1.

Scope

1.1 This test method covers the equipment, field procedures, and interpretation of thermograms for
determining the constructional quality of exterior wall finishes of a building by using infrared thermal-
imaging technique.

1.2 Infrared measurements as described in this practice are used for exterior wall finishes such as rendering,
tiles, and stones, etc.

1.3 This test method does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is
the responsibility of the user of this method to establish appropriate safety and health practices and
determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

1.4 This test method does not apply to the determination of the degree of thermal insulation, air tightness of a
building, and measurement of the absolute temperature of an object.

2. Definitions

2.1 Infrared thermography –

Acquisition and analysis of thermal information from non-contact thermal imaging devices [1].

2.2 Thermogram –
A record of a thermal image of a target surface where the grey tones or color hues represent the
distribution of infrared thermal radiant energy over the surface of the target [1].

2.3 Infrared thermal detector –

Transducer element that converts incoming infrared radiant energy impinging on its sensitive surface to a
useful electrical signal.

2.4 Infrared (IR) camera –

An infrared radiation sensing device that collects the infrared radiant energy from a target surface and
produces a thermal image based on the target surface apparent temperature distribution.

2.5 Delamination –
Laminar discontinuity generally an area of un-bonded layers of materials within an external wall.

2.6 Debond –
The little air space created on the underside of the finishing mortar or tile of an external wall.

2.7 Emissivity –
Variable ratio of the total energy radiated by a given surface at a given temperature to the total energy
radiated by a blackbody at the same temperature. Smooth materials have lower emissivity than rough or
corroded materials. Emissivity values range between 0 for a perfect reflector to 1.0 for a blackbody.

2.8 Blackbody –
Hypothetical radiation source that yields the maximum radiation energy theoretically possible at a given
temperature. A blackbody will absorb all incident radiation falling on it. By definition it has an emissivity
value of 1.0.

2.9 Field of view (FOV) –

The shape and angular dimensions of the cone or the pyramid that defines the object space imaged by the
system (refer to the specification of the IR camera used).

2.10 Radian –
Angle equal to 180/ degrees or 57.29578 angular degrees

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3. Principle
3.1 The infrared ray is an electromagnetic wave having wavelengths ranging from 0.7 to 1000 μm. This
infrared band is usually further subdivided into four smaller bands including the ‘near infrared’ (0.7 – 3 μm),
the ‘middle infrared’ (3 – 6 μm), the ‘far infrared’ (6 – 15 μm) and the ‘extreme infrared’ (15 – 1000 μm).

3.2 Infrared (IR) thermography is based on measuring the distribution of infrared radiation (heat) emitted from
a target surface. The infrared radiation is a function of object surface temperature and emissivity. Table 1
shows the emissivity values of the materials that are commonly found in this application.

3.3 An ideal object whose emissivity is 1.0 is called a ‘black body’. Planck’s law describes the spectral
distribution of the radiation from a blackbody by means of the following equation [2]:

2hc 2
L' ,b  [W / m3]
 
(1)
5 e hc /   T  1
where
L' ,b is the blackbody spectral radiant emittance at wavelength λ;
c is the velocity of light (3x108 m/s);
h is Planck’s constant (6.6x10-34 J S);
κ is the Boltzmann’s constant (1.4x10-23 J / K);
T is the absolute temperature (in K) of a blackbody;
λ is the wavelength (in m).

3.4 The magnitude of the emitted radiation varies with wavelength. Wien’s displacement law states that when
temperature increases, the wavelength of the maximum radiation intensity decreases [3] as shown in
Figure 1. This is valid for a blackbody.

3.5 IR camera enables the emitted radiation (from an object) to be measured and displayed in the form of a
visual heat image (also called ‘thermogram’).

3.6 If the surface finishing material is without any defects, the heat wave (e.g. generated by sun radiation on
target surface) passes through uniformly into the external wall resulting in a uniform thermal image.

3.7 In case of subsurface defects (e.g. debond), the defected areas will exhibit higher temperature than that of
the area without any defects under the heating from the sun and creating hot or warm spots in the
thermograms. These may represent potential near surface defects. A diagnosis of IR inspection for
external wall finishes is shown schematically in Figure 2.

4. Measuring Apparatus
4.1 Infrared camera – An infrared imaging device shall have a thermal resolution of not less than 0.1 ºC under
ambient air conditions and the imaging system shall operate within a spectral range from 2 µm to 14 µm.
The Imager shall have a spatial resolution of 1.3 mrad. The imaging device shall be able to record the
thermal images.

4.2 Zoom lens – used with the IR camera mentioned in Clause 4.1 to provide continuous variation of the
magnification of the image.

4.3 Digital camera – used for taking photographs of the actual inspection area.

4.4 Distance measuring device with an accuracy of ±100 mm.

4.5 Temperature measuring device (such as pyrometer, liquid-in-glass thermometer or thermocouple) with an
accuracy of ±0.5 ºC.

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 4.6 Wind speed measuring device (such as hot wire anemometer) with an accuracy of ±1.2 m/s.

4.7 Relative humidity measuring device with an accuracy of ±2 %.

5. Personnel Qualifications

Personnel performing infrared thermography shall have adequate training, qualification & experience. The
training courses shall be recognized and approved by the Hong Kong Concrete Institute (HKCI).

6. Testing Procedures

6.1 General test requirements

6.1.1 Drawings and other documents relating to the building envelope to be examined shall be
consulted if applicable.

6.1.2 For ease of interpretation, the thermographic examination shall be carried out with constant
temperature across the building envelope.

6.1.3 Infrared thermography work is suitable under fine weather (according to Hong Kong Observatory,
fine weather is defined as the sky covered by a total cloud amount of less than six eighths), low
wind speed (not higher than 6.5 m/s) and fine weather condition for 2 to 3 days anterior to the
survey.

6.1.4 Relevant factors shall be recorded prior to the survey. These factors include weather conditions,
survey time, ambient temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, material type of finishes, color of
finishes, influence of trees shadow, distance between the building and IR camera, and other
possible factors.

6.1.5 External effects, for example heat sources installed in the building, should be properly recorded or
even removed before the test.

6.1.6 Thermography shall not be performed on rainy and cloudy days or at low wind speed.

6.2 On-site verification of the IR camera for surface temperature measurements

6.2.1 Measure the surface temperature of a minimum of 3 selected points at the surface to be inspected
at the ground level by a calibrated temperature measuring device;

6.2.2 Take thermograms for the same part of the surface mentioned in clause 6.2.1;

6.2.3 Compare the surface temperature readings recorded by clauses 6.2.1 and 6.2.2. If the
temperature difference is less than and equal to 1 ºC, the test can be carried out. If the
temperature difference is greater than to 1 ºC, the test shall not be conducted.

6.2.4 Adjust and recalibrate the IR camera and repeat Clause 6.2.3.

6.3 On-site test procedures

6.3.1 Select suitable inspection locations outside the building such that there is no or minimum
obstruction between the IR camera and the external wall to be examined.

6.3.2 The IR camera shall be set and adjusted according to the directions for its use. For example, the
temperature range shall be set to cover the surface temperature being studied.

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 6.3.3 If applicable, parameters such as emissivity (refer to Table 1), distance, ambient temperature shall
be properly set in the IR camera before carrying out the test.

6.3.4 Set up and adjust the IR thermal detector to an optimal focus distance and view angle in
accordance with the manufacturer specification. Generally, the angle of incidence shall be less
than 40 deg. Re-allocation of the IR camera shall be made, if required.

6.3.5 Start the inspection by performing a preliminary inspection over the wall surface.

6.3.6 Parts of the surface of special interest (e.g. anomalies) shall be inspected in detail using a zoom
lens (specified alongside the thermograms in the report). The ratio of one suspected debond area
to the entire thermogram shall be at least in about one-ninth.

6.3.7 Take thermograms for the selected part of wall surface.

6.3.8 Each IR thermogram shall include not more than four to five storeys of a building. If required, a
zoom lens shall be used or re-allocation of the IR camera shall be made so that the necessary
view image is captured.

6.3.9 In order to determine whether the temperature variation detected is from the defect or due to the
reflection from another surface, it is necessary to study the surface from different positions
because, in general, reflections will change with position.

6.3.10 If necessary, take IR thermograms from a position in adjacent buildings or at a higher location for
taking the image for the upper portion of the building to be inspected.

6.3.11 Take ordinary photographs of the same locations where thermograms have been taken.

6.3.12 Mark the position of the suspected defects on the plan / sketch of the exterior wall examined.

7. Interpretation of Thermograms

7.1 Any ‘abnormal’ temperature distribution shall be noted.

7.2 Qualitative evaluation – To evaluate the thermographs, drawings, other construction documents relating to
the walls and the relevant photographs can be employed. In addition, the following factors should be
considered:

7.2.1 the weather conditions, ambient temperature;

7.2.2 wetting of wall surface or moisture content within the wall;
7.2.3 orientation of building to the path of sunshine during the inspection;
7.2.4 existence of any heat generating plants machines behind the wall;
7.2.5 emissivity of wall surface;
7.2.6 reflectance of wall surface;
7.2.7 roughness or unevenness of wall surface;
7.2.8 stains on wall surface;
7.2.9 colour of wall surface;
7.2.10 angle of view and survey distance;
7.2.11 construction of wall finishing;
7.2.12 building in shade of eaves or adjacent buildings; and
7.2.13 screening objects (e.g. trees and signs).

7.3 Quantitative evaluation (Optional)

7.3.1 The boundary (horizontal and vertical dimension) and size of the possible defect can be estimated
by referring to the mid-level of the peak of the temperature variation. A schematic diagram, in
Figure 3, shows the idea of this method [4].

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 7.3.2 A reference scale (length per unit pixel) of the captured thermogram should be calculated.

7.3.3 If applicable (subject to the model of the IR camera used), the horizontal/vertical temperature line
profile of the possible defect shall be displayed. If not, other analysis software can be used. An
example is shown in Figure 4.

7.3.4 The size of the identified defect is determined by the product of the number of the pixels involved
in the defect boundary and the length per unit pixel (as determined in Clause 7.3.2). Figure 4
illustrates the steps of this quantitative evaluation for defect size estimation.

8. Calibration

Calibration of the equipment shall be performed by a recognized calibration authority.

9. Limitations

9.1 Accurate temperature measurements are hindered by differing emissivities and reflections from other
sources.

9.2 Only surface temperatures of external wall finishes are detected.

9.3 External wall finishes, which are not exposed to direct sunlight or obstructed by solid objects (such as
service ducts, facilities, or others), could not be accurately measured by infrared thermal-imaging
technique.

10. Reporting

10.1 General – The test report shall contain the following information when available or applicable:
 Project name and test locations
 Client’s information
 Name of operator and approving personnel
 Date and time of inspection
 Information of IR equipment used
 Description of the test surface

10.2 Details – The test report shall contain the following details:
 Weather condition including precipitation, ambient temperature and wind speed during the IR
inspection
 Scope of IR inspection
 Identification of the walls surveyed
 Sketches or elevations showing the IR inspection results
 Limitations and any supplementary information of the inspection
 Appendix including relevant thermograms (the appropriate temperature bar should be included in
thermograms), photographs, reference documents, etc.
 The possible defects, if present, are usually marked on the thermograms. Other than the defects, it is
also suggested to write down some descriptive terms for the noise identified on the thermograms. A
list of the suggested descriptive terms for the source of noise is shown in Table 2.

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 Table 1 Emissivity values of different materials

Material Emissivity

Asbestos 0.94

Asphalt 0.93

Black Epoxy Paint 0.89

Black Enamel Paint 0.80

Brick (red rough) 0.9

Brick (fireclay) 0.75

Concrete 0.85

Granite 0.45

Marble White 0.95

Paint 0.96

Plaster 0.92 – 0.98

Tile 0.97

Source from: The website of The Engineering Toolbox http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/

Table 2 Suggested descriptive terms for the source of noise

Heat source

Building feature

Difference in color/emissivity

Reflections from nearby structure

Stains on the inspected surface

Uneven wall surfaces

Sign of water seepages

Building in shade of eaves or adjacent buildings

Screening objects (e.g. tree and signs)

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 Planck's law

8
10 7000 K
5800 K
6
10 2000K

4 1000 K
10
spectral radiance
800 K
2
10

300 K
0
10
150 K

-2
10 50 K

-4
10
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
wavelength

Figure 1 Spectral radiance of a blackbody based on Planck’s law

Request for Inspection

Site visit and information gathering

Inspection proposal

Confirm IR inspection and site preparation

Take and record IR thermal images

Process infrared image and prepare debond

distribution sketches

Inspection report

Figure 2 General workflow showing a diagnosis of IR inspection for external wall finishes

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 (a) Estimated defect size

(b)

Temperature
Maximum temperature

Mid-point

Minimum temperature

Figure 3 Schematic diagram showing the quantitative evaluation of thermogram (a) identification of the
possible defect on the thermogram; and (b) the temperature variation obtained from the black horizontal line
in (a)
Step 1. Conversion of the
captured thermograms
to intensity profiles

 For 8-bit thermal images,

the colors are represented
by 28 (or 256) gray levels.

Step 3. Determination of
length per unit pixel

 Actual length of the

reference line = 50mm
Step 2. Determination of the  No. of pixel involved in the
boundary (horizontal reference line = 120 pixels
dimension) of the  Length per unit pixel =
possible defect 0.42 mm/pixel

 Locate two points (on the

x-axis) that are Step 4. Estimation of the size
intercepting the mid-level of the possible defect
of the peak value.
 The boundary of the  Calculated by the product
possible defect is defined of the length per unit pixel
as the difference (in (in step 2) and the number
pixels) between the two x of pixels involved in the
values as determined defect boundary (in step 3)
previously.

Figure 4 Illustration of the steps of the proposed quantitative evaluation for defect size estimation [4]