The microwave absorption performance of hydrophobic candle soots

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Brittney Zimmerle,1 Mishal Wu,1 Jessica Liu,2 Xiaobo Chen1,*

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1
Division of Energy, Matter, and Systems, School of Science and Engineering, University of

Missouri – Kansas City, Kansas City, MO, 64110, USA.

2
Piedmont High School, Piedmont, CA, 94611, USA.

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ABSTRACT

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Carbon-based materials have been widely studied for microwave absorption. Candle soot has

displayed wonderful superhydrophobic characteristics and attracted much attention. In this study,

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we have investigated the microwave absorption and physical properties of candle soot and candle

soot heated at 200, 300, and 400oC for 1 h. Superhydrophobic characteristics with a water contact
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angle larger than 150o is observed for candle soot heated below 400oC, and superhydrophobic

characteristics are observed with a water contact angle less than 10o when heated at 400oC. While
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the heating changes the disordered/crystalline phase ratio and the content of unpaired electrons in

candle soot, as indicated by Raman and ESR spectra, and changes its microwave
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permittivity/permeability and reflection loss values, even though it does not apparently change the

UV-vis reflection properties of candle soot. A maximal reflection loss of -68.40 dB near 10.32
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GHz is observed with 2.722 mm candle soot heated at 300oC. Some correlations are observed

between the microwave absorption and the imaginary part of the permittivity, the tangent of the
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permittivity or permeability, and the conductivity for candle soot and candle soot heated at 200

and 400oC, however, such correlations are not straightforward for candle soot heated at 300oC.

Unpaired electrons seem to be related to such correlations, other than surface superhydrophobicity
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or superhydrophilicity, or the ratios of the disorder/crystalline phase in the candle soot.

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 1. Introduction

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Microwave absorption was developed after World War II and the use of radar.1 Microwave

absorption has many applications, including wireless communication and anti-radar detection.2

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The technique helps identify materials which can be used to lower radar signatures on military

vehicles such as ships, tanks, and aircrafts.2 For a microwave absorbing material to be effective,

there are some requirements. Requirements include reflecting electromagnetic (EM) signals over

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a broad absorbing bandwidth, showing strong absorption, being a lightweight material, and

requiring a small thickness to get large and broad signals.3

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Many microwave absorbing materials have been studied including polymers4, carbon

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materials like carbon nanotubes (CNT)5, graphene6, graphite7, and carbon fibers8, and many metal

oxides like Fe2O39, Fe3O410, ZnO11, MnO212, BaTiO313, BaFe12O1913, and SrFe12O1914. Carbides
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like SiCN15 and SiC16 have also been studied. Some materials, like metal oxides and carbon have

been combined to give prominent absorption peaks17-19. Disadvantages of these materials includes

their high cost and difficulty to make.

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There are multiple possible mechanisms for microwave absorption. Traditional

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mechanisms believe signal is produced from magnetic domain resonance and dipole rotations that

cause magnetic and dielectric losses inside the materials.2 Some materials shown to following this

mechanism include Ni-coated CNT/epoxy composites20, polymers like polypyrrole, poly(3-

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octylthiophene), and aniline4, and Fe2O3 nanoparticles in aniline9. Another possible mechanism is

the presence of disordered structures like oxygen vacancies, core/shell structures, and low
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crystallinity21-24. ZnO21, TiO221-23, and BaTiO324 all produce microwave absorption signals that are

sensitive to the structure of the nanoparticles.

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 Candle soot has been used to develop superhydrophobic coatings. Candle soot self-

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assembly films showed a contact angle of 142° after depositing four layers.25 Soot has also been

combined with nano-TiO2 with a contact angle of 120°.26 Candle soot-coated mesh has been

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formed which is hydrophobic with a contact angle of 147° and effectively separates oil from

water.27 Deng et al. demonstrated the superhydrophobicity of candle soot after collecting it by

holding a glass slide over the flame of a candle, recording contact angles above 160°.28 The study

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inspired our use of candle soot as a microwave absorbing material. Candle soot can be defined as

the solid product resulting from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons in a controlled

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atmosphere.29 The incomplete combustion of the wax vapor creates particles around 20-55 nm in

diameter.30
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In this study, we wanted to find a common and inexpensive carbon-based material that
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showed strong microwave absorption and broad peaks at low thicknesses. We found that candle

soot fit these criteria, demonstrating a maximum reflection loss of -31.5 dB with over 99.9%

absorption efficiency, corresponding to a thickness of 2.5 mm. Microwave absorbance is analyzed

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through reflection loss peak frequency (fpeak), reflection loss peak value (RLpeak), bandwidth at

critical reflection loss (∆f10), and thickness of absorber (d). The critical value is defined as the RL
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value of -10 dB, indicating that 90% of the incident microwave electromagnetic field is

unreflected.31 The critical value is the effective microwave shielding range.31 We report that candle
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soot shows high microwave absorption performance that is improved after treating candle soot at

high temperatures.
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2. Experimental procedure
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2.1 Materials

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 White candle was purchased from Target Inc, glass and stainless steel slides were

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purchased from FisherScientific Inc, and paraffin wax was purchased from Acros Organics™.

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2.2 Sample preparation

Candle soot was collected from holding a glass or stainless steel slide over the flame of an

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unscented pillar candle. The soot was then scraped from the glass and collected into a glass vial.

The soot powder collected in the glass vial and the soot deposited on the glass slides were burned

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at 200, 300, and 400℃ for 1 hour in a muffle furnace. The soot powder was used to prepare the

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microwave absorption sample and for the ultra-violet visible (UV-vis) reflectance, electron spin

resonance (ESR), infrared and Raman measurements. The soot deposited on the glass slides was
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used to measure the surface hydrophobicity/hydrophilicty. Figure 1 depicts the soot collection and

treatment process.
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Figure 1. Schematic of candle soot collection and preparation. (A, B) Glass is held over candle
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and candle soot is deposited on the glass. (C) Soot is scraped into a bottle. (D) Glass is placed over

a full bottle of candle soot and heated in a furnace. (E) Soot is pressed into a pellet using paraffin.
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 2.3 Characterization

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Water contact angles were taken using the static sessile drop method and a KSV Attension

Theta optical tensiometer on candle soot coated on glass slides and treated at various temperatures.

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The UV-visible reflectance spectra were collected with an Agilent Cary 60 UV-Vis spectrometer

with an optical reflectance fiber unit coupled with a reflectance sample holder unit. MgO powder

was used as the reference material. The reference or the soot was filled in the sample compartment

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and flatted with a wide spatula to get a flat surface. The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra

were collected using a Thermo-Nicolet iS10 FT-IR spectrometer with an attenuated total

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reflectance (ATR) unit. The electron spin resonance spectra were collected on an Active Micro-

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ESRTM Spectrum benchtop ESR instrument. The ESR data were calibrated in relation to g = 2.0066

of 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-4-hydroxylpiperidine-1-oxyl. The Raman spectra were measured with an

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EZRaman-N benchtop Raman spectrometer with the excitation wavelength of 535 nm. The

spectrum range was from 100 to 3100 cm-1. The carbon soot was put on the stainless steel slides

for the Raman measurements. The fluorescence spectra were collected on an Agilent Cary Eclipse
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fluorescence spectrometer.
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2.4 Microwave property measurements

Ring-shaped pellets were made from dispersing candle soot in paraffin wax. The ring-
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shaped pellet had an inner diameter of 3.0 mm, and outer diameter of 7.0 mm, and thicknesses (d)

varying from roughly 2.0-4.0 mm. Pellets were polished with sandpaper before taking microwave
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absorption measurements. Pellets were made with 30 wt% of candle soot and candle soot treated

at different temperatures. Microwave absorption measurements were made using a HP8722ES

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 Keysight network analyzer with a frequency range of 1.0-18.0 GHz. All measurements were

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performed at room temperature.

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3. Results and discussion

3.1 Hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity properties

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G 180
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Superhydrophobic
Water contact angle (o)

150

120 Hydrophobic
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90

60
Hydrophilic
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30

Superhydrophilic
0
Bare Soot 200oC 300oC 400oC
glass on glass
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Figure 2. Digital picture of (A) the candle soot deposited on the bottom portion of a glass slide,

(B) a water droplet on the uncoated portion of the glass side along with the corresponding water
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contact angle (62o), (C) a water droplet on the candle soot coated portion of the glass side along

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 with the water contact angle (WCA = 170o) and after heating for 1h at (D) 200oC (WCA = 164o),

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(E) 300oC (WCA = 158o), and (F) 400oC (WCA = 9o).

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Static water contact angles (WCAs) were taken on the bare glass slide and candle soots

deposited on the glass slides and treated at 200, 300, and 400 oC for 1 h afterward in a muffle

furnace. The results were shown in Figure 2. Half of the glass slide was coated with the candle

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soot, as shown in Figure 2A, showing a plain black surface. The commonly used glass slide is

made of sodium silicate, which is hydrophilic and displays a WCA of 62° as shown in Figure 2B.

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The candle soot deposited on the glass slide has a WCA of around 170° as displayed in Figure 2C,

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showing superhydrophobic surface characteristics. Superhydrophobic surface is commonly

defined as a surface with a WCA larger than 150o. Candle soot is formed due to the incomplete
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combustion of paraffin wax to produce amorphous carbon dots with evaporated wax molecules on

the surface. Candle is commonly made of paraffin wax, or petroleum wax, a soft colorless solid

derived from petroleum, coal, or oil shale that consists of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules
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containing between 20 and 40 carbon atoms with a general chemical formula of CnH2n+2 (n is a

positive integer). As carbon-hydrogen bond is non-polar, so wax is hydrophobic. Porous and rough
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structures are commonly made by the continuous aggregation of the carbon dots to possess the

superhydrophobic surface. Such superhydrophobic surface have been observed and reported by
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many previous studies with a WCA generally larger than 150o. For example, Xiao et al. reported

that the candle soot had a coral-like structure and exhibited a WCA of 161°,32 and Qahtan et al
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reported an irregular nanoparticle network with micron-to-nanoscale surface roughness with a

WCA of 163o.33
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 After heated at 200℃ for 1h, the candle soot deposited on the glass slide showed a

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decreased WCA of 164° as shown in Figure 2D, a further decrease of WCA to 158° after heated

at 300℃ for 1 h (Figure 2E), and a dramatic decrease of WCA to 9o after heated at 400℃ for 1 h

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(Figure 2F). Therefore, heating in air apparently decreased the superhydrophobicity of candle soot.

If the heating temperature is kept below 400oC, the superhydrophobicity of candle soot can be

maintained if the heating time is limited. However, such superhydrophobicity can be turned into

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superhydrophilicity if candle soot is heated above 400oC for an adequate period of time. The

superhydrophobicity of the candle soot is resulted from the porous, rough, nano-micro structure of

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the carbon dot aggregation and the paraffin wax molecules adsorbed on the surface. As the paraffin

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wax molecules normally have a boiling point near 370 °C, heating under such temperature will

only slowly remove a small portion of the non-polar wax molecules on the surface, therefore,
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keeping the superhydrophobicity. Heating above such boiling point for extended periods of time

can apparently remove large amount or all the adsorbed non-polar wax molecules on the surface,

leaving the carbon dots surface readily for water vapor adsorption, and turning the surface into
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superhydrophilic, as observed in this study.

The overall change of the surface hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity characterized with the

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WCA is summarized in Figure 2G for the candle soot deposited on the glass slides. The originally

deposited candle soot was superhydrophobic with a WCA of 170o, heating the soot below the
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boiling temperature of the candle wax would not dramatically change its superhydrophobicity if

the heating time is limited, while heating the soot above the boiling temperature of the candle wax
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for extended periods can turn the candle soot from superhydrophobic to superhydrophilic.
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 A B

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100
candle soot
carbon soot on zinc slide
candle soot 200 oC
80 bare zinc slide
candle soot 300 oC
Reflectance (%)

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Intensity (a.u.)
Reflectance (%) candle soot 400 oC
8
60 MgO

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4

0
40
-4

20 200 400 600 800

Wavelength (nm)

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200 400 600 800 1000 400 500 600 700 800
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)

C D

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carbon soot 20
carbon soot 200oC
10
carbon soot 300oC

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Intensity (a.u.)
Intensity (a.u.)

carbon soot 400oC 0

soot 200oC 300oC 400oC
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candle soot
candle soot 200oC
candle soot 300oC
candle soot 400oC

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 1.90 1.95 2.00 2.05
-1 g-factor
Wavenumber (cm )
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Figure 3. (A) UV-vis diffusive reflectance spectra of candle soot and candle soot powders heated
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at 200, 300 and 400℃ for 1 h, in comparison of MgO reference. (B) Fluorescence spectra of candle

soot on Zn slide and bare Zn slide with excitation wavelength of 350 nm. (C) Raman spectra and
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(D) ESR spectra of candle soot and candle soot heated at 200, 300 and 400℃ for 1 h. The ESR

spectra intensity is normalized with the mass of the candle soot. The inset shows the relative ESR
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intensity change between the samples.

Figure 3A showed the UV-vis diffusive reflectance spectra of candle soot and candle soot

powders heated at 200, 300 and 400℃ for 1 h, in comparison of MgO reference. All the candle
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soots showed similar optical properties, with about 2% reflectance across the UV-visible region.

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 Apparently, the heating did not change the optical properties of candle soot. Figure 3B showed the

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fluorescence spectra were similar for candle soot deposited on zinc slide and bare zinc slide. This

indicated that the candle soot did not have much fluorescence, not emitting light. Overall, the

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candle soot absorbs much of the light without emission, consistent with its black color, shown in

Figure 2A.

Figure 3C displayed similar Raman spectra for candle soot and candle soot heat at 200,

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300, and 400℃. All the candle soot showed peaks at 124, 430, 1354, 1592 and 2326 cm-1 along

with a featureless broad fluorescence background. The 2326 cm-1 peak is likely due to the O2

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molecules adsorbed within the candle soot.34 The peaks around 1350 cm-1 correspond to the D

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band from amorphous carbon while the bands around 1600 cm-1 correspond to the G band from

the E2g mode of graphite due to the vibration of sp2-bonded carbon atoms in a 2D hexagonal lattice.
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The D-band corresponds to disorder in the structure while the G-band corresponds to planar

configurations in the crystalline graphite phase. Therefore, the ratio of the D/G bands tells the level

of disorder of the structure in the candle soot. The D/G ratio was 0.943, 0.843, 0.918, and 0.919
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for candle soot and candle soot heated at 200, 300, and 400℃, respectively. Apparently, all the

candle soots had comparable amounts of the amorphous and crystalline carbon, with slightly
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higher contents of the crystalline carbon; and heating at 200oC largely reduced the amount of the

amorphous carbon, while heating at 300 and 400oC only slightly reduced the amount of the
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amorphous carbon. In combination with the superhydrophobicity/hydrophilicity results, it was

likely that the paraffin wax molecules are more likely associated with the amorphous carbon in the
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candle soot.

Figure 3D showed the ESR spectra for candle soot and candle soot heat at 200, 300, and
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400℃. All the candle soots showed ESR signals near g = 1.991. The g factor reflects the interaction

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 between the spin motion and orbital motion of electrons in the paramagnetic center. It is

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determined by the chemical environments of unpaired electrons and is used to characterize interior

molecular structures. For example, the typical g factors of free electrons (2.0023), are typical of

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persistent carbon-centered aromatic radicals.35 The mass-normalized ESR intensity was 24.2 for

pristine candle soot, increased to 29.2 after heating at 200 ℃ for 1h, then decreased to around zero

after heating at 300 ℃ for 1h, and finally recovered to 12.56 after heating at 400 ℃ for 1h .The

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mass-normalized ESR intensity increased in the order: candle soot heat at 300 (nearly no signal)

< candle soot heat at 400℃ (intensity of 12.56), < candle soot (intensity of 24.2) < candle soot

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heat at 200 ℃ (intensity of 29.2).

A 12
candle soot
6

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o
candle soot 200 C
6
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9
e'
9
4 4
Permittivity
Permittivity

e'
6 tgde 6

2 2
tgde
3 3
e" e"
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4 8 12 16 4 8 12 16
Frequency / GHz Frequency / GHz
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C 12
6
D 12
6
candle soot 300 C o
candle soot 400oC
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e'
9 e' 9
4
Permittivity

4
Permittivity

6 6

e"
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e" 2 2
3 3

tgde
tgde
4 8 12 16 4 8 12 16
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Frequency / GHz Frequency / GHz

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 Figure 4. The complex permittivity (e’, e”, tgde) of (A) candle soot, (B) candle soot heated at

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200 oC, (C) candle soot heated at 300oC, and (D) candle soot heated at 400oC.

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Figure 4 showed the complex permittivity of the candle soot and candle soot heated at 200,

300, and 400oC for 1 h. Figure 4A showed the real part of the complex permittivity (e’) of the

candle soot was around 6.00 at 1.00 GHz, then slightly decreased and showed a tiny peak around

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4.73 GHz with a value of 5.73, and was nearly constant until another peak near 6.53 GHz with a

value 5.87, then gradually climbed up with a third peak of 6.47 around 8.75 GHz, a forth peak of

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7.58 around 10.34 GHz, and a fifth peak of 12.01 near 12.42 GHz, then decreased quickly and then

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climbed up with a peak of a 3.31 around 17.70 GHz. Meanwhile, the imaginary part of the complex

permittivity (e’’) of the candle soot was around 0.88 at 1.00 GHz, and slightly decreased until the
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tiny peak around 5.07 GHz with a value of 0.62, another peak near 7.55 GHz with a value 0.64,

then gradually climbed up with a third peak of 0.88 around 9.04 GHz, a forth peak of 1.44 around

10.85 GHz, and a fifth peak of 4.54 near 13.03 GHz, then decreased quickly with a should peak of
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3.31 near 15.02 GHz and then climbed up with a peak of a 0.73 around 17.55 GHz. The loss tangent
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of the permittivity (tgde) showed a similar trend as the imaginary part, with an overall shift of the

peaks to the higher frequencies: around 0.14 at 1.00 GHz, and slightly decreased until the tiny peak

around 5.11 GHz with a value of 0.11, the another peak near 7.43 GHz with a value 0.11, then
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gradually climbed up with a third peak of 0.13 around 9.11 GHz, a forth peak of 0.19 around 10.90

GHz, and a fifth peak of 4.57 near 14.80 GHz, then decreased quickly and then climbed up with a
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peak of a 0.19 around 17.56 GHz.

Figure 4B showed the complex permittivity of the candle soot heated at 200 oC for 1 h. The
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real part (e’) was around 7.22 at 1.00 GHz, then slightly decreased and showed six peaks around

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 4.30 GHz (6.69), 6.51 GHz (6.80), 9.44 GHz (7.24), 12.09 GHz (9.56), 14.15 GHz (9.67), and

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15.57 GHz (4.82). Meanwhile, the imaginary part (e’’) was around 0.51 at 1.00 GHz, and slightly

decreased until the tiny peak around 4.75 GHz with a value of 0.37, another peak near 7.56 GHz

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with a value 0.42, then gradually climbed up with a third peak of 0.63 around 10.48 GHz, a forth

peak of 1.04 around 12.40 GHz, and a fifth peak of 2.72 near 14.80 GHz, and a sixth peak of a

3.15 around 15.99 GHz. The loss tangent (tgde) showed a similar trend as the imaginary part, with

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an overall shift of the peaks to the higher frequencies: around 0.14 at 1.00 GHz, and six peaks

around 4.79 GHz (0.11), 7.55 GHz (0.12), 10.54 GHz (0.20), 12.50 GHz (0.24), 15.00 GHz (1.06),

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and 16.40 GHz (2.25).

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Figure 4C showed the complex permittivity of the candle soot heated at 300 oC for 1 h. The

real part (e’) was around 12.76 at 1.00 GHz, then decreased and showed five peaks around 5.94
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GHz (9.12), 8.99 GHz (9.26), 11.35 GHz (8.31), 12.96 GHz (6.88), and 17.19 GHz (4.82).

Meanwhile, the imaginary part (e’’) was around 3.65 at 1.00 GHz, and decreased until the tiny

peak around 4.74 GHz with a value of 1.87, another peak near 7.47 GHz with a value 1.77, then
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gradually climbed up with a third peak of 2.10 around 10.06 GHz, a forth peak of 4.07 around
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11.86 GHz, and a fifth peak of 2.65 near 13.52 GHz, and a sixth peak of 1.37 around 15.80 GHz.

The loss tangent (tgde) showed a similar trend as the imaginary part, with an overall shift of the
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peaks to the higher frequencies: 0.61 at 1.00 GHz, and six peaks around 4.92 GHz (0.43), 7.69

GHz (0.46), 10.34 GHz (0.62), 12.04 GHz (1.29), 14.11 GHz (1.25), and 15.94 GHz (0.74).

Figure 4D showed the complex permittivity of the candle soot heated at 400 oC for 1 h.
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The real part (e’) was around 9.45 at 1.00 GHz, then slightly decreased and showed six peaks

around 3.10 GHz (7.98), 6.08 GHz (7.60), 9.06 GHz (7.82), 12.02 GHz (9.72), 13.98 GHz (8.92),
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and 15.54 GHz (6.07). Meanwhile, the imaginary part (e’’) was around 1.63 at 1.00 GHz, and

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 slightly decreased until the tiny peak around 4.78 GHz with a value of 0.91, another peak near 7.68

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GHz with a value 0.89, then gradually climbed up with a third peak of 1.06 around 10.69 GHz, a

forth peak of 1.27around 12.23 GHz, and a fifth peak of 2.88 near 14.69 GHz, and a sixth peak of

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a 3.49 around 15.92 GHz. The loss tangent (tgde) showed a similar trend as the imaginary part,

with an overall shift of the peaks to the higher frequencies: around 0.37 at 1.00 GHz, and six peaks

around 4.90 GHz (0.25), 7.64 GHz (0.25), 10.60 GHz (0.32), 12.34 GHz (0.28), 14.90 GHz (1.03),

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and 16.38 GHz (1.73).

Overall, the real part of the complex permittivity (e’) of the candle soot and candle soot

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heated at 200oC were much smaller and decreased with a much smaller slope than those of the

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candle soots heated at 400 and 300 oC, along with 2-4 apparent peaks. The imaginary part of the

complex permittivity (e’’) and the loss tangent (tgde) of the candle soot and candle soot heated at
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200oC were much smaller than those of the candle soots heated at 400 and 300 oC, along with 1-2

dominating peaks. The positions and the values of the peaks of the complex permittivity of the

candle soot and candle soot heated at 200, 300, and 400oC for 1 h are listed in Table 1.
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Table 1. The positions and the values of the peaks of the complex permittivity of the candle soot

and candle soot heated at 200, 300, and 400oC for 1 h.

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Peak (position/GHz - value)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4.73GHz 6.53GHz 8.75GHz 10.34GHz 12.42GHz 17.70GHz
soot
(5.73) (5.87) (6.47) (7.58) (12.01) (3.31)
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4.30GHz 6.51GHz 9.44GHz 12.09GHz 14.15GHz 15.57GHz

200oC
(6.69) (6.80) (7.24) (9.56) (9.67) (4.82)
e’
5.94GHz 8.99GHz 11.35GHz 12.96GHz 17.19GHz
300oC
(9.12) (9.26) (8.31) (6.88) (4.82)
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3.10GHz 6.08GHz 9.06GHz 12.02GHz 13.98GHz 15.54GHz

400oC
(7.98) (7.60) (7.82) (9.72) (8.92) (6.07)
soot 5.07GHz 7.55GHz 9.04GHz 10.85GHz 13.03GHz 15.02GHz 17.55GHz

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 (0.62) (0.64) (0.88) (1.44) (4.54) (3.31) (0.73)

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4.75GHz 7.56GHz 10.48GHz 12.40GHz 14.80GHz 15.95GHz
200oC
(0.37) (0.42) (0.63) (1.04) (2.72) (3.15)
e” 4.74GHz 7.47GHz 10.06GHz 11.86GHz 13.52GHz 15.80GHz
300oC
(1.87) (1.77) (2.10) (4.07) (2.65) (1.37)
4.78GHz 7.68GHz 10.69GHz 12.23GHz 14.69GHz 15.92GHz

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400oC
(0.91) (0.89) (1.06) (1.27) (2.88) (3.49)
5.11GHz 7.43GHz 9.11GHz 10.90GHz 14.80GHz 17.56GHz
soot
(0.11) (0.11) (0.13) (0.19) (4.57) (0.19)
4.79GHz 7.55GHz 10.54GHz 12.50GHz 15.00GHz 16.40GHz
200oC
(0.11) (0.12) (0.20) (0.24) (1.06) (2.25)
tgde
4.92GHz 7.69GHz 10.34GHz 12.04GHz 14.11GHz 15.94GHz

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300oC
(0.43) (0.46) (0.62) (1.29) (1.25) (0.74)
4.90GHz 7.64GHz 10.60GHz 12.34GHz 14.90GHz 16.38GHz
400oC
(0.25) (0.25) (0.32) (0.28) (1.03) (1.73)

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A
2
candle soot
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2
candle soot
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m'
1
Permeability
Permeability

0 1 + |m'-1|
1
m"
-1
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|tgdm| |m"|
tgdm
-2 0

4 8 12 16 4 8 12 16
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Frequency / GHz Frequency / GHz

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 C D

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2 candle soot 200oC candle soot 200oC
m' 2

1
Permeability

Permeability
1 + |m' -1|

iew
0
m" 1

|tgdm|
-1
|m"|
tgdm
-2
0

ev
4 8 12 16 4 8 12 16
Frequency / GHz Frequency / GHz

E F

r
2 candle soot 300oC candle soot 300oC
m'
2

er
Permeability

Permeability

0
1 + |m' -1|
tgdm
1
pe
|tgdm|
|m"|
-1
m"

-2
0

4 8 12 16 4 8 12 16
ot

Frequency / GHz Frequency / GHz

G H
tn

2 candle soot 400oC candle soot 400oC

2
m'
1
Permeability
Permeability

1 + |m' -1|
rin

0
m" 1

-1 |tgdm|
tgdm |m"|
ep

-2
0

4 8 12 16 4 8 12 16
Frequency / GHz Frequency / GHz
Pr

16

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 Figure 5. The complex permeability (m’, m”, tgdm) of (A, B) candle soot, (C, D) candle soot heated

ed
at 200 oC, (E, F) candle soot heated at 300oC, and (G, H) candle soot heated at 400oC. The gray

box shows the diamagnetic region.

iew
Figure 5 presented the complex permeability (m’, m”, tgdm) of candle soot, and candle soot

heated at 200, 300, and 400 oC. Figure 5A showed the real part of the complex permeability (m’)

ev
of candle soot was near 1.02 at 1.00 GHz, then slightly decreased to 1.00 around 6.41 GHz, then

to 0.79 around 10.74 GHz, then to 0.34 around 13.56 GHz, and finally increased to 1.63 at 18.00

r
GHz with a peak of 2.28 around 16.45 GHz. The imaginary part (m’’) was near 0.05 at 1.00 GHz,

er
then slightly decreased to near zero around 10.06 GHz, then to -0.14 around 12,.35 GHz, then to -

1.89 around 15.90 GHz, and back to -0.08 at 18.00 GHz. The loss tangent (tgde) of the complex
pe
permeability had a similar trend as the imaginary part (m’’): 0.05 at 1.00 GHz, near zero around

10.19 GHz, then -0.14 around 11.91 GHz, -1.96 around 14.33 GHz and back to -0.07 at 18.00

GHz. In brief, the imaginary part (m’’) and loss tangent (tgde) of the complex permeability had a
ot

prominent negative peak, while the real part (m’) had one large dip and one peak away from unit
tn

one. The difference between permittivity and unit one (the permittivity of vacuum) is the magnetic

susceptibility (χm ). Materials with a magnetic permeability larger than μ0 (a relative permeability
rin

less than 1) are paramagnetic, and materials with a magnetic permeability less than μ0 are

diamagnetic. A paramagnetic element has at least one unpaired electron and a diamagnetic element

has no unpaired electrons. Therefore, the values deviated from 1 tell the numbers of the unpaired
ep

or paired electrons. In order to see this clearly, we replotted Figure 5A in Figure 5B, showing the

value of 1 + |m’-1|, |m’| and | tgdm|. Clearly, 1 + |m’-1| showed a small peak of 1.11 around 2.12 GHz
Pr

(paramagnetic), 1.04 around 7.00 GHz (diamagnetic), 1.20 around 10.32 GHz (diamagnetic), 1.64

17

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 around 13.25 GHz (diamagnetic), and 2.28 around 16.45 GHz (paramagnetic). |m’| and | tgdm|

ed
showed the dominating peaks located between the last diamagnetic peak and the following

paramagnetic peak.

iew
Figure 5C showed that the real part of the complex permeability (m’) of candle soot heated

at 200oC was near 1.06 at 1.00 GHz, then slightly decreased to 1.00 around 9.11 GHz with three

small peaks in between (1.16 at 2.18 GHz, 1.09 at 5.46 GHz, and 1.07 at 8.04 GHz), then decreased

ev
faster to 0.59 around 16.09 GHz with three small peaks in between (1.01 at 10.82 GHz, 0.90 at

13.37 GHz, and 0.72 at 15.12 GHz), and finally increased to 1.97 at 18.00 GHz. The imaginary

r
part (m’’) was near 0.11 at 1.00 GHz, then slightly decreased with fluctuations to near zero around

er
9.11 GHz, waved to 13.75 GHz, then quickly decreased to -1.20 around 17.39 GHz, and back to -

0.84 at 18.00 GHz. The loss tangent (tgde) had a similar trend as the imaginary part (m’’) with -
pe
1.52 around 16.44 GHz and back to -0.40 at 18.00 GHz. Figure 5D show the corresponding value

1 + |m’-1|, |m’| and | tgdm|. 1 + |m’-1| fluctuated with peaks of 1.16 around 2.15 GHz (paramagnetic),
ot

1.11 around 5.49 GHz (paramagnetic), 1.07 around 8.09 GHz (paramagnetic), 1.03 around 9.85

GHz (diamagnetic), 1.03 around 9.85 GHz (diamagnetic), 1.02 around 10.83 GHz (diamagnetic),
tn

1.23 around 12.26 GHz (diamagnetic), 1.33 around 14.40 GHz (diamagnetic), and 1.47 around

16.07 GHz. |m’| and | tgdm| showed small peaks corresponding to the peaks of the1 + |m’-1| curve
rin

and dominating peaks located between the last diamagnetic peak and the following paramagnetic

peak.
ep

Figure 5E showed that the real part of the complex permeability (m’) of candle soot heated

at 300oC was near 1.06 at 1.00 GHz, then slightly decreased to 1.00 around 6.48 GHz with one
Pr

small peak (1.15 at 2.10 GHz), then decreased faster to 0.70 around 11.74 GHz with one peak

18

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 (0.94 at 10.46 GHz), and finally increased to 1.47 at 18.00 GHz with one peak of 1.53 around

ed
15.20 GHz. The imaginary part (m’’) was near 0.07 at 1.00 GHz, then slightly decreased with

fluctuations to near zero around 6.48 GHz, wavily decreased to -0.81 around 14.48 GHz with one

iew
peak of 0.35 around 13.06 GHz, and back to -0.19 at 18.00 GHz. The loss tangent (tgde) had a

similar trend as the imaginary part (m’’) with -0.66 around 13.89 GHz and a peak of 0.42 around

13.08 GHz, and back to -0.14 at 18.00 GHz. Figure 5F showed the corresponding value 1 + |m’-1|,

ev
|m’| and | tgdm|. 1 + |m’-1| fluctuated with peaks of 1.13 around 2.09 GHz (paramagnetic), 1.10

around 9.32 GHz (diamagnetic), 1.29 around 11.76 GHz (diamagnetic), and 1.53 around 15.20

r
GHz (paramagnetic). Again, |m’| and | tgdm| showed small peaks corresponding to the peaks of the1

er
+ |m’-1| curve and dominating peaks located between the last diamagnetic peak and the following

paramagnetic peak.
pe
Figure 5G showed that the real part of the complex permeability (m’) of candle soot heated

at 200oC was near 1.06 at 1.00 GHz, then slightly decreased to 1.00 around 8.58 GHz with one
ot

small peak (1.18 at 2.12 GHz), then decreased faster to 0.59 around 16.02 GHz with three small

peaks in between (1.02 at 10.66 GHz, 0.89 at 13.33 GHz, and 0.75 at 14.90 GHz), and finally
tn

increased to 1.31 at 18.00 GHz. The imaginary part (m’’) was near 0.09 at 1.00 GHz, then slightly

decreased with fluctuations to near zero around 8.58 GHz, waved to 13.43 GHz, then quickly
rin

decreased to -1.01 around 17.80 GHz, and back to -0.98 at 18.00 GHz. The loss tangent (tgde) had

a similar trend as the imaginary part (m’’) with -1.05 around 16.24 GHz and back to -0.82 at 18.00
ep

GHz. Figure 5H show the corresponding value 1 + |m’-1|, |m’| and | tgdm|. 1 + |m’-1| fluctuated with

peaks of 1.17 around 2.12 GHz (paramagnetic), 1.09 around 4.99 GHz (paramagnetic), 1.06
Pr

around 7.88 GHz (paramagnetic), 1.03 around 9.57 GHz (diamagnetic), 1.01 around 10.60 GHz

19

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 (diamagnetic), 1.20 around 12.20 GHz (diamagnetic), 1.24 around 14.31 GHz (diamagnetic), 1.40

ed
around 15.90 GHz (diamagnetic), and 1.31 at 18.00 GHz (paramagnetic). |m’| and | tgdm| showed

small peaks corresponding to the peaks of the1 + |m’-1| curve and dominating peaks located

iew
between the last diamagnetic peak and the following paramagnetic peak.

Overall, the real part of the permeability (m’) started slightly higher than 1 (paramagnetic)

at 1.00 GHz, then slightly decreased as frequency increased in the low frequency region, then

ev
wavily decreased to diamagnetic region with a value less than 1, and then turned to paramagnetic

region in the high frequency region with a value larger than 1. The imaginary part and the tangent

r
loss which indicated the absorption loss were prominent when it was in the diamagnetic region or

er
when changed from diamagnetic to paramagnetic. Therefore, the magnetic loss might be related

to the pairing or unpairing of the electrons in the materials.

pe
B 0
A 16
0.000 -10
ot

-10.00 candle soot

RL (dB)

12 2 mm 2.1 mm
f / GHz

-20.00
-20 2.2 mm 2.3 mm
-30.00 2.4 mm 2.5 mm
2.6 mm 2.7 mm
8 -40.00
2.8 mm 2.9 mm
tn

-50.00 3.0 mm 3.1 mm

-30 3.2 mm 3.3 mm
3.4 mm 3.5 mm
4 3.6 mm 3.7 mm
RL / dB 3.8 mm 3.9 mm
candle soot 4.0 mm
-40

4 8 12 16
rin

2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

d / mm Frequency (GHz)
ep
Pr

20

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 C D

ed
candle soot 3
candle soot
13.5
-10

Df-10 (GHz)
RLmax

-20 2

fmax

iew
13.0

-30
1

12.5
-40

2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0

ev
Thickness (mm) Thickness (mm)

Figure 6. (A) 2D plot of the microwave reflection loss (RL), (B) plots of reflection loss of a series

r
of thickness, (C) Plots of RLmax and fmax and (D) bandwidth Df-10 with the change of thickness for

the sample of candle soot.

er
pe
Figure 6A showed the 2D plot of the microwave reflection loss (RL) of the candle soot.

The effective microwave absorption (with a reflection loss value less than -10 dB) was roughly

located in the region of 2.2-3.2 mm and 12.0-15.0 GHz. Figure 6B displayed the plots of reflection
ot

loss of a series of thicknesses from 2.0 to 4.0 mm. The microwave absorption occurred around
tn

four frequency regions: 7.22, 10.45, 12.50, and 14.58 GHz. The best reflection loss reached -38.8

dB near 13.40 GHz with the thickness of 2.90 mm. Figure 6C presented how the largest reflection

loss value and the corresponding frequency varied with the thickness of the candle soot coating.
rin

The reflection loss reached -10.0 dB when the thickness was 2.30 mm and the corresponding

frequency is 13.35 GHz, then to -31.3 dB with the thickness of 2.50 mm at frequency of 12.45
ep

GHz, and back to 13.02 GHz with RL of -21.8 dB with the thickness of 2.70 mm, then to -38.8 dB

near 13.40 GHz with the thickness of 2.90 mm, and finally back to -10.0 dB at 3.50 mm at 13.40
Pr

GHz. Figure 6D showed the bandwidth Df-10 with the change of thickness, where it increased from

21

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 0 GHz when the thickness was 2.30 mm to 3.15 GHz when the thickness increased to 2.60 mm,

ed
and then decreased to 0 GHz when the thickness further increased to 3.50 mm.

A 16 B 0

iew
0.000 -10

12
-10.00 candle soot 200oC

RL (dB)
f / GHz

-20.00 2 mm 2.1 mm
-20 2.2 mm 2.3 mm
-30.00 2.4 mm 2.5 mm
2.6 mm 2.7 mm
8 -40.00
2.8 mm 2.9 mm

ev
-50.00 3.0 mm 3.1 mm
-30 3.2 mm 3.3 mm
3.4 mm 3.5 mm
4 RL / dB 3.6 mm 3.7 mm
candle soot 200oC 3.8 mm 3.9 mm
-40 4.0 mm

2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4 8 12 16

r
d / mm Frequency (GHz)

C
-10
candle soot 200oC 17.5
er D
3 candle soot 200oC
pe
Df-10 (GHz)

17.0
RLmax

fmax

-20 2

16.5
-30
1
ot

-40 16.0

2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0
tn

Thickness (mm) Thickness (mm)

Figure 7. (A) 2D plot of the microwave reflection loss (RL), (B) plots of reflection loss of a series

of thickness, (C) Plots of RLmax and fmax and (D) bandwidth Df-10 with the change of thickness for
rin

the sample of candle soot heated at 200oC for 1 h.

ep

Figure 7A showed the 2D plot of the microwave reflection loss (RL) of the candle soot

heated at 200oC. The effective microwave absorption (with a reflection loss value less than -10
Pr

dB) was roughly located in the region of 2.0-2.6 mm and 14.2-17.6 GHz. Figure 7B displayed the

22

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 plots of reflection loss of a series of thicknesses from 2.0 to 4.0 mm. The microwave absorption

ed
occurred around four frequency regions: 7.22, 10.22, 12.40, 15.14, and 16.62 GHz. The best

reflection loss reached -30.8 dB near 16.50 GHz with the thickness of 2.20 mm. Figure 7C

iew
presented how the largest reflection loss value and the corresponding frequency varied with the

thickness of the candle soot coating. The reflection loss reached -14.2 dB when the thickness was

2.00 mm and the corresponding frequency is 15.95 GHz, then to -30.80 dB with the thickness of

ev
2.20 mm at frequency of 16.38 GHz, and back to 17.30 GHz with RL of -10.0 dB with the thickness

of 2.70 mm. Figure 7D showed the bandwidth Df-10 with the change of thickness, where it reached

r
from 1.66 GHz when the thickness was 2.00 mm to 3.16 GHz when the thickness increased to 2.20

A 16
er
mm, and then decreased to 0 GHz when the thickness further increased to 2.70 mm.

B 0
pe
-10
0.000
-20
-10.00
12 -30
RL (dB)
f / GHz

-20.00

-30.00 -40
8 -40.00 candle soot 300oC
-50
ot

2 mm 2.1 mm
-50.00
2.2 mm 2.3 mm
-60 2.4 mm 2.5 mm
2.6 mm 2.7 mm 2.8 mm 2.9 mm
4
o RL / dB -70 3.0 mm 3.1 mm 3.2 mm 3.3 mm
candle soot 300 C 3.4 mm 3.5 mm 3.6 mm 3.7 mm
tn

-80 3.8 mm 3.9 mm 4.0 mm 2.722 mm

2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4 8 12 16

d / mm Frequency (GHz)
rin
ep
Pr

23

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 C

ed
-10
candle soot 300oC 16 D
candle soot 300oC
14 6
-20

Df-10 (GHz)
RLmax

-30 12

fmax

iew
4
-40
10
-50
8 2
-60

-70 6

2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0

ev
Thickness (mm) Thickness (mm)

Figure 8. (A) 2D plot of the microwave reflection loss (RL), (B) plots of reflection loss of a series

r
of thickness, (C) Plots of RLmax and fmax and (D) bandwidth Df-10 with the change of thickness for

the sample of candle soot heated at 300oC for 1 h.

er
pe
Figure 8A showed the 2D plot of the microwave reflection loss (RL) of the candle soot

heated at 300oC for 1h. The effective microwave absorption (with a reflection loss value less than

-10 dB) was roughly located in a frequency-thickness belt region which decreased in frequency
ot

against the thickness from around 15.0-17.0 GHz at 2.0 mm to 5.0-8.0 GHz at 4.0 mm. Figure 8B

displayed the plots of reflection loss of a series of thicknesses from 2.0 to 4.0 mm. The microwave
tn

absorption occurred around four frequency regions: 7.00 GHz, 10.30 GHz, 12.83 GHz, and 14.39

GHz. The best reflection loss reached -68.40 dB near 10.32 GHz with the thickness of 2.722 mm.
rin

Figure 8C presented how the largest reflection loss value and the corresponding frequency varied

with the thickness of the candle soot coating. Any thickness between 2.0 and 4.0 mm can
ep

effectively reduce the reflection, although the protective frequency decreased with the increase of

the thickness. The reflection loss reached -12.1 dB when the thickness was 2.00 mm and the
Pr

corresponding frequency is 15.80 GHz, then to -36.2 dB with the thickness of 2.30 mm at

24

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 frequency of 12.90 GHz, back to 11.38 GHz with RL of -27.9 dB with the thickness of 2.40 mm,

ed
then to -46.5 dB near 11.17 GHz with the thickness of 2.50 mm, back to 10.84 GHz with RL of -

36.3 dB with the thickness of 2.60 mm, then -68.40 dB near 10.32 GHz with the thickness of 2.722

iew
mm, and finally back to -28.8 dB at 4.00 mm at 6.43 GHz. Figure 8D showed the bandwidth Df-10

with the change of thickness, where it increased from 2.26 GHz when the thickness was 2.00 mm

to 6.10 GHz when the thickness increased to 2.50 mm, and then decreased to 2.06 GHz when the

ev
thickness further increased to 4.00 mm.

A 16 B 0

r
0.000 -10

candle soot 400oC

12 -10.00

erRL (dB)
f / GHz

-20.00 -20 2 mm 2.1 mm

2.2 mm 2.3 mm
-30.00 2.4 mm 2.5 mm
2.6 mm 2.7 mm
8 -40.00
2.8 mm 2.9 mm
-30
pe
-50.00 3.0 mm 3.1 mm
3.2 mm 3.3 mm
3.4 mm 3.5 mm
4 RL / dB -40 3.6 mm 3.7 mm
candle soot 400oC 3.8 mm 3.9 mm
4.0 mm

2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4 8 12 16

d / mm Frequency (GHz)
ot

C 18
D 5
o
candle soot 400 C candle soot 400oC
-10
tn

16
4
-20
Df-10 (GHz)

14
3
RLmax

-30
12
fmax

-40
rin

10 2
-50
8
-60 1

-70 6
ep

2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0
Thickness (mm) Thickness (mm)
Pr

25

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 Figure 9. (A) 2D plot of the microwave reflection loss (RL), (B) plots of reflection loss of a series

ed
of thickness, (C) Plots of RLmax and fmax and (D) bandwith Df-10 with the change of thickness for

the sample of candle soot heated at 400oC for 1 h.

iew
Figure 9A showed the 2D plot of the microwave reflection loss (RL) of the candle soot

heated at 400oC for 1h. The effective microwave absorption (with a reflection loss value less than

ev
-10 dB) was mainly located in the rough region of 2.0-2.3 mm and 14.0-18.0 GHz. Figure 9B

displayed the plots of reflection loss of a series of thicknesses from 2.0 to 4.0 mm. The microwave

r
absorption occurred around four frequency regions: 7.13, 10.36 GHz, 12.39 GHz, 14.80 GHz and

er
17.60 GHz. The best reflection loss reached -41.2 dB near 15.60 GHz with the thickness of 2.00

mm. Figure 9C presented how the largest reflection loss value and the corresponding frequency
pe
varied with the thickness of the candle soot coating. Three effective regions were seen. The first

region was that the reflection loss reached -41.2 dB when the thickness was 2.00 mm and the

corresponding frequency is 15.60 GHz, then to -10.0 dB with the thickness of 2.50 mm at
ot

frequency of 17.70 GHz. The second region was from 10.64 GHz to 10.14 GHz when the thickness

increased from 2.65 to 3.10 mm and the third region was from 7.62 GHz to 7.09 GHz when the
tn

thickness increased from 3.60 to 4.00 mm, where the reflection loss was a little more negative than

-10.0 dB, where the reflection loss was a little more negative than -10.0 dB. Figure 9D showed the
rin

bandwidth Df-10 with the change of thickness, where it reached from 4.00 GHz in the first region

and then decreased to 1.0 GHz in the second and third regions.
ep
Pr

26

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 A 8

ed
candle soot
B
candle soot 200oC 60
6 candle soot 300oC candle soot
candle soot 400oC candle soot 200oC

d / mm
candle soot 300oC
s (S/m)

iew
40 candle soot 400oC
4

2 20

ev
4 8 12 16 4 8 12 16
Frequency / GHz Frequency / GHz

Figure 10. (A) The microwave electrical conductivity (s) and skin-depth (d) of the candle soot

r
and candle soot heated at 200, 300, and 400oC for 1 h.

er
The electrical conductivity (s) shown in Figure 10A was calculated with s (S/m) =
pe
2fe0e”, where e0 is the free space permittivity (8.854  10-12 F/m), f is the frequency (Hz), and e”

is the imaginary component of permittivity. The conductivity of candle soot increased from near
ot

zero at 1.0 GHz to around 0.48 S/m at 18.0 GHz, with a few small peaks of 0.23 S/m near 5.00

GHz, 0.26 S/m near 7.30 GHz, 0.45 S/m near 9.00 GHz, 0.84 S/m near 10.90 GHz, and 0.62 S/m
tn

near 17.55 GHz, and one dominating peak of 7.19 S/m near 13.10 GHz. After heated at 200oC for

1 h, the conductivity increased from near zero at 1.0 GHz to around 1.44 S/m at 18.0 GHz, with a
rin

few small peaks of 0.24 S/m near 5.00 GHz, 0.38 S/m near 7.50 GHz, and 0.77 S/m near 10.48

GHz, and two dominating peaks of 4.84 S/m near 14.84 GHz and 6.04 S/m near 16.00 GHz. After

heated at 300oC for 1 h, the conductivity increased from near 0.45 S/m at 1.0 GHz to around 1.98
ep

S/m at 18.0 GHz, with a few small peaks of 1.07 S/m near 5.00 GHz, 1.62 S/m near 7.50 GHz,

2.60 S/m near 10.00 GHz, and 2.58 S/m near 15.79 GHz, and two dominating peaks of 5.75 S/m
Pr

near 11.90 GHz and 4.31 S/m near 13.56 GHz. After heated at 400oC for 1 h, the conductivity

27

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 increased from near 0.17 S/m at 1.0 GHz to around 3.23 S/m at 18.0 GHz, with a few small peaks

ed
of 0.54 S/m near 5.00 GHz, 0.83 S/m near 7.90 GHz, 1.34 S/m near 10.73 GHz, and 1.86 near

12.30 GHz, and two dominating peaks of 5.14 S/m near 14.84 GHz and 6.67 S/m near 16.00 GHz.

iew
The skin-depth (d) of the microwave irradiation in Figure 10B was calculated with (d / m)

= (fm0mrs)-1/2, where m0 is the permeability of free space (4  10-7 H/m), mr is the relative

permeability, and s is the electrical conductivity (S/m). The skin depth of candle soot and candle

ev
soot heated at 200, 300 and 400oC decreased with ripples from around 70.0, 62.5, 35.1. and 15.2

mm at 1.0 GHz to 2.0 mm at 18.0 GHz, respectively.

r
A 0
B 0 1

-10
0

-3 er RL (dB)
-10 0
RL (dB)

-e'/4
pe
-20 -20 -e''/4
-6 -1
-tgde
e' -tgdm
-30 e'' -9 -30 -s/4
s -2

candle soot o
-12 candle soot 200 C
-40 -40
-3
ot

5 10 15 5 10 15
Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)
tn

C 0 2
D 0

0
-10
-20
0 -1
RL (dB)

RL (dB)
rin

-20
-40 -e/4
-tgde -2
-e'/4 -30 -tgdm
-2
-60 -e''/4 -s/2
-tgde -3
-tgdm -40 o
o
ep

candle soot 300 C candle soot 400 C

-80 -s/4
-4 -4
5 10 15 5 10 15
Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)
Pr

28

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 Figure 11. (A) Comparison of permittivity (e’, e’’) and conductivity (s) with the reflection loss

ed
of candle soot. (B) Comparison of permittivity (e’, e’’, tgde), permeability (tgdm), and conductivity

(s) with the reflection loss of candle soot heated at 200 oC for 1 h. (C) Comparison of permittivity

iew
(e’, e’’, tgde), permeability (tgdm), and conductivity (s) with the reflection loss of candle soot

heated at 300 oC for 1 h. (D) Comparison of permittivity (e’, tgde), permeability (tgdm), and

conductivity (s) with the reflection loss of candle soot heated at 400 oC for 1 h.

ev
To explore the possible reasons for the microwave absorption of the candle soot, we

r
compared the microwave absorption with the complex permittivity, permeability and conductivity,

er
as shown in Figure 11. Figure 11A showed that for candle soot, there were some better similarity

of the microwave absorption curves with the imaginary part of the permittivity or conductivity of
pe
the candle soot than with the real part of the permittivity. Therefore, it seemed that the electrical

dissipation might mainly contribute to the microwave absorption of the candle soot. Based on the

ESR spectra, there were considerable amount of unpaired electrons in candle soot. And the Raman
ot

spectrum suggested that there were disordered and crystalline domains in the candle soot for the
tn

sp2 carbon. While the superhydrophobic water contact angle indicated there were large amount of

paraffin wax hydrocarbon molecules on the surface.

rin

Figure 11B displayed that for candle soot heated at 200 oC for 1 h, the microwave

absorption curves showed better similarity with the imaginary part and tangent of the permittivity,

the tangent of the permeability and the conductivity than with the real part of the permittivity. This
ep

again suggested that the electrical and magnetic dissipation might contribute to the microwave

absorption of the candle soot. The Raman spectrum suggested some disordered phase became
Pr

crystalline. The ESR indicated a large number of unpaired electrons. While the superhydrophobic

29

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 water contact angle indicated there were large amount of paraffin wax hydrocarbon molecules on

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the surface.

Figure 11C showed that for candle soot heated at 300 oC for 1 h, there was no apparent

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similarity between the microwave absorption curves and permittivity (e’, e’’, tgde), permeability

(tgdm), and conductivity (s), even though there seemed to be some similarity between the

microwave absorption and the real part of the permittivity (e’). This again suggested that the

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electrical and magnetic dissipation might not apparently contribute to the microwave absorption

of the candle soot, but the complex interaction of the dielectric and magnetic properties. The

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Raman spectrum suggested some crystalline phase become disordered again. The ESR indicated a

er
negligible number of unpaired electrons. While the superhydrophobic water contact angle

indicated there were large amount of paraffin wax hydrocarbon molecules on the surface.
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Figure 11D showed that the microwave absorption curves might have a better similarity

with the conductivity (s) than the real part of the permittivity and the tangents of the permittivity

(tgde) and permeability (tgdm). This again suggested that the electrical and magnetic dissipation
ot

might contribute to the microwave absorption of the candle soot. The ESR indicated a large number
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of unpaired electrons. While the Raman spectrum indicated similar disordered/crystalline ratio.

The ESR indicated a large number of unpaired electrons. While the superhydrophilic water contact
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angle indicated there were few paraffin wax hydrocarbon molecules on the surface.

Overall, it seemed that when there were a large number of unpaired electrons, regardless

of the surface superhydrophobicity or superhydrophilicity, or the ratios of the disorder/crystalline

ep

phase in the candle soot, there seemed to some good similarities in the microwave absorption with

the imaginary part of the permittivity, the tangent of the permittivity or permeability, and the
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conductivity.

30

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 ed
4. Conclusion

In this work, we have investigated the physical and microwave absorption properties of

iew
candle soot and candle soot heated at 200, 300, and 400oC for 1 h. Candle soot heated below 400oC

displays superhydrophobic characteristics with a water contact angle larger than 150o, and when

heated at 400oC, it displays superhydrophobic characteristics with a water contact angle less than

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10o, likely related to the boiling point of the paraffin wax molecules. While the heating does not

apparently change the UV-vis reflection properties of candle soot, it changes the

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disordered/crystalline phase ratio and the content of unpaired electrons in candle soot, as indicated

er
by Raman and ESR spectra, and changes its microwave permittivity/permeability and reflection

loss values. For example, candle soot displays a large reflection loss value of -38.8 dB near 13.40
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GHz with the thickness of 2.90 mm, while candle soot heated at 200 oC reaches a reflection loss

of -30.8 dB near 16.50 GHz with the thickness of 2.20 mm, candle soot heated at 300 oC can have

a reflection loss of -68.40 dB near 10.32 GHz with the thickness of 2.722 mm, and candle soot
ot

heated at 400 oC has a maximum reflection loss of-41.2 dB near 15.60 GHz with the thickness of
tn

2.00 mm. The microwave absorption for candle soot and candle soot heated at 200 and 400 oC

seem to have some correlations with the imaginary part of the permittivity, the tangent of the

permittivity or permeability, and the conductivity, however, such correlations are not seen for
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candle soot heated at 300oC. Unpaired electrons, instead of surface superhydrophobicity or

superhydrophilicity, or the ratios of the disorder/crystalline phase in the candle soot, seem to be
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related to such correlations.

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Acknowledgements

31

This preprint research paper has not been peer reviewed. Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4427163
 X. C. appreciates the support from the U.S. National Science Foundation (DMR-1609061),

ed
and the Division of Energy, Matter, and Systems, School of Science and Engineering, University

of Missouri - Kansas City.

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