-polar molecules are soluble in non-polar solvents

o CCl4 (Tetrachloromethane) in C6H6 (Benzene)
• polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents
o C2H5OH (Ethanol) in H2O (Water)
• ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents
o NaCl in H2O or NH3
IV. Concentration Units
The concentration of a solution can be expressed either qualitatively or quantitatively. The

terms dilute and concentrated are used to describe a solution qualitatively. A solution with a
relatively small concentration of solute is said to be dilute; one with a large concentration is
said to be concentrated. We use several different ways to express concentration in
quantitative terms, and we examine four of these in this section: mass percentage, mole
fraction, molarity, and molality.
a. Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb

One of the simplest quantitative expressions of concentration is the mass percentage
of a component in a solution, given by:
Mass of component in soln.
Mass % of component = X 100
Total mass soln
where we have abbreviated "solution" as "soln." Percent means per hundred. Thus, a
solution of hydrochloric acid that is 36% HCl by mass contains 36 g of HCl for each 100
g of solution.
We often express the concentrations of very dilute solution in parts per million (ppm), or
parts per billion (pfb). These quantities are similar to mass percentage but use 106 (a
million) or 10 (a billion), respectively, in place of 100 as a multiplier for the ratio of the
mass of solute to the mass of solution. Thus, parts per million is defined as:
Mass of component in soln.

ppm of component = X 106
Total mass soln
A solution whose solute concentration is 1 ppm contains 1 g of solute for each million
(106) grams of solution or, equivalently, 1 mg of solute per kilogram of solution. Because
the density of water is 1 g/mL, 1 kg of a dilute aqueous solution will have a volume very
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close to 1 L. Thus, 1 ppm also corresponds to 1 mg of solute per liter of aqueous

solution.
The acceptable maximum ~concentrations of toxic or carcinogenic substances in the
environment are often expressed in ppm or ppb. For example, the maximum allowable
concentration ~f arsenic in drinking water in the United States is 0.010 ppm; that is,
0.010 mg of arsenic per liter of water. This concentration corresponds to 10 ppb.
V. Mole Fraction, Molarity, and Molality

Concentration expressions are often based on the number of moles of one or more
components of the solution. The three most commonly used are mole fraction, molarity,
and molality.
The mole fraction of a component of a solution is given by:
moles of component
Mole fraction of component =
total moles of all components
The symbol X is commonly used for mole fraction, with a subscript to indicate the
component of interest. For example, the mole fraction of HCl in a hydrochloric acid
solution is represented as XHCl· Thus, a solution containing 1.00 mol of HCl (36.5 g) and
8.00 mol of water (144 g) has a mole fraction of HCl of XHcl = (1.00 mol)/ (1.00 mol +
8.00 mol) = 0.111.
Mole fractions have no units because the units in the numerator and the denominator
cancel. The sum of the mole fractions of all components of a solution must equal 1.
Thus, in the aqueous HCl solution, XH2 o = 1.000 - 0.111 = 0.889. Mole fractions are very
useful when dealing with gases as we saw in Section 10.6 but have limited use when
dealing with liquid solutions.
The molarity (M) of a solute in a solution is defined as
moles of solute
Molarity =
liters of soln
Example: If you dissolve 0.500 mol of Na2C03 in enough water to form 0.250 L of
solution, then the solution has a concentration of (0.500 mol)/ (0.250 L) = 2.00 Min
Na2C03. Molarity is especially useful for relating the volume of a solution to the quantity
of solute it contains.
The molality of a solution, denoted m, is a unit that we have not encountered in previous
chapters. This concentration unit equals the number of moles of solute per kilogram of
solvent:
moles of solute
Molality =
kilograms of solvent
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The definitions of molarity and molality are similar enough that they can be easily confused.
Molarity depends on the volume of solution, whereas molality depends on the mass of solvent.
When water is the solvent, the molality and molarity of dilute solutions are numerically about the
same because 1 kg of solvent is nearly the same as 1 kg of solution, and 1 kg of the solution
has a volume of about 1 L.
The molality of a given solution does not vary with temperature because masses do not vary
with temperature. Molarity, however, changes with temperature because the expansion or
contraction of the solution changes its volume. Thus, molality is often the concentration unit of
choice when a solution is to be used over a range of temperatures.
Text and equations in Concentration Units and Mole Fraction, Molarity, and Molality were directly excerpted from:
https://s3.amazonaws.com/files.haikulearning.com/data/tusd/cms_file_22871897.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJEU6QIBAPM43PEM
Q&Expires=1615013643&Signature=%2F1UL4XId6DzKiaE1d4tI9dC825M%3D: Properties_of_Solutions.pdf
VI. The effect of temperature on solubility

1) Solid solubility and temperature
a. solubility increases with
increasing temperature;
b. solubility decreases with
increasing temperature.
KNO3 = Potassium Nitrate
NaNO3 = Sodium Nitrate
NaBr = Sodium bromide
KBr = Potassium bromide
KCl = Potassium Chloride
NaCl = Sodium Chloride
Na2SO4 = Sodium Sulfate
Ce2(SO4)3 = Cerium (III) Sulfate aka
cerous sulfate.
Figure 2.7: Temperature and Solubility
Source: Physical Properties of Solutions. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
13
Fractional crystallization is the separation of a mixture of substances into pure components

on the basis of their differing solubilities.
Figure 2.7: Fractional
crystallization
Source: Physical Properties
of Solutions. The McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc.
Suppose you have 90 g

KNO3 contaminated with
10 g NaCl.
Fractional crystallization:
1. Dissolve sample in 100
mL of water at 600C
2. Cool solution to 0 0C
3. All NaCl will stay in
solution (s = 34.2g/100g)
4. 78 g of PURE KNO3 will
precipitate (s = 12 g/100g).
90 g – 12 g = 78 g
14
Figure 2.8: Gas Solubility

and temperature
Source: Physical
Properties of Solutions.
The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.
O2 gas solubility and
temperature.
*solubility usually
decreases with increasing
temperature
The effect of Pressure on

the Solubility of Gases
The solubility of a gas in a
liquid is proportional to the
pressure of the gas over
the solution (Henry’s law).
c is the concentration (M) of the dissolved gas

P is the pressure of the gas over the solution
k is a constant for each gas (mol/L•atm) that depends only on
temperature
VII. Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions

Colligative properties are properties that depend only on the number of solute particles in
solution and not on the nature of the solute particles.
Vapor-Pressure Lowering
For a non-volatile solute, the vapor pressure of the liquid decreases.
Another way to think of it: solute shifts equilibrium to the left solvent (l) solvent (g)
Raoult’s Law makes this quantitative:
P1 partial pressure of a solvent over a solution
X1 mole fraction of the solvent in the solution
vapor pressure of the pure solvent.
15
Practice Test.
Instructions:
1. Go to our myLPU course site.
2. Proceed on the section for this lesson.
3. Find the “pdf” document attached with a filename “Problem.Sets.”
4. Download the document and Test yourself.
Online quiz thru myLPU LEADS: Written Work 2 (30 points)

Instructions:
1. To take the quiz you will need to log-in, in our myLPU course site.
2. The quiz has no time limit. But one attempt only.

3. The quiz will be available until March 19, 2021 by 11:59PM.
4. Be ready for multiple problem sets. And this will be your written work 2 for SQB.
5. Practice integrity. Good luck!
16
Summary
• Solutions are bound in the world around us, some solid, some liquid, and some gas. The
air we breathe is a solution of several gases; brass is a solid solution of zinc in copper;
and the fluids that run through our bodies are solutions that carry a variety of essential
nutrients, salts, and other materials.
• The substances ability to form solutions depends on two factors:
• The substances ability to form solutions depends on two factors: the types of
intermolecular interactions involved in the solution process, and the natural tendency of
substances to spread into larger volumes when not restrained in some way.
• The major factor determining whether a solution forms is the relative strengths of
intermolecular forces between and among the solute and solvent particles.
• Saturated solution contains a maximum amount of a solute that will dissolve in a given
solvent at a specific temperature.
• Unsaturated solution contains less solute than the solvent and has the capacity to
dissolve at a specific temperature.
• Supersaturated solution contains more solute than is present in a saturated solution at a

specific temperature.
• When a solid solute begins to dissolve in a solvent, the concentration of solute particles
in solution increases, thus increasing the chances of the solute particles colliding with
the surface of the solid
• The three interactions of solution are: solvent-solvent interaction, solute-solute

interaction, and solvent to solute interaction.
• The stronger the attractions are between solute and solvent molecules, the greater the
solubility.
• Non-polar molecules are soluble in non-polar solvents
• Polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents
• Ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents
• Concentration expressions are often based on the number of moles of one or more
components of the solution. The three most commonly used are mole fraction, molarity,
and molality.
17
Self-Assessment Question
For wired and non-wired mode instruction
Self-assessment questions are posted in myLPU LEADS course site as FORUM.
Everybody is encouraged to join the forum by sharing their thoughts and ideas on the
issues below.
1. Cite an example as to where the concept of Physical Properties of Solution is
least used by humans. And explain why? Your answer in no less than one
paragraph.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Reference:
Physical Properties of Solutions. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
https://s3.amazonaws.com/files.haikulearning.com/data/tusd/cms_file_22871897.pdf
?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAJEU6QIBAPM43PEMQ&Expires=1615013643&Signature
=%2F1UL4XId6DzKiaE1d4tI9dC825M%3D: Properties_of_Solutions.pdf
https://personal.utdallas.edu/~son051000/chem1312/Chapter13a.pdf
Additional reading materials:
https://personal.utdallas.edu/~son051000/chem1312/Chapter13a.pdf
https://www.lamar.edu/arts-sciences/_files/documents/chemistry-
biochemistry/dorris/chapter13.pdf
18
Lesson 2: Thermochemistry
This lesson focuses on the energy changes during chemical reactions, exothermic and
endothermic processes, the first law of thermodynamics, enthalpy of a reaction, and
thermochemical equation for a chemical reaction.
Learning objectives:
At the end of this lesson the learners will be able to:

a. explain the energy changes during chemical reactions
b. distinguish between exothermic and endothermic processes
c. explain the first law of thermodynamics
d. explain enthalpy of a reaction.
e. Write the thermochemical equation for a chemical reaction
f. Calculate the change in enthalpy of a given reaction using Hess Law
Key Terms:
Bomb calorimeter device designed to measure the energy change for processes occurring
under conditions of constant volume; commonly used for reactions involving solid and gaseous
reactants or products.
Calorimeter device used to measure the amount of heat absorbed or released in a chemical or
physical process
Calorimetry process of measuring the amount of heat involved in a chemical or physical
process.
Chemical thermodynamics area of science that deals with the relationships between heat,
work, and all forms of energy associated with chemical and physical processes
Enthalpy (H) sum of a system’s internal energy and the mathematical product of its pressure
and volume
Enthalpy change (ΔH) heat released or absorbed by a system under constant pressure during
a chemical or physical process
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Expansion work (pressure-volume work) work done as a system expands or contracts against
external pressure
Hess’s law if a process can be represented as the sum of several steps, the enthalpy change of
the process equals the sum of the enthalpy changes of the steps
System portion of matter undergoing a chemical or physical change being studied
Core content
Making connections
A Preliminary
For wired mode instruction.
Activity 2.2: i-search, i-present. Thermochemistry edition.

Instructions:
1. Search for at least five most significant contribution of Thermochemistry in
Humanity.
2. This activity can be done through MS PowerPoint Presentations, Canva or any
other similar platform. Hence, traditional way of doing this is also accepted.
Further, all files must be saved as “pdf.”
3. The use of illustrations and pictures is encouraged.
4. This activity will be done by pair. And will be submitted on our myLPU course site
in the section/plate where it is asked to be submitted.
5. A selected two pairs of students per class will share their work during the schedule
virtual class.
20
Lesson proper
For wired mode instruction
There will be a synchronous session for the discussion of this lesson. And this will be
through MS Teams.
I. Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Exothermic and Endothermic Processes.
Chemical reactions involve changes in energy as well as matter. A simple example would be
when you light a match. Societies at all levels of development could not function without the
energy released by chemical reactions.
We use this energy to produce electricity; to transport food, raw materials, manufactured goods,
and people; for industrial production; and to heat and power our homes and businesses. While
these combustion reactions help us meet our essential energy needs, they are also recognized
by most of the scientific community as a major contributor to global climate change.
Useful forms of energy are also available from a variety of chemical reactions other than
combustion. For example, the energy produced by the batteries in a cell phone, car, or flashlight
results from chemical reactions. This chapter introduces many of the basic ideas necessary to
explore the relationships between chemical changes and energy, with a focus on thermal
energy.
In studying chemical reaction, we consider the system to be the reactants and products. The
surrounding vessel in which the reaction takes place plus the air or other material in thermal
contact with the reaction system.
The state of a system is specified by enumerating the: Composition, Temperature, and
Pressure. State properties depend only on the state of the system, not on the path the system
took to reach the state.
Mathematically for a state property X:
ΔX is the change in X
ΔX = Xfinal – Xinitial
Heat is given the symbol, q:
a. q is positive when heat flows into the system from the surroundings
b. q is negative when heat flows from the system into the surroundings
Endothermic processes have positive q:
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Exothermic processes have negative q:
Figure 2.9: Exothermic and Endothermic Processes

Source: https://www.unf.edu/~michael.lufaso/chem2045/Chapter5.pdf
Magnitude of Heat Flow
In any process, we are interested in both the direction of heat flow and in its magnitude.
a. q is expressed in joules (or kilojoules)
b. James Joule (1818-1889); calorimetry
c. Alternate unit: calorie
a. 1 calorie = 4.184 J
b. 1 kilocalorie = 4.184 kJ
c. Nutritional calories are kcal
II. Calorimetry
Calorimetry is a technique we can use to measure the amount of heat involved in a

chemical or physical process. It is also used to measure amounts of heat transferred to or
from a substance. These are all possible because of the Calorimeter; the change in
temperature of the measuring part of the calorimeter is converted into the amount of heat
since the previous calibration was used to establish its heat capacity.
22
The measurement of heat transfer using this approach requires the definition of a system –
the substance or substances undergoing the chemical or physical change, and its
surroundings – the other components of the measurement apparatus that serve to either
provide heat to the system or absorb heat from the system.
Knowledge of the heat capacity of the surroundings, and careful measurements of the
masses of the system and surroundings and their temperatures before and after the
process allows one to calculate the heat transferred as described in this section.
Having said the calorimeter is a device used to measure the amount of heat involved in a
chemical or physical process. Example, when an exothermic reaction occurs in solution in a
calorimeter, the heat produced by the reaction is absorbed by the solution, which increases
its temperature. When an endothermic reaction occurs, the heat required is absorbed from
the thermal energy of the solution, which decreases its temperature (Figure 2.11). The
temperature change, along with the specific heat and mass of the solution, can then be
used to calculate the amount of heat involved in either case.
Figure 2.10: Calorimetric determination

Source: https://web.ung.edu/media/chemistry/Chapter5/Chapter5-Thermochemistry.pdf
On figure 2.11.:
(a) an exothermic process occurs and heat, q, is negative, indicating that thermal energy is
transferred from the system to its surroundings, or
(b) an endothermic process occurs and heat, q, is positive, indicating that thermal energy is
transferred from the surroundings to the system.
23
The Calorimetry Equation
1. q = C x Δt
o Δt = tfinal – tinitial
o C (uppercase) is the heat capacity of the system: it is the quantity of heat needed
to raise the temperature of the system by 1°C.
2. q = m x c x Δt
o
c (lowercase) is the specific heat: the quantity of heat needed to raise the
temperature of one gram of a substance by 1°C.
3. c depends on the identity and phase of the substance.
Specific Heat
The specific heat of a substance, like the density or melting point, is an intensive property that
can be used to identify a substance or determine its purity.
For H2O, water has an unusually large specific heat. Therefore, large quantity of heat is required
to raise the temperature of water. So, we can say that “Climate is moderated by the specific
heat of water.”
Figure 2.11: Specific Heats of a Few Common Substances

Source: http://apple.niu.edu.tw/ezfiles/0/1000/img/48/wang_chemistry_ch08.pdf
24
Measurement of Heat Flow: Calorimetry
A calorimeter is a device used to measure the heat flow of a reaction.
a. The walls of the calorimeter are insulated to block heat flow between the reaction and
the surroundings
b. The heat flow for the system is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign from the heat
flow of the calorimeter
a. qreaction = - qcalorimeter
b. qreaction = - Ccal Δt
Coffee-cup Calorimeter
Figure 2.12: Coffee-cup Calorimeter

Source: http://apple.niu.edu.tw/ezfiles/0/1000/img/48/
wang_chemistry_ch08.pdf
A simple calorimeter can be constructed from

two polystyrene cups. A thermometer and
stirrer extend through the cover into the
reaction mixture.
Commercial solution calorimeters are also

available. Relatively inexpensive calorimeters
often consist of two thin walled cups that are
nested in a way that minimizes thermal contact
during use, along with an insulated cover,
handheld stirrer, and simple thermometer.
More expensive calorimeters used for industry

and research typically have a well-insulated,
fully enclosed reaction vessel, motorized
stirring mechanism, and a more accurate
temperature sensor.
For a reaction performed in a coffee-cup

calorimeter:
25
Bomb Calorimeter
The bomb calorimeter is more versatile than the coffee-cup calorimeter.

a. Reactions involving high temperature
b. Reactions involving gases
The bomb is a heavy metal vessel that is usually surrounded by water

• qreaction = - qcalorimeter
• qreaction = -CcalΔt
• Ccal is a function of the
calorimeter and can be
measured
experimentally
Figure 2.13: Bomb Calorimeter

Source:
http://apple.niu.edu.tw/ezfiles/0/1000/img/48/
wang_chemistry_ch08.pdf
26
III. Enthalpy
Thermochemistry is a branch of chemical thermodynamics, the science that deals with the
relationships between heat, work, and other forms of energy in the context of chemical and
physical processes. As we concentrate on thermochemistry in this lesson, it is important to
consider some widely used concepts of thermodynamics.
1. Substances act as reservoirs of energy this means that energy can be added to them
or removed from them.
2. Energy is stored in a substance when the kinetic energy of its atoms or molecules is
raised.
3. The greater kinetic energy may be in the form of increased translations (travel or
straight-line motions), vibrations, or rotations of the atoms or molecules. When thermal
energy is lost, the intensities of these motions decrease and the kinetic energy falls.
4. The total of all possible kinds of energy present in a substance is called the internal
energy (U), sometimes symbolized as E.
The relationship between internal energy, heat, and work can be represented by the
equation:
ΔU = q + w
In the figure below is one version of the first law of thermodynamics, and it shows that the
internal energy of a system changes through heat flow into or out of the system:
a. positive q is heat flow in;
b. negative q is heat flow out
or work done on or by the system. Remember that the work (w) is positive if it is done on the
system and negative if it is done by the system.
Figure 2.14: The first law of thermodynamics

The internal energy, U, of a system can be changed by heat flow and work. If heat flows into the
system, qin, or work is done on the system, won, its internal energy increases, ΔU < 0. If heat
flows out of the system, qout, or work is done by the system, wby, its internal energy decreases,
ΔU > 0.
Source: https://web.ung.edu/media/chemistry/Chapter5/Chapter5-Thermochemistry.pdf
27
Notes:
a. The heat flow at constant pressure is equal to the difference in enthalpy (heat content)
between products and reactants.
b. The symbol for enthalpy is H.
c. We measure changes in enthalpy using a calorimeter and a reaction run at constant
pressure:
a. ΔH = Hproducts – Hreactant
d. The sign of the enthalpy change is the same as for heat flow:
a. ΔH > 0 for endothermic reactions
b. ΔH < 0 for exothermic reactions
e. Remember: Enthalpy is a state variable.
Figure 2.15: Enthalpy of Reaction

Properties of Enthalpy:
1. Enthalpy is a state function.

2. Enthalpy is an extensive property.
3. Enthalpy is reversible. The enthalpy change for a reaction is equal in magnitude, but
opposite in sign, to H for the reverse reaction.
4. H for a reaction depends on the state of the products and the state of the reactants.
28
IV. Thermochemical Equations:
A thermochemical equation is a chemical equation with the ΔH for the reaction included.
Conventions for Thermochemical Equations:

a. The sign of ΔH indicates whether the reaction is endothermic or exothermic
b. The coefficients of the thermochemical equation represent the number of moles of
reactant and product
c. The phases of all reactant and product species must be stated
d. The value of ΔH applies when products and reactants are at the same temperature,
usually 25 °C
e. The magnitude of ΔH is directly proportional to the amount of reactant or product
f. ΔH for the reaction is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign for ΔH for the reverse of
the reaction
g. The value of ΔH is the same whether the reaction occurs in one step or as a series of
steps. This rule is a direct consequence of the fact that ΔH is a state variable. This rule
is a statement of Hess’s Law.
Enthalpy of Phase Changes:
1. Phase changes involve enthalpy:

a. There is no change in temperature during a phase change
b. Endothermic: melting or vaporization
c. Exothermic: freezing or condensation
2. Pure substances have a value of ΔH that corresponds to melting (reverse, fusion) or
vaporization (reverse, condensation)
Figure 2.15: Enthalpy of Phase Changes

29
Practice Test.
Instructions:
5. Go to our myLPU course site.
6. Proceed on the section for this lesson.
7. Find the “pdf” document attached with a filename “Thermochemistry.Problem.Sets.”
8. Download the document and Test yourself.
Home Lab. Thermochemistry: Performance Task 2
Instructions:
1. A downloadable laboratory sheets will be uploaded to myLPU LEADS (in the section for
this lesson.)
2. All laboratory material to be used is available at home (if not available, inform the
teacher as soon as possible – for alternative recommendation)
3. This will be done by pair, with your laboratory buddy.
4. The highest possible score for this performance task is thirty (30).
30
Summary
• Chemical reactions involve changes in energy as well as matter.
• energy to produce electricity; to transport food, raw materials, manufactured goods, and
people; for industrial production; and to heat and power our homes and businesses.
• The state of a system is specified by enumerating the: Composition, Temperature, and

Pressure. State properties depend only on the state of the system, not on the path the
system took to reach the state.
• Mathematically for a state property X: ΔX is the change in X; ΔX = Xfinal – Xinitial
• Heat is given the symbol, q: q is positive when heat flows into the system from the
surroundings; q is negative when heat flows from the system into the surroundings.
• Calorimetry is a technique we can use to measure the amount of heat involved in a

chemical or physical process. It is also used to measure amounts of heat transferred to
or from a substance.
• The Calorimetry Equation: q = C x Δt - Δt = tfinal – tinitial, C (uppercase) is the heat

capacity of the system: it is the quantity of heat needed to raise the temperature of the
system by 1°C.
• The Calorimetry Equation: q = m x c x Δt, c (lowercase) is the specific heat: the quantity
of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by 1°C.
• The specific heat of a substance, like the density or melting point, is an intensive
property that can be used to identify a substance or determine its purity.
• Thermochemistry is a branch of chemical thermodynamics, the science that deals with

the relationships between heat, work, and other forms of energy in the context of
chemical and physical processes.
• Substances act as reservoirs of energy this means that energy can be added to them
or removed from them. Energy is stored in a substance when the kinetic energy of its
atoms or molecules is raised.
• The greater kinetic energy may be in the form of increased translations (travel or
straight-line motions), vibrations, or rotations of the atoms or molecules. When thermal
energy is lost, the intensities of these motions decrease and the kinetic energy falls.
31
• The relationship between internal energy, heat, and work can be represented by the
equation: ΔU = q + w.
• The heat flow at constant pressure is equal to the difference in enthalpy (heat content)
between products and reactants.
• The symbol for enthalpy is H. Remember: Enthalpy is a state variable.
• Enthalpy is a state function.
• Enthalpy is an extensive property.
• Enthalpy is reversible. The enthalpy change for a reaction is equal in magnitude, but
opposite in sign, to H for the reverse reaction.
• H for a reaction depends on the state of the products and the state of the reactants
• We measure changes in enthalpy using a calorimeter and a reaction run at constant

pressure: ΔH = Hproducts – Hreactant
• The sign of the enthalpy change is the same as for heat flow: ΔH > 0 for endothermic
reactions; ΔH < 0 for exothermic reactions.
• A thermochemical equation is a chemical equation with the ΔH for the reaction included.
Self-Assessment Question
For wired and non-wired mode instruction
Self-assessment questions are posted in myLPU LEADS course site as FORUM.
Everybody is encouraged to join the forum by sharing their thoughts and ideas on the
issues below.
i. Cite a Boon and Bane contribution of Thermochemistry to humanity. Explain as
to why it is Boon and or Bane. Your answer should not exceed to five
sentences.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
32
Reference:
Some text of this module in explaining Thermochemistry are directly excerpted from
these resources:
Neth, E. University of Connecticut. Brooks/Cole, Cencage Learning:

http://apple.niu.edu.tw/ezfiles/0/1000/img/48/wang_chemistry_ch08.pdf
https://web.ung.edu/media/chemistry/Chapter5/Chapter5-Thermochemistry.pdf
https://www.unf.edu/~michael.lufaso/chem2045/Chapter5.pdf

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1

LYCEUM OF THE PHILIPPINES UNIVERSITY CAVITE

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CHE02G: General Chemistry 2

Lesson 1: Physical Properties of Solution

a. determine and explain the heating and cooling curve of a substance.

For wired mode instruction.

Activity 2.1: i-Search, i-Present.

I. What constitutes a Solution?

Figure 2.1: Types and Examples of

The substances ability to form

b. the natural tendency of

What is the role intermolecular interactions to the solution’s process?

Figure 2.2: Dissolution of an ionic solid in water.

Solution Formation and Chemical Reactions

Figure 2.3: The nickel-acid reaction is not a simple dissolution.

II. Saturation and Solubility of Solutions

What is a saturated solution? Saturated solution contains a

And a supersaturated solution contains more solute than is

For example: Sodium acetate crystals rapidly form when a seed

Figure 2.4 Dynamic equilibrium in a saturated solution.

Figure 2.5: Sodium acetate readily forms a supersaturated solution in water.

III. Molecular view of the solution process

What are the different interactions in the solution process?

Figure 2.6: Molecular view of the solution process

SOLVENT TO SOLUTE INTERACTION

• non-polar molecules are soluble in non-polar solvents

IV. Concentration Units

The concentration of a solution can be expressed either qualitatively or quantitatively. The

a. Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb

Mass of component in soln.

close to 1 L. Thus, 1 ppm also corresponds to 1 mg of solute per liter of aqueous

V. Mole Fraction, Molarity, and Molality

VI. The effect of temperature on solubility

Fractional crystallization is the separation of a mixture of substances into pure components

Suppose you have 90 g

Figure 2.8: Gas Solubility

The effect of Pressure on

c is the concentration (M) of the dissolved gas

VII. Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions

vapor pressure of the pure solvent.

Online quiz thru myLPU LEADS: Written Work 2 (30 points)

2. The quiz has no time limit. But one attempt only.

• The substances ability to form solutions depends on two factors:

• Supersaturated solution contains more solute than is present in a saturated solution at a

• The three interactions of solution are: solvent-solvent interaction, solute-solute

• Non-polar molecules are soluble in non-polar solvents

• Polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents

• Ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents

At the end of this lesson the learners will be able to:

For wired mode instruction.

Activity 2.2: i-search, i-present. Thermochemistry edition.

I. Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Exothermic and Endothermic Processes.

Endothermic processes have positive q:

Exothermic processes have negative q:

Figure 2.9: Exothermic and Endothermic Processes

Magnitude of Heat Flow