BLS Cambridge Assessment wy ducation Cambridge International AS & A Level Further Pure Mathematics 1 Sophie Goldie Rose Jewell Series editor: Roger Porkess (5 HODDERContents Introduction How to use this book The Cambridge International AS & A Level Further Mathematics 9231 syllabus 1 Matrices and transformations 1.1 Matrices 1.2. Multiplication of matrices 1.3. Transformations 1.4 Successive transformations 1.5 Invariance 2 Series and induction 2.1. Sequences and series 2.2. Using standard results 2.3. The method of differences 2.4 Proof by induction 2.5 Other proofs by induction 3 Roots of polynomials 3.1. Polynomials 3.2 Quadratic equations 3.3. Cubic equations 3.4 Quartic equations 4 Rational functions and graphs 4.1. Graphs of rational functions 4.2. How to sketch a graph of a rational function 4.3 Oblique asymptotes 4.4 Sketching curves related to y= f(x) 5 Polar coordinates 5.1 Polar coordinates 5.2 Sketching curves with polar equations 5.3 Finding the area enclosed by a polar curve 4 27 33 40 41 46 50 56 61 68 69 71 16 83 89 90 92 98 102 116 116 124 1316 Matrices and their inverses 61 6.2 6.3 The determinant of a 2x2 matrix The inverse of a matrix Finding the inverse of a 3x3 matrix 7 Vectors 7 12 7.3 74 75 16 a7 78 The vector equation of a plane The intersection of a line and a plane The distance of a point from a plane The angle between a line and a plane The intersection of two planes The angle between two planes The vector product Finding distances 135 136 141 147 156 157 162 164 165 170 172 177 183 197Prior knowledge It is expected that learners will have studied the majority of the Cambridge International AS & A Level Mathematics 9709 syllabus content before studying Cambridge International AS & A Level Further Mathematics 9231 The prior knowledge required for each Further Mathematics component is shown in the following table. 9231 Paper 1: Further Pure Mathematics 1 9231 Paper 2: Further Pure Mathematics 2 9231 Paper 3: Further Mechanies 9709 Papers 1 and 3 9709 Papers 1 and 3 9709 Papers 1,3 and 4 9231 Paper 4: Further Probability & Statistics Command words ‘The table below includes command words used in the assessment for this syllabus. The use of the command word will relate to the subject context. 9709 Papers 1,3,5 and 6 Show (that) Sketch State Verify Calculate work out from given facts, figures or information Deduce conclude from available information Derive obtain something (expression/equation/value) fiom another by a sequence of logical steps Describe state the points of a topic / give characteristics and main features Determine establish with certainty Evaluate {judge or calculate the quality, importance, amount, or value of something Explain set out purposes or reasons / make the relationships between things evident / provide why and/or how and support with relevant evidence Identify name/select/recognise Interpret identify meaning or significance in relation to the context, Justify support a case with evidence/argument Prove confirm the truth of the given statement using a chain of logical mathematical reasoning _provide structured evidence that leads to a make a simple freehand drawing showing the key features, express in clear terms confirm a given statement/result is true result‘1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS 1.1 Matrices ‘You can represent the number of direct flights between each pair of countries (shown in Figure 1.1) as an array of numbers like this: ‘The array is called a matrix (che plural is matrices) and is usually written inside curved brackets 01040 10020 ooo01d 42102 00020 Ic is usual to represent matrices by capital letters, often in bold print. A matrix consists of rows and columns, and the entries in the various cells are known as elements. o1040 10020 The matrix M=| 0 0 0 1 0 | representing the flights between 42102 00020 the counties has 25 elements, arranged in five rows and five columns. M is described as a 5 X 5 matrix, and this is the order of the matrix. You state the number of rows first then the number of columns. So, for example, the matrix m-(3 3) 4) 22% somticandN = 3 4 Jisa3 X 2 matrix,Special matrices Some matrices are described by special names that relate to the number of rows and columns or the nature of the elements. 3501 Matrices such as ( ‘ ; } and| 2 0-4. | that have the same number of s 173 rows as columns are called square matrices. ‘The matrix: ( \ ; ) is called the 2 x 2 identity matrix or unit matrix, 100 and similarly | Q 1 0. | is called the 3 x 3 identity matrix. Identity matrices oot must be square, and are usually denoted by I ‘The matrix O = ( ; " } is called the 2x 2 zero matrix. Zero matrices can be of any order. ‘Two matrices are said to be equal if, and only if, they have the same order and each element in one matrix is equal to the corresponding element in the other matrix. So, for example, the matrices A and D below are equal, but B and C are not equal to any of the other matrices. EP 3) e(23) » 240 Working with matrices Matrices can be added or subtracted if they are of the same order. 240), (1-1 4 )_[3 3 4) | Addthe elements 20-35)" in corresponding positions A 7 -3)_(3 : Pla curls = Subtract the elements in 5 corresponding positions. 2 - But ( 240 }( > } cannot be evaluated because the matrices are 4 not of the same order. These matrices are non-conformable for addition, You can also multiply a matrix by a scalar number: 3 -4)_(6 -8 ) —{ ——____ Matiy each of (3 6 }-(5 3) the elements by 2, Answers to exercises are available at www hoddereducation.com /cambridgeextras SaIUIEW LL‘1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS You can use a calculator to add and subtract matrices of the same order and to multiply a matrix by a number. If you have a calculator that can handle matrices, find out: »> the method for inputting matrices » how to add and subtract matrices » how to multiply a matrix by a number for matrices of varying sizes. Associativity and commutativity When working with numbers the properties of associativity and commutativity are often used. 5 abe When you add numbers, it Associativity does not matter how the Addition of numbers is associative. numbers are grouped, the answer will be the same. (345) +8=3+ (648) T When you add numbers, Commutativity the order of the numbers. " ‘ 5 can be reversed and the Addition of numbers is commutative. Sree wien te 445=544¢-——__| same Give examples to show that subtraction of numbers is not commutative or associative, > Are matrix addition and matrix subtraction associative and/or commutative? 1 Write down the order of these matrices. 24 08 4 W | 60 Wi) fo3 4 till (7 3) 3s 5 3-2 1 2 85 (wl }3 w [264 9) wi | 6 5 10 11 -4 S 3-9 oeFor the matrices > u on ab oe u — = ab a io — Ve ae ih 0 u me find, where possible li) A-E (i) C+D (ii) E+A-B = lw) E+D w D-c Wvil 4 = (vil 30 +2D (viii) B+ 2F lx) E- @B-A) 5 3. The diagram below shows the number of direct ferry crossings on one day offered by a ferry company between cities P,Q, R and S. The same information is also given in the partly completed matrix X. [i Copy and complete the matrix X. A second ferry company also offers ferry crossings between these four cities. The following matrix represents the total number of direct ferry crossings offered by the two ferry companies. 0232 2021 2203 1030 (ii) Find the matrix ¥ representing the ferry crossings offered by the second ferry company. {ii Draw a diagram similar to the one above, showing the ferry crossings offered by the second ferry company. 4 Find the values of w, x, y and 2 such that 3 ow 2-1 |_(-9 8 (2 # Jol; . Ba 5) Answers to exercises are available at www hoddereducation.com /cambridgeextras A‘1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS 6 Find the possible values of p and q such that (2 2}(32}62) Four local football teams took part in a competition in which every team plays each of the others twice, once at home and once away. The results matrix after half of the games had been played Goals Goals Win Draw Lose for against Stars 2 1 0 6 3 Couas | 0 0 3 2 8 Town 2 0 1 4 3 United \ 11 1 5 3 (i) The results of the next three matches are as follows: Stars 2 ‘Cougars 0 Town 3 United 3 Stars 2 Town 4 Find the results matrix for these three matches and hence find the complete results matrix for all the matches so far. (il) Here is the complete results matrix for the whole competition. 41112 8 1145 12 3.12 12 10 1320 9 Find the results matrix for the last three matches (Stars vs United, ‘Cougars vs Town and Cougars vs United) and deduce the result of ‘each of these three matches. ‘A mail-order clothing company stocks a jacket in three different sizes and four different colours. 17 8 10 15 The matrix P=| 6 12 19 3. | represents the number of jackets 24 10 11 6 in stock at the start of one week, 2530 The matrix Q=| 1 3 4 6 | represents the number of orders for 5023 jackets received during the week. (i) Find the matrix P- Q ‘What does this matrix represent? What does the negative element in the matrix mean?A delivery of jackets is received from the manufacturers during the week. 5 10 10 5 The matrix R=} 10 10 15. | shows the number of jackets 00 5 _ | received, lil] Find the matrix that represents the number of jackets in stock at the end of the week after all the orders have been dispatched, (ii) Assuming that this week is typical, find the matrix that represents sales of jackets over a six-week period. How realistic is this assumption? 1.2 Multiplication of matrices ‘When you multiply two matrices you do not just multiply corresponding terms. Instead you follow a slightly more complicated procedure. The following example will help you to understand the rationale for the way it is done. ‘There are four ways of scoring points in rugby: a try (five points), a conversion (two points), a penalty (three points) and a drop goal (three points). In a match, Tonga scored three tries, one conversion, two penalties and one drop goal. So their score was 3X541X2+2x3+1x3=26. You can write this information using matrices. The tries, conversions, penalties and drop goals that Tonga scored are written as the 1X 4 row matrix (3 1 2 1) and the points for the different methods of scoring as the 41 column matrix ‘These are combined to give the 1X 1 matrix GX541K2+2x341%3) = 26), ‘Combining matrices in this way is called matrix multiplication and this example is written as (3.1 2 1) x = (26). Answers to exercises are available at www hoddereducation.com /cambridgeextras A saujew so uoneandnynyw z'L‘1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS The use of matrices can be extended to include the points scored by the other team, Japan. They scored two tries, two conversions, four penalties, and one drop goal. This information can be written together with Tonga’s scores as a 2X 4 matrix, with one row for Tonga and the other for Japan. ‘The multiplication is then written as -(% } So Japan scored 29 points and won the match, 3 This example shows you wo important points about matrix multiplication Look at the orders of the matrices involved. The two ‘middle’ numbers, in this case 4, must be the same for it to be possible to multiply two matrices. If two matrices can be multiplied, they are conformable for multiplication. A!” x4 The two ‘outside" numbers give you the order of the product matrix, in this case 2x 1. ‘You can see from the previous example that multiplying matrices involves multiplying each element in a row of the left-hand matrix by each element in a column of the right-hand matrix and then adding these products. ema(? 3)(5) Solution The product will have order 2 x 1. > (10 5)+(3*2)=56 Call: (2) (-2%5)4(7x2)=4 A Figure 1.2fa! NC: 3 #) as Solution ‘The order of this product is 2 x 3. (x34 Gx-39=-6 (x0 +@xD=3 ax9+6: “2: (2x) +6x (2x3) +6x-3=—21 (2x0 +6x=5 sof 1 3)(4 3 0)_ {2 6 3 =2. 5. —2 31 -18 -215 35 8-1 41|B=|— 3 anac=(5 2) 37 40 ie 1 which of the products AB, BA, AC, CA, BC and CB exist? ‘What do you notice? Solution ‘The order of this product is 2 2. Ox) +@x=3 o aN ¥ af oxneexn=2 -14)lo1} [+14 Cixgtaxnast ‘Multiplying a matrix by the identity matrix has no effect. Answers to exercises are available at www hoddereducation.com /cambridgeextras A‘1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS Using the matrix function on a calculator, find M‘ for the matrix, 20-1 M=/3 1 2 |. © Note . 143 M‘ means M XMXMXM a-[5 3a (i) Find the matrix product AB in terms of x: li] fAB= ( ve , | a the possible values of x. (ii) Find the possible matrix products BA. Ui) Forthe matrix A= { 2 in fal A? {b) As {cl at (ii) Suggest a general form for the matrix A* in terms of 1 (iil Verify your answer by finding A" on your calculator and confirming it gives the same answer as [iil ‘The map below shows the bus routes in a holiday area. Lines represent routes that run each way between the resorts. Arrows indicated one-way scenic routes. ‘Mis the partly completed 4 x 4 matrix that shows the number of direct routes between the various resorts, 8 To ABCD 1120 z " vow> (i) Copy and complete the matrix M. (iil Calculate M? and explain what information it contains. (iii] What information would M° contain?You may find it easier to see what the transformation iswhen you use a shape, like the unit square, rather than points or lines. 20 ‘The matrix wm(28 } represents an enlargement, centre the origin, scale factor 2. You can see that the images of columns of the transformation matrix, Finding the matrix that represents a given transformation ‘The connection between the images of the unit vectors i and j and the matrix representing the transformation provides a quick method for finding the matrix representing a transformation. Itis common to use the unit square with coordinates O (0, 0),1 (1,0), P (1, 1) and J (0, 1). You can think about the images of the points I and J, and from this you can write down the images of the unit vectors i and j. This is done in the next example. Ear By drawing a diagram to show the image of the unit square, find the matrices that represent each of the following transformations: (i) a reflection in the x-axis (ii) an enlargement of scale factor 3, centre the origin. Solution fil A Figure 1.12 ‘You can see from Figure 1.12 that I (1, 0) is mapped to itself and J (0, 1) is mapped eee e(? Sorhe iene ct Tie (}) 0 So the matrix that represents a reflection in the a-axis is (: Sh } ~ > Answers to exercises are available at www hoddereducation,com /cambridgeextras suoneussojsued £")z 5 & g g —E E 3 3 5 (ii) So the image of Lis (3) i You can see fiom Figure 1.13 that I (1, 0) is mapped to I’ (3,0), and J (0, 1) is mapped to J’ (0,3). ‘A Figure 1.13 and the image of Jis (3): So the matrix that represents an enlargement, centre the origin, 30 wintanss( 32) > Fora general transformation represented by the matrix: ( * ) what are the images of the unit vectors tt and (i) > What is the image of the origin (0, 0)? ACTIVITY 1.3 ‘Using the image of the unit square, find the matrix which represents a rotation of 45° anticlockwise about the origin. ‘Use your answer to write down the matrices that represent the following, transformations: (i) a rotation of 45° clockwise about the origin (ii) rotation of 135° anticlockwise about the origin.through angle @ anticlockwise the matrix that represents a rotati about the origin. (iil Use your answer to find the matrix that represents a rotation ‘of 60° anticlockwise about the origin. Solution (i) Figure 1.14 shows a rotation of angle @anticlockwise about the origin. suoneussojsued £") A Figure 1.14 Call the coordinates of the point A’ (p, q). Since the lines OA and OB are perpendicular, the coordinates of BY will be (-4. p)- oh From the right-angled triangle with OA’ as the hypotenuse, cos® and so p = cos8. Similarly, from the right-angled triangle with OB’ as the hypotenuse, sind = 4 so q = sine. So, the image point A’ (p, q) has position vector (x } and the sine image point B’ (-q, p) has position vector (= } cos ‘Therefore, the matrix that represents a rotation of angle @ anticlockwise cose —sind sind cos about the origin is ( (ii) ‘The matrix that represents an anticlockwise rotation of 60° about 1 _v3 the origin is, cos60° —sin 60° = 2 a sin60° cos60° We 4 a 2 an angle @ clockwise > What matrix would represent a rotation thro: about the 9 Answers to exercises are available at www hoddereducation.com /cambridgeextras A‘1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS Summary of transformat ins in two dimensions Reflection in the x-axis (; 0 } Reflection in the taxis (3 °) oa o1 Reflection in the 0 1 || Reflection in the line o-1 Tine y=x 10 )ly=-x -10 Rotation anticlockwise cos@ —sing) | Enlargement, centre the [ & 0 about the origin | Gag cose |_| origin scale factor k Ok through angle Stretch parallel to the k 0 )| Stretch parallel to the 10 x-axis, scale factor k 0 1} | y-axis, scale factor k Ok Shear, x-axis fixed, 1g) | Shear, raxis fixed, 10 with (0, 1) mapped to (b, 1) 1] hG0 mapped 0 (| 1 of linear transformations. In a linear transformation, straight lines are mapped to straight lines, and the origin is mapped to itselt. 1 For each of the transformations below (a) draw a diagram to show the effect of the transformation on triangle OAB (b) give the coordinates of A’ and B’, the images of points A and B (c]__ find expressions for x’ and y’, the coordinates of P’, the image of a general point P (wx, ” (a) find the matrix that represents the transformation.‘1 MATRICES AND TRANSFORMATIONS (i) Find the image of the unit square under the transformations represented by the matrices {10 _{1 05 (al a-(! ‘] (b) a-() | (iil Use your answers to part [i) to fully describe the transformations represented by each of the matrices A and B. The diagram below shows a shear that maps the rectangle ABCD to the parallelogram A’B‘C’D’, ‘The angle A’DA is 60°. (i) Find the coordinates of A’ ii] Find the matrix that represents the shear. The unit square OABC has its vertices at (0,0), (1,0), (1, 1) and (0, 1). OABC is mapped to OA’B’C’ by the transformation defined by the matrix, (: 3 54 Find the coordinates of A’, B/ and C’ and show that the area of the shape has not been changed by the transformation. The transformation represented by the matrix M = ( ‘ ; } is applied to the triangle ABC with vertices A (-1, 1), B (1,—1) and C (+1, +1). (i) Draw a diagram showing the triangle ABC and its image A’B'C’. (ii) Find the gradient of the line A’C’ and explain how this relates to the matrix M. A transformation maps P to P” as follows: » Each point is mapped on to the line y =x. » The line joining a point to its image is parallel to the y-axis. Find the coordinates of the image of the point (x, y) and hence show that this transformation can be represented by means of a matrix. ‘What is that matrix?6 The diagram on the right shows the image of the unit square OABC under the combined transformation with matrix PQ i] Write down the matrix PQ Matrix P represents a reflection. lil) State the matrices P and Q and define fully the two transformations represented by these matrices. When describing matrix Q you should refer to the image of the point B. 7 Find the matrix X that represents rotation of 135° about the origin, followed by a reflection in the y-axis. Explain why matrix X cannot represent a rotation about the origin, SUOeULJOJSUEL) AA'SSEINS YL 8 [i] Write down the matrix P that represents a stretch of scale factor 2 parallel to the y-axis. 50 o-1 (il) ‘The matrix Q = ( sve down the two single transformations that are represented by the matrix Q. lil] Find the matrix PQ. Write a list of the three transformations that are represented by the matrix PQ. In how many different orders could the three transformations occur? liv) Find the matrix R for which the matrix product RPQ would transform an object to its original position. 9 There are two basic types of four-terminal electrical networks, as shown in the diagrams below. ma Type ‘Type B In Type A the output voltage V, and current J, are related to the input voltage V, and current J, by the simultaneous equations: WLR, Answers to exercises are available at www hoddereducation.com /cambridgeextras A1.5 Invariance Invariant points > Ina reflection, are there any points that map to themselves? > Ina rotation, are there any points that map to themselves? Points that map to themselves under a transformation are called invariant points. The origin is always an invariant point under a transformation that can be represented by a matrix, as the following statement is always true: (C)) More generally, point (x, y) is invariant if it satisfies the matrix equation: (JG }G) For example, the point (2,2) is invariant under the transformation @0UEIJAU) SL vemtvmee HET c(t ‘Mis the matrix, 0 (i) Show that (5, 5) is an invariant point under the transformation represented by M. (ii) What can you say about the invariant points under this transformation? Solution i) {2 V5 J) | 50 6,5) is an invariant point under the : 10 Jls}r\s transformation represented by M. (ii) Suppose the point (; ) maps to itself, Then 1 y i 2 -1)(* )_{ 10 y ¥ These points all any ie have the form = Both equations simplify to y= x. (,Al. The point x y i (5.5) is just one of Ste ye wanteny: K the points an this So the invariant points of the transformation are all the points on the j line i Answers to exercises are available at www hoddereducation.com /cambridgeextras ALEARNING OUTCOMES o Now that you have finished this chapter, you should be able to m= understand what is meant by the terms order of a matrix square matrix zero matrix ‘equal matrices = fm) cary Sot the mate operations = addition 2 Av 5 multiplication by a scalar m= understand when matrices are conformable for multiplication and be able to carry out matrix multiplication @ use a calculator to carry out matrix operations = understand the use of matrices to represent the geometric transformations in the x-y plane rotation about the origin reflection in lines through the origin enlargement with centre the origin stretch parallel to the coordinate axes shear with the axes as fixed lines = recognise that the matrix product AB represents the transformation that results from the transformation represented by B followed by the transformation represented by A. m= find the matrix that represents a given transformation or sequence of transformations m understand the meaning of ‘invariant’ in the context of transformations represented by matrices as applied to points 4s applied to lines, = solve simple problems involving invariant points and invariant lines, for example locate the invariant points of the transformation find the invariant lines of the transformation show lines of a given gradient are invariant for a certain transformation. Ansuers eevee ae aval washout. combidens iz = 8 a = 3 Zz = a = z a a nN (i) Show that (2r +1 (i) Hence find Dr till Deduce that Sy = Ln(n +1). Solution () @r+ 1) -@r=1y = (47? +4r41)-(4r - 4r+1) =8r as required. (ii Yer = Ser+ 1 -@r-1)'] The only terms remaining are the 2nd and the 2nd from last. = n= 1) = 1) +(2n+1)) =(2n41P -1° = 40° + 4n 41-1 = 4u" + 4n (iill Since }'8r = 4n* + 4n ‘This result was also so Sy titty = rove on page = Fu(n +1) as required. (i) Show that 7 7e1 742 Fhe FD (ii) Hence find Darter. {iii] | Deduce the value of the sum to infinity of the series.which do not cancel form a symmetrical pattern, three at the start and three at the end, Solution (il . rt4 i) Laas (iii) Dr + lr +2) — 3r(r +2) + (r+ 1) 2 rrr = 2P + 6r4+4= 37 = 6rtr tr 1 r+ 2) = 4+ “0s deta) ‘The terms in the red loops cancel out ~ so all the terms in the green box vanish. jo poyyow ay) £7 Most of the terms cancel, le r+4 LaeD Asn se Zl 1 aor 7 Omd—2s 30 i So the sum to infinity is 3 Show that the final expression in the previous example can be Show that this expression gives the same sum to infinity as found in part (ii). Ansuers eevee ae aval washout. combidens aThis can be done before or after finding the target expression, but you may find it easier to find the target expression first 50 thatyouknowwhat |» Finding the target expression: To find the target you are working using the result for 1 =Jf to find the equivalent result | expression you towards. replace kwith Arguing thot siucee is:true for n =: 1, ibis aloo eue'for n= 1 +1 = 2,and properly rounded 2 tea ail oftn so for n= 2+ 1 =3 and for all subsequent values of 1 lies the word >* Concluding the argument by writing down the resule and stating that it ciheratara has been proved. WEEPEE rie sum of the squares of the first » integers) The corresponding steps in the previous proof are 1 showing the conjecture is true for m= 1, and 2 2. showing that jfit is true for a particular value (n= k say), then it is true for the next one (n =k +1). (Notice the if... then... structure to this step.) You should conclude any argument by mathematical induction with a statement of what you have shown. Steps in mathematical induction To prove something by mathematical induction you need to state a conjecture to begin with. Then there are five elements needed to try to prove the conjecture is true. » Proving that it is true for a starting value (e.g. = 1). Prove that, for all positive integers 1 Pe Pasta? nn + 1)(2n +1) a Note _ You have already had the opportunity to prove this result using the method of differences, in question 8 of Exercise 2C. Solution When n So it is true for n=1. RHS=1x1x2x3=1 Assume the result is true for n = k, so P42 4.4K Target expression: PHP eF tithe tet Eek + 1)(2k + 1) Lk + Hk + 1) + He + 1) +1] = ze + I(ke + 2)(2k + 3) eS Answers to exercises are available at www hoddereducation.com /cambridgeextras a2 SERIES AND INDUCTION ‘You want to prove that the result is true for m= k-+ 1 (if the assumption is true), Look at the LHS of the result you want to prove: PHPase te tlhe? Use the assumed result for n = k, to replace the first k terms. Gkk +16 OS es 1th. term. Lae + nfaae + 1) + o(e + nL Me frst eterms. Take out 2 factor H(k + 1). You can i 2 ‘see from the target (e+ (2k + 7k +6) — Prhisisthe same as expression that thiswill | _ 1 > the target expression, be helpful. = E+ Nk + AK + 3) 4 required. the result is true for n= k then it is true for n =k +1. Since it is true for 1 = ky it is true for all positive integer values of Therefore the result that 1+ 2° + ... +1? = n(n + 1)(2n +1) is true ACTIVITY 2.2 Nita is investigating the sum of the first » even numbers. She writes 2 244464. + 2n=(n+3), (i) Prove that this resulis true when n= k, then i is true when n= k-+1. Explain why Nita conjecture is not true for all postive integers n. {ii) Suggest a different conjecture for the sum of the first n even numbers, that is true for n= 1 but not for other values of u.At what point does an attempt to use proof by induction on this result break down? Show that the result 1+ 3+ 5+... + (20 = 1) =.” is true for the case n= 1 (ii) Assume that 1+ 345+... + (2k —1) = k° and use this to prove that: 1434... +(2k- 1) + (2k +1) =(k +1)" (ii) Explain how parts (i) and (i together prove the sum of the first odd integers is 2,2 [il Show that the result 145494... + (4n—3) =n(2n~1) is true for the case n= 1. lil) Assume that 14+5+9+...+ (4-3) = k(2k-1) and use this to prove that: 1454... +(4 3) + (4(k + 1) - 3) = (k + 1)(2(6 + 1)- 1). {iil Explain how parts (i) and [ii) together prove that: 145494...4(4n—3) = (20-1) Prove the following results by inducti 1 3 142434..¢0= n(n +1) z You have already seen two proofs of this result, on pages 43 and 52. (the sum of the first m integers) 4 + =tHr +1 ———_] (che sum of the first cubes) BS eer aae.+2" +1) You have already had the ‘opportunity to prove this result using the method of differences, in question 9 of Exercise 2C. x #1) 7 (1X2x3)F (2X34) +...4m(u + Nu F2) 8 Yorn n(n +5) n(u + 1)(n + 2)(n-4 3) VW 1x N+ 2 243% 314 xn = (n+ 1-1 12. i) Prove by induction that Yor +F)= Sr +1 Qn +1), (ii) Using the result in part (i), and the formula for ))r°, show that DF =A + Qn +1) Bn? + 30-1) 1 30 2.5 Other proofs by induction So far, you have used induction to prove results involving the sums of series. It can also be used in other situations. Uuotanput Aq sjoosd say19 ¢Z Ansuers eevee ae aval washout. combidens a2 SERIES AND INDUCTION 10 " 12 Itis given that u, = FX H! for r= 1,2,3, .0.. Let S, =u, +u, tu, +--+, .Write down the values of 2-S, 3I-S,, 41-5, 5! Conjecture a formula for S,, Prove, by mathematical induction, a formula for S,, for all positive integers m. Cambridge International AS & A Level Further Mathematics 9231 Paper 11 Q3 Ocober/ November 2014 Icis given that y= (1+)? In (1 +2). Find a4 Prove by mathematical induction that, for every integer n=3 Cambridge International AS & A Level Further Mathematics 9231 Paper 11 Q5 October/November 2015 Prove by mathematical induction that, for all positive integers n, a (e* sinx) = 27'e* sin(x+ tn), Cambridge International AS & A Level Fusther Mathematics 9231 Paper 11 Q3 October/November 2011 KEY, POINTS Vf ‘The terms of a sequence are often written a8 d,, dy, ayy... OF ty, yy yy ‘The general term of a sequence may be written as ¢, or u, (Sometimes the letters k or jare used instead of »).The last term is usually written as 4, OF Hy. [A series isthe sum of the terms ofa sequence.The sum S, of the first terms ofa sequence can be written using the symbol E (the Greek capital S,sigma).. S,=4,44,44,4...44, 250, ‘The numbers above and below the 5 are the limits of the sum. They show that the sum includes all the terms 4, from 4; t0 4, Some series can be expressed as combinations of these standard results: Yr= nto +1) ye = tno +1)(2n +1) ys ee wW(n +1? Some series can be summed by using the method of differences. If the terms of the series can be written as the difference of terms of another series, then many terms may cancel out.This is called a telescoping sum.5 To prove by induction that a statement involving an integer 1 is true for all n > n,, you need to: 2 prove that the result is true for an initial value of n,, typically n= 1 find the target expression: use the result for 1 = k to find the equivalent result for = k + 1. prove that: ificis true for n= +1. , then it is true for n= argue that since it is true for = 1, itis also true for n= 141 = 2, » and so for n= 2+ 1=3 and for all subsequent values of n. 3 conclude the argument with a precise statement about what has = been proved. 3 LEARNING OUTCOMES oO 2 Now that you have finished this chapter, you should be able to = define what is meant by a sequence and a series m find the sum ofa series using standard formulae for Yr, DP and DP = find the sum ofa series using the method of differences = use the sum to 1 terms, to find the sum to infinity ofa convergent series use proof by induction to prove given results for the sum of a series = use proof by induction to prove given results for the nth term of a sequence. Answers to exercises are available at www hoddereducation.com /cambridgeextras a