(IEEE) Trial Use Guide For Testing Permanent Magnet Machines

IEEE Trial-Use Guide for Testing
Permanent Magnet Machines
IEEE Power and Energy Society
Sponsored by the
Electric Machinery Committee
And the
IEEE Industry Applications Society
Sponsored by the
Electric Machines Committee
IEEE
3 Park Avenue IEEE Std 1812™-2014
New York, NY 10016-5997
USA
Authorized licensed use limited to: FLORIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY. Downloaded on October 02,2015 at 04:37:26 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE Std 1812™-2014

Sponsor
Electric Machinery Committee

of the
IEEE Power and Energy Society
And the
Electric Machines Committee
of the
IEEE Industry Applications Society
Approved 10 December 2014
IEEE-SA Standards Board
Abstract: Contained in this trial-use guide are instructions for conducting tests to determine the
performance characteristics and machine parameters of permanent magnet (PM) machines. The
tests described may be applied to motors and generators, as needed, and no attempt is made to
partition this guide into clauses applying to motors and clauses applying to generators. It is not
intended that this guide shall cover all possible tests, or tests of a research nature, but only those
general methods that may be used to obtain the performance data and machine parameters. The
schedule of factory and field tests, which may be required on new equipment, is normally
specified by applicable standards or by contract specifications. This guide should not be
interpreted as requiring any specific test in a given transaction or implying any guarantee as to
specific performance indices or operating conditions.
The term specified conditions for tests as used in this guide will be considered as rated conditions
unless otherwise agreed upon. Rated conditions apply usually to the quantities listed on the
machine nameplate.
Keywords: characteristics, IEEE 1812™, permanent magnet machines, testing
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Participants
At the time this IEEE trial-use guide was completed, the P1812 Working Group had the following
membership:
Haran C. Karmaker, Chair

H. Bulent Ertan, Vice Chair
Mehdi Abolhassani, Secretary
Emmanuel Agamloh M. Abul Masrur Daniel M. Saban

Roger H. Daugherty James R. Michalec Nick Stranges
Ahmed El-Serafi Rebecca Nold Stephen D. Umans
Vijay Garg M. A. Rahman Rajeev Vyas
Delvis Gonzalez John Roach Rene Wamkeue
Rakib Islam Semyon Royak David Wood
Swarn Kalsi Peter Wung
The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this trial-use guide. Balloters may
have voted for approval, disapproval, or abstention.
Emmanuel Agamloh Frank Gerleve Michael Newman

Thomas Bishop Randall Groves Lorraine Padden
William Bloethe Gary Heuston Christopher Petrola
Derek Brown Innocent Kamwa Ulrich Pohl
Gustavo Brunello Haran C. Karmaker John Rama
Donald Campbell Yuri Khersonsky Daniel Leland Ransom
Antonio Cardoso Saumen Kundu John Roach
Weijen Chen James Lau Michael Roberts
Luis Coronado Michael Lauxman Daniel M. Saban
Roger H. Daugherty William Lockley Bartien Sayogo
Matthew Davis Greg Luri James Smith
Gary Donner Ahmad Mahinfallah Gary Stoedter
James Dymond Omar Mazzoni Nick Stranges
Ahmed El-Serafi William McCown James Timperley
Jorge Fernandez Daher Don McLaren John Vergis
Shawn Filliben Nigel McQuin Yingli Wen
William Finley James R. Michalec Kenneth White
When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this trial-use guide on 10 December 2014, it had the
following membership:
John Kulick, Chair

Jon Walter Rosdahl, Vice Chair
Richard H. Hulett, Past Chair
Konstantinos Karachalios, Secretary
Peter Balma Michael Janezic Ron Petersen

Farooq Bari Jeffrey Katz Adrian Stephens
Ted Burse Joseph L. Koepfinger* Peter Sutherland
Clint Chaplin David J. Law Yatin Trivedi
Stephen Dukes Hung Ling Phil Winston
Jean-Philippe Faure Oleg Logvinov Don Wright
Gary Hoffman T. W. Olsen Yu Yuan
Glenn Parsons
*Member Emeritus
vi
Copyright © 2015 IEEE. All rights reserved.
Also included are the following nonvoting IEEE-SA Standards Board liaisons:
Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative

Michael Janezic, NIST Representative
Julie Alessi
IEEE-SA Content Production and Management
Malia Zaman
IEEE-SA Technical Program Operations
vii
Introduction
This introduction is not part of IEEE Std 1812™-2014, IEEE Trial-Use Guide for Testing Permanent Magnet
Machines.
The Motors Subcommittee of the Electric Machinery Committee of the IEEE Power and Energy Society
proposed the project since permanent magnet machines are being employed for many industrial
applications and there is no existing guide for testing these machines. The PAR P1812 was approved by
IEEE-SA on December 09, 2009. On May 19, 2011, the IEEE Industry Applications Society became a co-
sponsor of this working group and its activities.
viii
Contents
1. Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.3 Organization of the guide .................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Instrumentation .................................................................................................................................... 2
2. Normative references.................................................................................................................................. 3
3. Condition and integrity tests ....................................................................................................................... 3

3.1 Resistance measurement ...................................................................................................................... 4
3.2 Phase sequence .................................................................................................................................... 4
3.3 Insulation resistance ............................................................................................................................ 5
3.4 Dielectric and partial discharge tests ................................................................................................... 5
3.5 Polarity tests for magnets..................................................................................................................... 5
3.6 Shaft and bearing current ..................................................................................................................... 5
3.7 Over-speed tests ................................................................................................................................... 5
3.8 Resistance to demagnetization ............................................................................................................. 6
3.9 Acoustic noise...................................................................................................................................... 6
3.10 Vibration ............................................................................................................................................ 6
4. Steady-state tests ........................................................................................................................................ 6

4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 6
4.2 Open-circuit tests ................................................................................................................................. 6
4.3 Short-circuit tests ................................................................................................................................14
4.4 Load tests ............................................................................................................................................18
4.5 Thermal performance..........................................................................................................................22
5. Transient tests ............................................................................................................................................24

5.1 Retardation test ...................................................................................................................................24
5.2 Sudden short-circuit test .....................................................................................................................27
6. Machine operating characteristics .............................................................................................................29

6.1 Stator voltage waveform .....................................................................................................................29
6.2 Losses and efficiency..........................................................................................................................29
6.3 Thermal capability ..............................................................................................................................33
6.4 Torque ripple ......................................................................................................................................33
Annex A (informative) Bibliography ............................................................................................................37
Annex B (normative) Nomenclature .............................................................................................................38
Annex C (informative) Background on demagnetization ..............................................................................39

C.1 Stator faults ........................................................................................................................................40
C.2 Asymmetric demagnetization.............................................................................................................40
C.3 Detection of demagnetization ............................................................................................................41
C.4 Demagnetization due to temperature .................................................................................................41
ix
IMPORTANT NOTICE: IEEE Standards documents are not intended to ensure safety, security, health,
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This IEEE document is made available for use subject to important notices and legal disclaimers.
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1. Overview
1.1 Scope
This trial-use guide contains instructions for conducting tests to determine the performance characteristics
and machine parameters of permanent magnet (PM) machines. The tests described may be applied to
motors and generators as needed, and no attempt is made to partition this guide into clauses applying to
motors and clauses applying to generators. It is not intended that this guide shall cover all possible tests, or
tests of a research nature, but only those general methods that may be used to obtain the performance data
and machine parameters. The schedule of factory and field tests, which may be required on new equipment,
is normally specified by applicable standards or by contract specifications. This guide should not be
interpreted as requiring any specific test in a given transaction or implying any guarantee as to specific
performance indices or operating conditions.
The term specified conditions for tests as used in this guide will be considered as rated conditions unless
otherwise agreed upon. Rated conditions apply usually to the quantities listed on the machine nameplate.
1.2 Purpose
Instructions for conducting tests to determine the performance characteristics and machine parameters of
PM machines are covered in this guide. Additional tests can be required by the customers and operators to
satisfy specific performance indices.
1
IEEE Std 1812-2014
IEEE Trial-Use Guide for Testing Permanent Magnet Machines
1.3 Organization of the guide
This guide consists of seven clauses. By following the IEEE 2012 style guide, the first three clauses are
mandatory clauses for all new standards. Clause 1 gives an overview of the entire guide using the scope
approved by the IEEE Standards Board. Clause 2 lists the normative references. Clause 3 includes the
definitions. Clause 3 through Clause 6 are written in two parts, by following the structure of IEEE Std
115™. 1,2
Clause 3 through Clause 5 constitute Part I and describe the steady-state and transient performance test
procedures. Clause 4 describes the condition and integrity tests, some of which may precede the
performance testing described in Clause 5 and Clause 6. Many of these tests are performed to assess the
overall health of the machine. Since the PM excitation is usually employed in the rotor, the stator
construction is often similar to the stator of the wound-field synchronous machines. Therefore, many stator-
specific tests can be applied to PM machines by following IEEE Std 115. Clause 4 describes the steady-
state performance tests. The term steady-state is defined for these tests in 4.5.1. Clause 5 describes the
transient tests. These tests include retardation and sudden short-circuit tests.
Clause 6 constitutes Part II of the guide and describes the machine operating characteristics, such as losses,
efficiency, thermal capability, torque-speed characteristics, and torque ripple. In the initial ballot, a Clause
8 was included to describe the test procedures for determination of model parameters. The Working Group
decided not to include this clause for this ballot since there are many issues for different rotor
configurations that have not been fully resolved to recommend the tests to the user. The publication of this
guide should encourage users to contribute to the future revisions to resolve the testing issues for
parameters in PM machines of various rotor configurations. References [B2], [B6], and [B8] 3 can be used
as the basis for the next revision.
Where the test procedure for a PM machine is the same as that for a wound-field synchronous machine,
reference to the test procedure in IEEE Std 115 is provided in lieu of duplicating the same information in
this guide. Consequently, the use of IEEE Std 115 in conjunction with this guide is recommended.
1.4 Instrumentation
Appropriate instrumentation requirements are generally the same as outlined in IEEE Std 115.
WARNING
Many tests described in this guide subject the machine to thermal, dielectric, or mechanical stresses that
could extend beyond normal operating limits. To reduce the risk of damage to the machine or operators, it
is recommended that all tests be performed either under the manufacturer’s supervision or in accordance
with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
Because of the excessive currents, voltages, and forces encountered, adequate safety precautions should be
taken for all tests. No attempt is made here to list or review the numerous general safety precautions that
are well established throughout the industry. However, this guide recommends special safety precautions
applicable to the particular tests described. Knowledgeable and experienced personnel should perform all
tests.
1
Information on references can be found in Clause 2.
2
IEEE publications are available from The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854,
USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).
3
The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the bibliography in Annex A.
2
IEEE Std 1812-2014
2. Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i.e., they must
be understood and used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship to this document is
explained). For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of
the referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies.
ASTM-G182, Standard Test Method for Determination of the Breakaway Friction Characteristics of
Rolling Element Bearings. 4
IEEE Std 43™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Testing Insulation Resistance of Rotating Machinery. 5
IEEE Std 56™, IEEE Guide for Insulation Maintenance of Large Alternating-Current Rotating Machinery
(10 000 VA and Larger).
IEEE Std 95™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Insulation Testing of Large AC Electric Machinery
(2300 V and Above) With High Direct Voltage.
IEEE Std 112™, IEEE Standard Test Procedure for Polyphase Induction Motors and Generators.
IEEE Std 115™, IEEE Guide for Test Procedures for Synchronous Machines, Part I—Acceptance and
Performance Testing; Part II—Test Procedures and Parameter Determination for Dynamic Analysis.
IEEE Std 118™ (withdrawn), IEEE Standard Test Code for Resistance Measurement. 6
IEEE Std 433™, IEEE Recommended Practice for Insulation Testing of AC Electric Machinery with High
Voltage at Very Low Frequency.
IEEE Std C57.13™, IEEE Standard Requirements for Instrument Transformers.
NEMA MG1, Motors and Generators. 7
PART I—TEST PROCEDURES
3. Condition and integrity tests

A number of tests within this category are common to other types (non-permanent magnet) of machines
and have been described in IEEE Std 112 and IEEE Std 115. However, some tests are specific to the PM
machines. To perform these tests, various standards besides those noted above have been referenced where
applicable. The tests for which there are no known standards are described in detail.
4
ASTM publications are available from the American Society for Testing and Materials, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West
Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, USA (http://www.astm.org/).
5
The IEEE standards or products referred to in this clause are trademarks of The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
6
IEEE Std 118 has been withdrawn; however, copies can be obtained from The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445
Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).
7
NEMA publications are available from the National Electrical Manufacturers Association, 1300 N. 17th St., Ste. 1847, Rosslyn, VA
22209, USA (http://www.nema.org/).
3
IEEE Std 1812-2014
3.1 Resistance measurement
To obtain dc resistance of armature and field winding (if applicable) at specified temperature, see
IEEE Std 118.
3.2 Phase sequence
3.2.1 General
Phase sequence of PM machines are tested in a similar manner to the methods adopted in IEEE Std 115 for
testing synchronous machines. However, attention should be paid to the issues emphasized here. Following
the test procedures in IEEE Std 115, the phase sequence can be tested using the following methods:
 Method 1: Phase-sequence indicators
 Method 2: Indication of differential voltage
 Method 3: Direction of rotation for machines that can be started on a power source
Comments on these tests are given below.
3.2.2 Method 1: Phase-sequence indicators
During this test, it is recommended to run the PM test machine at a shaft speed to produce 50 Hz or 60 Hz
output voltage. If the output voltage magnitude is compatible with the neon-lamp indicator input voltage,
the test machine output voltage is directly connected to the sequence indicator. Otherwise, the connection
can be made using voltage transformers. When it is necessary to connect a phase-sequence indicator to the
machine terminals through voltage transformers, extreme care should be exercised in observing the
conventions for polarity markings of the voltage transformers. (See 4.8.1 of IEEE Std C57.13.)
3.2.3 Method 2: Indication of differential voltage
In performing this test on a PM machine, the output voltage of the voltage transformers connected to the
system and the test machine should be close in magnitude. This can be achieved by choosing appropriate
turns ratio for the voltage transformers on either side of the disconnect switch.
3.2.4 Method 3: Direction of rotation for machines that can be started on a power source
The test procedure is the same as that described in 3.7.4 of IEEE Std 115.
3.2.5 Voltage unbalance
Voltage unbalance is defined in different ways in different standards. These definitions may be found in
NEMA MG1 and in the European standard EN 50160 [B9]. Reference [B1] also gives a good discussion of
the voltage unbalance issue.
4
IEEE Std 1812-2014
3.3 Insulation resistance
See IEEE Std 43, IEEE Std 56, IEEE Std 95, and IEEE Std 433 for tests to determine insulation resistance.
3.4 Dielectric and partial discharge tests
Relevant clauses from IEEE Std 115 can be followed for these tests.
3.5 Polarity tests for magnets
The difference in polarity of the PM field poles can be checked by means of a small permanent magnet
mounted so that it can turn and reverse its direction freely when it is in close proximity of the rotor. The
magnet indicates a change in polarity by reversing direction as it is passed from pole to pole. The test
magnets should be checked to determine that its magnetism has not been lost or its polarity reversed by the
field flux. The open-circuit voltage magnitude is also a good indication of the magnets’ health.
An alternate means of checking magnet polarity is to use a Hall probe sensor. The Hall probe has the
advantage that it will not demagnetize and that it gives an order of magnitude of flux so that it is possible to
check the polarity of individual magnet segments along a rotor pole.
WARNING
Use properly designed tooling for the Hall probe sensor so that it can be moved safely around the periphery
of the rotor without the possibility of pinching body parts between the magnets and the probe.
3.6 Shaft and bearing current
There are two main classifications for bearing currents:

a) Classical bearing currents (sometimes referred to as sinusoidally driven): associated with line
operated machines and involve high voltage sinusoidal waveform (i.e., a non-pulse width
modulated or PWM). See IEEE Std 115.
b) Inverter driven bearing currents: inverter driven machines can cause bearing currents due to fast
rise time (dv/dt) and magnitude of common mode voltage (Vcm).
It is the magnitude of these currents that may cause damage to the bearings. Bearing damage caused by
electrical currents in machines are pits or transverse flutes burnt in the bearing race.
Testing methodologies in IEEE Std 112 and IEEE Std 115 can be followed for the classical bearing
currents. There is no known standard (which this WG is aware of), for measuring bearing currents in
inverter driven motors.
3.7 Over-speed tests
Reference should be made to IEEE Std 115. One of the primary concerns associated with PM machines is
the magnet containment during an over-speed condition. Normally, the over-speed test is performed with
no magnetic field in the machine. Since this is not possible for PM machines, care must be taken to
coordinate the design of the insulation system to allow the over-speed test to be performed without damage
if the rated voltage of the machine is exceeded during the over-speed testing.
5
IEEE Std 1812-2014
3.8 Resistance to demagnetization
3.8.1 Testing to evaluate resistance to demagnetization
The main reason for this testing is to identify the integrity of the machine for any potential
demagnetization. The properties of the magnet material can lose some of their initial magnetization over
time due to various operational conditions. Hence, the intent is to determine the level of magnetization the
machine has retained at a particular time in its life, and how much change can be expected if it is subjected
to harsh conditions. Finally, the key element is that the tests should not involve physical removal of the
magnets and should not be destructive and change the integrity of the machine.
Fundamental and harmonic back EMF (open-circuit voltage) is a good indicator of magnetic health of a PM
machine. A baseline open-circuit voltage should be taken when the machine is assembled new and kept for
future comparison.
3.9 Acoustic noise
Acoustic noise tests in PM machines can be performed by following the procedures of IEEE Std 115.
3.10 Vibration
The vibration tests in PM machines can be performed by following the procedures of IEEE Std 115.
4. Steady-state tests
4.1 Introduction to steady-state tests
This clause includes tests which can be performed to determine the steady-state characteristics of PM
machines; electrical, thermal, and mechanical. Steady-state condition is defined in 4.5.1. Common steady-
state test conditions can be characterized into three categories: open-circuit, short-circuit, and load
operation. Part II of this guide discusses the procedures that the results of these tests can be used to produce
models of the machines which, in turn, can be used for design purposes, to predict machine performance
under a variety of operating conditions, and to diagnose problems.
4.2 Open-circuit tests
Open-circuit tests are conducted with the machine armature terminals open-circuited and hence with no
current flowing in the armature windings. In wound-field synchronous machines under these conditions, the
magnetic flux in the machine is controlled by the field current and can be varied from zero to the rated-
operation flux level or higher. As a result of this capability to control the flux level, it is possible to define
test procedures which separate to a great extent open-circuit core loss from other losses due to mechanisms
such as friction and windage. For example, in a wound-field synchronous machine, a test to determine the
loss under open-circuit conditions with zero field current provides a direct measurement of the friction and
windage loss while the difference between that loss and the loss measured under excitation to a specific
flux level and open-circuit voltage is a direct measure of the open-circuit core loss.
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
The situation is not so simple in the case of PM machines since the flux excitation is fixed at a level
determined by the PMs. As a result, it is not possible to perform simple tests which separate the friction and
windage loss from the open-circuit component of core loss. The situation is further complicated by the fact
that the strength of the magnets, which affects both the open-circuit voltage and loss, is affected by the
magnet temperature, which can neither be easily determined nor directly controlled. These distinctions
between the characteristics of wound-field and PM synchronous machines are reflected in the open-circuit
test procedures described in this guide.
4.2.1 Open-circuit voltage test
4.2.1.1 Overview
Unlike a wound-field synchronous machine in which the open-circuit voltage is a unique function of the
field current and can be characterized as such, the open-circuit voltage of a PM machine cannot be uniquely
characterized. The issue is that the rotor flux is produced by the magnets whose characteristics (residual
flux density, coercivity, etc.) are temperature dependent. For example, both the residual flux density and
coercivity of rare-earth magnet materials such as neodymium-iron-boron decrease with increasing
temperature. On the other hand, an increase in temperature decreases the residual flux density and increases
the coercivity of ferrite materials.
It is typically not possible to directly measure the temperature of rotating magnets without highly
specialized instrumentation (e.g., a telemetry system). However, a reproducible, meaningful measurement
of the open-circuit voltage of a PM machine can be made if the machine is operating in a thermal steady-
state condition as can be determined by monitoring various measurable motor temperatures.
The results of the open-circuit voltage test can be used for modeling and diagnostic purposes. For example,
the results can be used to verify the magnitude of the generated voltage as well as to measure its balance
and harmonic content. In addition, based upon the known temperature-dependent characteristics of the
magnet material used in the PM machine, an open-circuit voltage measurement can be used as an indirect
indication of the magnet temperature.
4.2.1.2 Test procedure
The open-circuit voltage can be measured from a number of initial conditions, including:
a) Machine operating open-circuited
b) Machine operating as a generator
c) Machine operating as a motor
Test procedures for each initial condition are described below. It should be emphasized that there is not a
unique open-circuit voltage that can be assigned to a PM machine under any operating condition. Because
of the temperature-dependence of the magnet characteristics and because the machine temperatures will
vary with operating condition, the open-circuit voltage will vary with the operating condition. As a result,
to be of use in analysis or modeling, the operating condition corresponding to each tested value of open-
circuit voltage should be recorded.
In all cases, the following measurements should be made:
Terminal voltage: At minimum, a single line-line voltage should be measured although measurement of
two or three line-line voltages will provide a check of voltage balance and may provide an indication of any
winding problems. Note that for a three-phase machine, the third line-line voltage need not be measured
directly since it is simply equal to the negative of the phasor sum of the first two voltages. However, it is
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
prudent to check all line-line voltages to check any unbalance in magnitude and phase. Instrumentation can
be as simple as digital or analog meters which measure rms voltage or as sophisticated as a digital scope or
data acquisition system which can be used to record the details of the voltage waveforms and can be used to
analyze harmonic content and other characteristics of the voltage waveforms.
Machine speed: The open-circuit voltage is proportional to the machine speed and hence the speed should
be measured simultaneously with the voltage. The machine speed can be measured using a tachometer or
an equivalent instrument. Alternatively, it can be determined from the frequency of the machine terminal
voltage.
Temperature: The open-circuit voltage is a function of the magnet temperature. Ideally, the magnet
temperature should be measured directly. However, this is rarely possible and a characteristic motor
temperature(s) (e.g., a stator winding temperature) should be measured and monitored.
4.2.1.3 Machine open-circuited
To test a PM machine operating in the steady-state, open-circuited, the machine should be driven by a
prime-mover at constant speed. The machine winding temperature(s) should be monitored to ensure that the
machine is thermally in a steady-state as indicated by a constant temperature reading as defined in 4.5.1.
When a steady-state condition has been reached, the open-circuit voltage can be measured and the
corresponding characteristic temperature(s) and machine speed should be recorded.
Alternatively, if the machine is initially at a known condition (e.g., it has not been operated and is at
ambient temperature) and the test is conducted rapidly, it is reasonable to assume that the test results
correspond to that initial condition.
4.2.1.4 Machine operating as a generator
If the machine is operating as a generator, the open-circuit voltage can be measured as follows:
a) With the machine operating at a fixed load and speed, monitor characteristic machine temperatures,
such as the armature winding temperature.
b) When a thermal steady-state is reached, trip the contactor or breaker connecting the generator to its
load to open-circuit the armature terminals.
Measure the open-circuit voltage and monitor the speed. This measurement should be made immediately
following the opening of the contactor to ensure that the magnet temperature is as close to its steady-state
level as possible.
Since the speed is likely to vary somewhat, this test is probably best conducted using an oscilloscope or
data-acquisition system that will allow the cycle-cycle variation of voltage and motor speed to be
determined. To account for any change of speed, the following procedure should be followed:
a) Measure the terminal voltage and generator speed as functions of time.
b) If there is a noticeable change in speed, the voltage at each instant of time should be associated
with the corresponding speed and frequency.
c) The open-circuit voltage can be corrected to the machine rated speed and frequency by multiplying
the measured voltage at any given speed by the ratio of the rated speed to the speed at the time of
measurement.
Note that care should be taken such that the generator speed does not exceed the maximum value
recommended by the manufacturer.
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
4.2.1.5 Machine operating as a motor
If the machine is operating as a motor, two methods are available to measure the open-circuit voltage. The
first method can be applied at any load while the second method can be applied only to an unloaded motor.
a) This method can be applied to the motor operating at any given load and is performed as follows:
1) With the machine operating at a fixed load and speed, monitor characteristic machine
temperatures, such as the armature winding temperature detectors.
2) When a thermal steady-state is reached, trip the contactor or breaker supplying power to the
armature terminals. Measure the open-circuit voltage and the motor speed as a function of
time. Since the speed will decrease rapidly (depending upon the load on the motor), this test is
probably best conducted using an oscilloscope or data-acquisition system that will enable the
cycle-cycle variation of voltage and motor speed to be determined.
3) The open-circuit voltage can be corrected to the machine rated speed and frequency by
multiplying the measured voltage at any given speed by the ratio of the rated speed to the
speed at the time of measurement.
b) For the second method, the motor should be operated unloaded and connected to a variable-voltage
source. The test is then conducted as follows:
1) With the machine operating at no-load (i.e., supplying or absorbing only reactive power) and
a fixed speed, monitor the characteristic machine temperatures.
2) When a thermal steady-state is reached, vary the motor terminal voltage to find the terminal
voltage corresponding to minimum terminal current. That voltage will then be equal to the
corresponding open-circuit voltage. Note the following:
i) This test should be conducted rapidly as compared to the motor thermal time constant so
that the measured open-circuit corresponds to the temperature at the steady-state
condition.
ii) Ideally, the minimum winding current observed in this test should be zero. However, as
a practical matter, due to friction and windage losses as well as small imbalances in the
generated voltage and applied terminal voltages due to harmonic effects, the minimum
current is likely to be non-zero and may not be the same in all the phases.
4.2.2 Open-circuit losses
4.2.2.1 Overview
Unlike wound-field synchronous machines, it is not possible to define tests for PM machines which can
provide direct measurement of the core loss independent of the rotational friction and windage loss under
open-circuit conditions. As a result, the test procedures described in this clause are somewhat different than
those for wound-field machines per IEEE Std 115.
The open-circuit loss in a PM machine is a function of the machine speed as well as the operational
temperature. Speed affects the friction and windage loss as well as the core loss. Temperature affects the
magnet strength (and hence the core loss) as well as the losses in the bearings and the windage loss. The
cooling system may affect air flow and hence windage loss. As a result, the machine speed and, where
appropriate, magnet temperature should be monitored and recorded for each of the tests discussed in this
clause.
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
4.2.2.2 Friction and windage loss
The friction and windage loss for a wound-rotor machine is obtained by measuring the power input to the
machine being tested with zero excitation (see IEEE Std 115). However, for a machine with PM excitation,
the excitation is fixed and cannot be reduced to zero. Therefore, an alternate test method can be
implemented by replacing the PM rotor with a non-magnetized equivalent rotor. For this purpose, the
equivalent rotor should be one of the following:
a) An identical rotor, including magnets, in which the magnets have yet to be magnetized.
b) An identical rotor in which the magnets have yet to be inserted and the magnet space is filled with a
non-magnetized material.
c) A rotor which is physically similar to the PM rotor in all aspects which affect friction and windage
loss.
With the equivalent rotor installed in the machine, a drive motor is then used to bring the rotor to the speed
of interest. The combined friction and windage loss can then be measured directly and indirectly.
a) Direct measurement of torque and power: If the test system includes a torque transducer between
the drive motor and the PM machine, the friction and windage loss torque TFW can be measured
directly and the corresponding power loss PFW can be obtained by the product of this torque and the
test speed ωm
PFW = ωmTFW (1)

If TFW is expressed in N × m and ωm in rad/sec, PFW will be in Watts.
b) Indirect measurement: Two methods are available to measure the friction and windage loss
indirectly.
1) The drive motor can be used to bring the motor to the desired test speed. If the drive-motor
loss Ploss,drive is accurately known at the operating condition of the measurement, it can be
subtracted from the drive-motor input power Pdrive to determine PFW
PFW = Pdrive − Ploss,drive (2)
The accuracy of this method is greatly dependent on the capability to measure the input power
of the drive motor as well as its loss at the operating condition of the test. Because friction and
windage loss are typically a small percentage of the motor rating, errors in the determination
of either of these quantities can significantly impact the measurement of the friction and
windage loss. As a result, accuracy of this technique is greatly enhanced by selecting a drive
motor whose rating is on the order of that of the PM machine whose loss is being measured.
2) In the second method, the drive motor is used to bring the motor to a desired initial test speed.
If the power to the drive motor is then disconnected, the subsequent decay in machine speed
will be determined by the combined inertia and the friction and windage loss torque of the
machine under test and the drive motor. The method is called the retardation test and is
covered in 5.1.
4.2.2.3 Total open-circuit loss
For each of the tests discussed here, the magnet temperature will affect the flux density in the machine and
hence the resultant core loss. Thus the machine should be in a known steady-state when the tests are
conducted. This can be determined by monitoring a characteristic machine temperature. Alternatively, if
the machine is initially at a known condition (e.g., it has not been operated) and the test is conducted
rapidly, it is reasonable to assume that the test results correspond to that initial condition.
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
a) Direct measurement of torque and power: If the test system includes a torque transducer between
the drive motor and the PM machine, the open-circuit loss torque TOC can be measured directly and
the corresponding power loss POC can be obtained by the product of this torque and the test speed
ωm
POC = ωmTOC (3)
If TOC is expressed in N × m and ωm in rad/sec, POC will be in Watts.
It may be difficult to obtain accurate readings if the same torque transducer used for making rated
torque measurements is used here as well.
b) Indirect measurement: Two methods are available to measure the total open-circuit loss indirectly.
1) The drive motor can be used to bring the motor to the desired test speed. If the drive-motor
loss Ploss,drive, is accurately known at the operating condition of the measurement, it can be
subtracted from the drive-motor input power Pdrive to determine total open-circuit loss POC
POC = Pdrive − Ploss,drive (4)
The accuracy of this method is greatly dependent on the capability to measure the input power of
the drive motor as well as its loss at the operating condition of the test. Because the open-circuit
loss is typically a small percentage of the motor rating, errors in the determination of either of these
quantities can significantly impact the measurement of the open-circuit loss. As a result, the
accuracy of this technique is greatly enhanced by selecting a drive motor whose rating is on the
order of that of the PM machine whose loss is being measured.
2) In the second method, the machine under test is connected to a variable frequency drive and
brought up to a desired test speed. If the machine under test is then disconnected from the
drive, the subsequent decay in machine speed will be determined by the inertia and open-
circuit loss torque of the machine under test. The method is called the retardation or coast-
down test and is covered in 5.1. Specifically, as has been discussed, because excitation in PM
machines is fixed, it is not possible to separate core loss from other rotational losses (e.g.,
friction and windage) in a single test. However, if the friction and windage loss PFW and the
total open-circuit loss POC of a PM machine have been determined by test, the open-circuit
core loss Pcore,oc can be determined as:
Pcore,oc = POC − PFW (5)
4.2.3 Cogging torque
PM machines are widely used in industrial, automotive, aerospace, and consumer applications. Many of
these applications require low torque ripple to reduce vibration and acoustic noise. Cogging torque is
defined as the difference of the maximum peak to minimum peak torque measured over one complete
revolution while machine is open-circuit or no excitation and rotated at a very low constant speed of 3 rpm.
One of the intrinsic characteristics of the PM machines with slotted stators is an oscillating or pulsating
torque even when the stator is not excited. The peak-to-peak value of this pulsating torque at zero current is
termed the cogging torque. In PM machines, the rotor has a tendency to align itself to a minimum
reluctance (stable) position even when the machine is de-energized. The reluctance variation seen by the
PM rotor is due to the stator slotting; that is, a tooth is followed by a slot opening.
It should be noted that the cogging torque may cause variations in rotor speed as the rotor is rotated during
a test. Therefore, caution should be exercised during cogging torque measurements so that the rotor inertia
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
does not affect the measured data. For these reasons, cogging torque measurements are performed either
through a series of static (zero speed) torque measurements covering at least one slot pitch or dynamically
at a very low and constant motor speed in both directions (clockwise and counterclockwise) to capture any
hysteresis effects. It is recommended to measure cogging torque for one complete revolution in order to
account for any geometric variations which cannot be captured in one slot pitch measurement.
4.2.3.1 Measurement of cogging torque
A schematic of a typical dynamic setup to measure cogging torque is shown in Figure 1. Also, cogging
torque can be measured statically as shown in Figure 2. Static measurement setup shown in Figure 2
requires a circular indexing fixture calibrated in mechanical degrees which is incremented in discrete steps
(rotor rotation in one mechanical degree or less). After each discrete rotation, the reaction torque is
measured, and after a sufficient number of discrete steps this yields the cogging torque. This procedure is
repeated until one revolution of the machine rotor is completed. An increasing torque should be applied to
the stationary rotor, and the torque at which the rotor starts to move should be recorded. This measured
torque is the breakaway torque and from this static friction can be calculated. One should refer to ASTM
G182 standard for measuring bearing friction. It should be noted that static setup measurements are done
with machine in open-circuit state with no form of excitation applied to the machine. It is also
recommended to verify that the test machine terminals are insulated properly and the leads are separated
since any movement of the PM rotor will produce voltage.
Furthermore, it must be assured that the machine under test is open-circuit. In the case of measuring
cogging torque using a dynamic setup, the drive motor is commanded to spin at a constant and low-speed,
preferably 3 rpm, to minimize rotor inertia and windage and friction effects. The impact of drive motor
speed variations and system inertia can be evaluated using a dummy PM rotor in the machine under test.
Also, in case of delta connected windings it is recommended to use dummy stator without any windings to
avoid the impact of circulating currents on the measurement of cogging torque when using the method
where the rotor is spinning at 3 rpm.
General practice is to perform the cogging test at room temperature; however, the temperature should be
recorded as the magnet output. Hence cogging torque is a function of the magnet temperature. Because
cogging torque is typically a small fraction of the rated machine torque, resolution of the torque sensor
should be very fine compared to the rated machine torque to accurately measure the cogging torque. The
magnitude of this torque is typically a small percentage of the peak torque and is a function of the magnet
strength, air gap length, skew, slot opening width, etc. A measured cogging torque curve for one complete
machine revolution is shown in Figure 3 including a dc offset due to friction. Cogging torque is defined as
difference between maximum peak to minimum peak over one machine revolution as shown in Figure 3.
Finally, it should be noted that the cogging torque curve measured while the motor is rotating in a
clockwise direction is never identical to the one measured while the motor is rotating in a counter-
clockwise direction, which can be attributed to hysteresis, eccentricity, and bearing friction effects. Hence,
it is recommended to average the measured clockwise and counter-clockwise cogging torque as a resultant
cogging torque of the machine under test.
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
Computer and Oscilloscope
commands
Shaft
CCW and CW Rotation
Drive Position Torque Motor

Motor Encoder Meter Under Test
Flexible Coupler
Open Circuit, No Excitation, Motor Speed 3 RPM
Motor Speed Must be Maintained Constant During the Test For Cogging Torque Measurement
Figure 1 —Schematic to dynamically measure cogging torque
Computer and Oscilloscope
Shaft
Motor Mechanical
Torque
Indexing
Meter Under Test
Fixture
Open Circuit, No Excitation
Flexible Coupler
Figure 2 —Schematic to statically measure cogging torque of a PM machine
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
Figure 3 —Typical cogging torque waveform
4.3 Short-circuit tests
4.3.1 Introduction to short-circuit tests
In combination with a measurement of the open-circuit voltage as discussed in 4.2, the armature current
measured under steady-state short-circuit conditions can be used to determine the synchronous reactance
(for a non-salient-rotor machine) or direct-axis reactance (for machines with rotor saliency). The
temperature rise as measured under steady-state short-circuit conditions can be used to determine the
thermal characteristics of a PM machine and its cooling system. As is the case for all operating conditions
of a PM machine, the performance under short-circuit conditions will vary depending upon the magnet
temperature and thus it is in general prudent to monitor characteristic machine temperatures while
conducting short-circuit tests.
4.3.2 Test configuration
Short-circuit tests are conducted with the machine armature terminals short-circuited as shown in Figure 4.
As shown in Figure 4, the PM machine should be driven by a drive motor. Because the rotor excitation in a
PM machine is fixed, it is not possible to vary or control the magnitude of the steady-state short-circuit
current as is the case for a conventional synchronous machine with a field winding. In many cases, the
short-circuit current, whose per-unit value can be calculated as the ratio of the per-unit open-circuit voltage
to the per-unit synchronous d-axis reactance, will significantly exceed the machine rated current. This in
turn will lead to rapid heating of the machine and rapid temperature rise. As a result, in some cases, as is
shown in Figure 4, it may be useful to insert an external current-limiting impedance in series with each
armature phase to limit the temperature rise. The external impedance should be reactive since any resistive
component will increase the short-circuit loss and load on the drive motor.
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
Under short-circuit conditions, the net core flux-density in a PM machine is relatively small; its per-unit
value can be estimated as the product of the per-unit short-circuit current multiplied by the per-unit value of
the machine’s leakage reactance. For conditions of low core flux-density, the core loss will be typically
small and the short-circuit loss will be primarily the armature-winding I2R loss. The presence of external
impedance in the test configuration will result in an increase in the net core-flux density and hence the
resultant core loss.
Figure 4 —Short-circuit test configuration. The external impedance is an optional test

component which can be used to limit the short-circuit current to a desired level.
4.3.3 Test preparation
Because the short-circuit current level may exceed the rated current of the PM machine under test, in
preparing for the test, it is helpful to estimate the rms short-circuit current Isc as
Voc
I sc = [A] (6)
3X s
where
Voc = Rated rms line-line open-circuit voltage [V]
Xs = Synchronous reactance. Equivalently, for a machine with saliency, Xs can be replaced by the direct-
axis synchronous reactance Xd. [Ω]
Equation (6) is based upon the assumption that the magnitude of the synchronous reactance is significantly
larger than the armature resistance Ra. If this is not the case, Xs in Equation (6) can be replaced by the
magnitude of Zs where Zs = Ra + j Xs.
The calculated short-circuit current can be used to select cable size, the ratings for current-measurement
devices, shorting switches, and breakers as required. Should the short-circuit current be deemed excessive
and an external impedance Zext be included in the test configuration, the short-circuit current can be
estimated as
Voc
I sc =
(
3 jX s + Z ext ) (7)
where the operator | | returns the magnitude of the complex quantity. By inserting the external impedance,
the resulting current is no longer technically a short-circuit current in the strict sense.
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
As with any synchronous machine, except for operation at very low speeds (and corresponding low
electrical frequencies) for which the armature resistance is significant as compared to the armature
reactance, with constant excitation, the short-circuit current will be essentially constant independent of
speed. The corresponding loss will thus be constant independent of speed while the torque required to drive
the machine will vary inversely with speed. The drive motor should be rated to supply the required loss at
the desired test speed.
For a wound-field synchronous machine with variable excitation, the short-circuit can be applied to the
machine under test prior to the start of the test and the machine can be brought up to speed with zero
excitation. With the excitation then applied at the test speed, the drive motor need only supply the torque
corresponding to the test condition.
In the case of a PM machine, the excitation cannot be removed while the machine is brought up to test
speed. If the short-circuit is applied prior to the test (shorting-switch closed or not included), the torque
required to bring the test machine up to speed may approach rated torque and exceed the torque capability
of the drive motor. If this is the case, the short-circuit current can be reduced through the use of an external
impedance (preferably reactive since the resistive component of the external impedance will increase the
short-circuit loss). The external impedance value should be estimated prior to the test to limit the short-
circuit current to the rated current.
Alternatively, a shorting switch or breaker can be incorporated in the test configuration and the machine
can be brought up to the desired test speed with the switch open at which point the switch can be closed.
However, as is well known, the sudden application of a short-circuit can produce large transient currents,
torques, and forces on the armature winding end-turns. In addition, the transient currents produced by a
sudden short-circuit applied to a PM machine may result in demagnetization of the magnets. As a result,
prior to conducting a short-circuit test in this fashion, an accurate analysis should be conducted to ensure
that the machine is not damaged. As has been discussed, an external impedance may be required to limit
the short-circuit current to an acceptable level.
The following measurements should be made when conducting a short-circuit test.
a) Terminal current: At minimum, a single-phase current should be measured although measurement

of the currents in each phase will provide a check of current balance and may provide an indication
of winding problems. It is advisable to measure all phase currents to identify possible phase-current
unbalance. The current transformers should be properly sized for the expected short-circuit current
of the permanent-magnet machine, which may be greater than the machine rated current.
Instrumentation can be as simple as a digital or analog meter which measures rms current or as
sophisticated as a scope or data-acquisition system which can be used to record the details of the
current waveforms and can be used to analyze harmonic content and other fine-structure
characteristics of the current waveforms.
b) Machine speed: Although to a great extent, the short-circuit current will be independent of machine
speed, the machine speed should be monitored and data taken with the machine operating at a
constant speed. Holding a constant speed is especially important in those instances where the test
objective includes determining the thermal characteristics of the motor and of its cooling system.
The machine speed can be measured using a tachometer or an equivalent instrument. Alternatively,
it can be determined from the frequency of the test machine terminal current.
c) Temperature: At a minimum, characteristic temperatures in a PM machine under short-circuit
conditions should be monitored to verify that the machine is not damaged. The armature winding
temperatures should be closely monitored. In addition to damaging electrical insulation, there is the
risk of demagnetizing the magnets due to operation at temperatures in excess of their safe operating
range. If possible, the magnet temperature should be measured directly. Thermistor or
thermocouple signals can be transmitted through a slip ring, through a telemetry system, or through
a shaft-mounted data logger. The stator core and stator support structure can also be instrumented
with thermocouples.
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
The following measurements should be helpful when evaluating the results of a short-circuit test:
a) A torque-transducer between the drive motor and the PM machine under test in combination with
the speed measurement can be used to determine the short-circuit power loss in the PM machine.
b) A measurement of the open-circuit voltage immediately prior to and following the short-circuit test
can be used to examine the change in magnet temperature resulting from the test.
c) A measurement of the armature-winding phase-phase resistances following a short-circuit test can
be used as a direct measurement of the resultant armature-winding temperature rise.
4.3.4 Test procedure
WARNING
As discussed above, if the prime-mover used for conducting the short-circuit test is not capable of
accelerating the motor under test to the desired test speed, the test procedure requires that the short circuit
be applied by suddenly closing the short-circuit switch. As discussed above, testing in this manner should
only be conducted if an analysis has been conducted to verify that a suddenly-applied short-circuit will not
cause damage to the machine under test. In some cases, an external impedance inserted in series with the
armature winding as in Figure 4 can be used to limit the short-circuit to a safe level.
The test procedure for a short-circuit test may vary depending upon the test objective. If the objective is the
determination of the synchronous inductance or the d-axis synchronous inductance, the test can be
conducted rapidly with the objective of minimizing the effects of temperature. In this case, the following
test procedure can be followed:
a) Prior to the start of the test, the open-circuit voltage corresponding to the initial machine
temperature should be determined (see 4.2.1).
b) The drive motor should be used to bring the test machine up to the desired test speed. If the drive
motor is capable of supplying the required torque, the short circuit can be applied prior to starting
the test. If not, the test machine should be accelerated with the shorting switch open.
c) When the machine reaches the desired test speed, if necessary, the short-circuit contactor should be
closed and the steady-state short-circuit current should be quickly measured. Note that, depending
upon the speed regulation capability of the drive motor, the speed may change somewhat after the
short circuit is applied. In most cases, this will not cause a noticeable change in the magnitude of
the short-circuit current. If this measurement is made quickly enough (as might be verified by
monitoring the machine temperature), the generated voltage under this short-circuit condition will
be equal to the open-circuit voltage of step a) and accordingly the synchronous reactance can be
calculated as discussed in Clause 6 (taking into account the possible addition of an external
impedance).
In the more general case, the following test procedure should be followed:
a) Prior to the start of the test, the open-circuit voltage corresponding to the initial machine
temperature should be determined (see 4.2.1). The phase-phase resistance of the machine should
also be measured. If the test is conducted with a shorting switch, this measurement can most easily
be taken from the opened shorting switches back into and including the armature of the generator.
The armature-winding and ambient temperatures should be recorded at the time the resistance
measurement is made.
b) The drive motor should be used to bring the test machine up to the desired test speed. If the drive
motor is capable of supplying the required torque, the short circuit can be applied prior to starting
the test. If not, the test machine should be accelerated with the shorting switch open.
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
c) When the machine reaches the desired test speed, if necessary, the short-circuit contactor should be
closed. Note that, depending upon the speed-regulation capability of the drive motor, the speed may
change somewhat after the short circuit is applied. In most cases, this will not cause a noticeable
change in the magnitude of the short-circuit current. However, if a specific machine speed is critical
to the objective of the test (e.g., if the test objective includes an investigation of the cooling
system), the speed should be monitored and adjusted as necessary.
d) As the test proceeds, the test-machine temperature(s) should be monitored and recorded. In addition
to ensuring that the temperature does not rise to the point of damaging the machine, measuring the
rate of temperature rise will provide important data which can be used to analyze the thermal
characteristics of the machine and of the cooling system. If a torque transducer is included in the
test configuration, recording the torque will provide a measurement of the short-circuit power
dissipation as the test proceeds.
e) Depending upon the magnitude of the short-circuit current and the test objectives, it may be
possible to continue the short-circuit test until the test machine reaches a thermal steady-state.
Thermal stability is described in 4.5.1. A full set of measurements (temperatures, current, speed,
torque if available, etc.) should be taken when thermal stability is reached. Note that when
evaluating the test results, a measurement of the machine speed is useful to determine the
contribution of friction and windage loss, determined as discussed in 4.2.
f) Although the short-circuit current will be essentially independent of speed (unless the test
configuration includes an external impedance with a large resistive component), the magnitude of
the short-circuit current will change as the magnet temperatures change (changing the machine-
generated voltage). A record of the magnitude of the short-circuit current as a function of time can
be used to determine the magnet temperature as the motor heats up. The initial magnitude of the
short-circuit current in combination with the initial magnitude of the open-circuit voltage can be
used to determine the synchronous/d-axis inductance as discussed in Clause 6.
g) If a shorting switch is included in the test configuration, the open-circuit voltage can be measured
immediately following the short-circuit test as discussed in 5.2.1. This voltage, in combination with
the final magnitude of the steady-state short-circuit current can be used to determine the
synchronous/d-axis inductance as discussed in Clause 6.
h) If a shorting switch is included in the test configuration, it may be possible to measure the armature
resistance at the end of the test and to use this information (extrapolated back to the time of the end
of the test) to estimate temperature rise of the armature winding.
WARNING
Because the PM test machine cannot be de-energized, there will be terminal voltage on the machine as long
as it continues to rotate. No attempt to measure the armature resistance should be conducted until the
machine has come to a complete stop.
The short-circuit test is stopped either by reducing speed on the drive motor or by opening the shorting
breakers and then reducing speed.
4.4 Load tests
4.4.1 Load test overview
As with all electrical machines, PM machines are tested under load both to check their integrity and to
characterize their performance at the operating conditions for which they are designed. Typical test
objectives include a determination of efficiency, power factor, and machine temperatures as a function of
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
load and terminal voltage. Load tests can also provide information about voltage and current balance and
harmonic distortion as well as torque pulsations, vibration, and acoustic noise.
As with open-circuit and short-circuit tests, the load performance of PM machines is especially sensitive to
temperature because of the temperature dependence of the magnet characteristics. Thus, for an accurate,
reproducible characterization of the machine performance under load, the PM machine should be
instrumented with temperature sensors which should be monitored both to verify that the machine is
operating under steady-state conditions (see 4.5.1) when measurements are made and also to characterize
the operating condition for those measurements.
4.4.2 Instrumentation
Depending on the objective of the test being conducted, instrumentation for a load test may include various
combinations of the following:
a) Instrumentation to measure terminal voltage and current. This may be as simple as analog meters
which measure rms voltage and as sophisticated as an oscilloscope or data acquisition system
which can capture the details of the voltage and current waveforms.
b) Instrumentation to measure electrical power.
c) A torque transducer to measure shaft torque.
d) Instrumentation to measure machine speed. This may be done directly using a tachometer or
indirectly by measuring the frequency of the terminal voltage.
e) Instrumentation to measure temperatures. Temperatures of interest include internal temperatures
such as armature winding, armature connections, magnet, and support hardware near the windings.
Terminal box internal air and bus bar temperatures may be needed. In addition, cooling air inlet and
outlet temperature measurements may be useful, especially if calorimetric loss measurements are
desired.
f) Instrumentation to measure vibration.
g) For machines with a specialized cooling system, for example water-cooled machines,
instrumentation to monitor the performance of the cooling system and its impact on the machine
performance may be included.
PM machines can be operated both as motors and generators. Although the tests are basically the same for
each mode of operation, the test set-up may vary depending upon the mode of operation being tested.
4.4.3.1 Motor testing
When testing a PM machine as a motor, various sources of input power can be used. Specifically, the motor
can be supplied from a variable-frequency inverter or from a fixed or variable-frequency, sinusoidal source.
Similarly, it can be loaded either by an electric machine operating as a generator, by a friction brake, an
electrical or mechanical brake, or a mechanical load such as a pump or a fan.
If the PM motor is to be tested while operating from a variable-frequency source or the PM motor is
capable of self-starting on a fixed frequency sinusoidal source, the test procedure consists of the following
steps:
a) The PM motor is first brought up to the desired test speed.

b) The applied voltage and motor load are next adjusted to the desired test level.
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
c) With the voltage, load, and speed held constant, a characteristic motor temperature should be
monitored until a steady-state temperature is reached.
d) Once the desired steady-state operating condition has been reached, measurements appropriate to
the test objective(s) can be made. As discussed above, these may include measurements of voltages,
currents, power, torque, temperature, and vibration.
If the PM motor is to be tested while operating from a fixed frequency, sinusoidal source, it should be
connected to a load motor which can serve both to bring the motor up to the synchronous speed and to load
the motor once it is paralleled to the supply source. In this case, the test procedure consists of the following
steps:
a) The load motor is used to bring the PM motor under test up to the synchronous speed as determined
by the fixed-frequency source.
b) The PM motor should then be connected to the fixed frequency source.
c) If the voltage of the fixed-frequency sinusoidal source is adjustable, the test-motor terminal voltage
should be adjusted to the desired test condition.
d) The load is next adjusted to the desired test level.
e) With the load and test-motor voltage held constant, a characteristic motor temperature should be
f) Once the desired steady-state operating condition has been reached, measurements appropriate to
the test objective(s) can be made. As discussed above, these may include measurements of voltages,
currents, power, torque, temperature, and vibration.
4.4.3.2 Generator testing
When testing a PM machine as a generator, it should be driven by a rotating machine (an electric motor or a
turbine) capable of bringing the generator to the desired test speed and supplying the required test power.
The generator load may be a constant-impedance load such as a resistor bank or a variable-frequency
power-electronic motor drive capable of regeneration. Alternatively, the generator can be paralleled to a
fixed-frequency, sinusoidal source.
The test procedure varies somewhat depending upon the test configuration. If the generator is to be loaded
by an external impedance load, it can be driven by a variable-speed motor or a turbine. In this case, follow
the following steps of the test procedure:
a) The PM generator should be brought up to the desired test speed. In some cases, the load may be
connected to the generator prior to the start of the test.
b) If not done prior to the start of the test, the load should next be connected to the generator.
c) If the load is adjustable (e.g., a variable resistance), it should be adjusted to the desired level and
the speed re-adjusted to the desired test speed if necessary.
d) With the load impedance and speed held constant, a characteristic generator temperature should be
e) Once the desired steady-state operating condition has been reached, measurements appropriate to
the test objective(s) can be made.
If the generator is to be loaded by a regenerative drive, it can be driven by a motor driven from a variable-
frequency source or a turbine. In this case, the test procedure consists of the following steps:
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
a) The PM generator is brought up to the desired test speed. This can be done using either the turbine,
variable speed motor, or power electronics capable of operating both as a drive and in a
regenerative mode connected to the generator terminals.
b) The generator load should be increased to the desired test level while maintaining the generator
speed and terminal voltage at the desired test values. Depending on the type of drive, this may
require some coordination between the control of the drive motor and the generator load.
c) With the speed, generator terminal voltage, and load held constant, a characteristic generator
temperature should be monitored until a steady-state temperature is reached.
d) Once the desired steady-state operating condition has been reached, measurements appropriate to
the test objective(s) can be made.
Figure 5 —Schematic view of the back-to-back testing configuration
4.4.3.3 Back-to-back testing with separate controls
When a PM machine is supplied by a variable-frequency power-electronic control and coupled to a second

electric machine also powered by a variable-frequency control with both drives connected to the same
power source, this test configuration is frequently referred to as a back-to-back test. This configuration is
shown in schematic form in Figure 5. In Figure 5, machine MS represents the machine operating as a motor
and GS represents the machine operating as a generator.
If a back-to-back test is conducted with two identical PM machines, it is possible to run simultaneous tests
of motor and generator performance. In any case, in the back-to-back test configuration, each PM machine
can be tested as either a motor or a generator. Each machine’s performance can be accurately determined
by averaging the performance in both motor and generator modes. The tests are conducted as discussed in
4.4.3.1.
One significant feature of this test configuration is that because both controls are connected to the same
power source, the power source need only supply the net losses of the two machines and their controls for
any loading under test. This is most significant when the machine ratings are significantly larger than the
capability of the power source or available impedance load, and permits the machines to be tested to their
rating. However, especially in the case of nearly identical controls, the stability of the test setup can be at
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
risk if a robust grid-side control is not properly implemented. Attention should be paid to the grid-side and
common-mode filters, especially for this test configuration. Resonance between grid-side filters of the two
controls can result if the controllers are not tuned for this case and significant ground currents can be
imposed with some switching strategies (e.g., discontinuous PWM).
4.4.4 No-load testing
No-load tests are a special case of load tests in which the machine is operated with the load set equal to
zero. As a result, the instrumentation and test methods are identical to those discussed in 4.4.2 and 4.4.3. As
with testing under load, depending on the capability of the system supplying power at the machine
terminals, no-load testing can be conducted at any desired voltage and frequency.
If the machine under test is connected to a load motor, although the load provided by that motor can be set
equal to zero, it should be recognized that there will still be a small load on the machine under test as it has
to supply the rotational loss of the load motor. It will be fully unloaded if the machine under test is operated
uncoupled (in which case it should be supplied from a variable frequency control).
4.5 Thermal performance
4.5.1 General
Thermal-performance testing of PM machines is conducted to investigate the characteristics of the cooling

system and the impact of the cooling system and its operating parameters on the temperature distribution
within a PM machine. Temperature effects are especially significant in PM machines because of the
temperature sensitivity of the PMs. Temperature rise is determined both by losses in the machine and by
the cooling method. At the design stage, one may wish to investigate the impact of fan size in the case of a
forced-air-cooled machine or on the impact of flow-rate in a liquid-cooled machine. In addition, thermal-
performance testing can be conducted to ensure that the temperature rise of the various components does
not exceed safe operating limits under normal operating conditions.
For achieving the steady-state temperature, the criterion of IEEE Std 112 is applied which states that heat
run tests shall continue until there is less than 1 °C change in temperature rise above the ambient
temperature over a 30 min period during the continuous heat run.
4.5.2 Temperature measurement
Once a steady-state operating condition (constant applied voltage, load, and constant operating
temperatures) has been achieved, various aspects of the thermal performance of the machine can be
measured using techniques described in IEEE Std 112 and IEEE Std 115:
a) Embedded sensor: Embedded sensors include thermocouples, resistance temperature detector

(RTD), infrared sensors, or thermistors. Single-use sensors are thermal paints.
b) Open-circuit voltage: A measurement of the open-circuit voltage immediately following the steady-
state test can be used to determine an approximate value of the rotor magnet temperature.
c) Thermometer: After the machine is shut down, the thermometer should be placed on the hottest
components of the machine. Easily removable paneling is recommended for quick thermometer
placement.
d) Stator-winding temperatures can be measured using the rise-by-resistance method as described in
5.8.4 of IEEE Std 112.
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
In addition, a measurement of the open-circuit voltage immediately following the steady-state test can be
used to determine an approximate value of the rotor magnet temperature.
Note the following:
a) Embedded detectors provide a direct measurement of temperatures under the desired operating
conditions while the load should be dropped and the machine is open-circuited to measure the
open-circuit voltage (see 4.2.1) and the machine should be shut down and de-energized (electrically
isolated and mechanically stopped so that there is not back EMF from the magnets) to make
thermometer or resistance measurements. In the case of open-circuit voltage and thermometer
testing, it is recommended that the parameters be recorded as a function of time relative to the time
at which the steady-state loading condition is terminated.
b) Check the equipment prior to installation for functionality and calibration.
c) Rotor magnet temperature has a significant influence on machine performance. All magnets change
in flux density strength with temperature rise; thus power drops with temperature rise. Measuring
magnet temperatures is difficult on a rotating device. Below is a list of temperature measurement
methods.
1) Embed thermocouples or RTDs on the rotor, then use a telemetry system, slip ring, or data
logger to send the signal out of the rotor.
2) Apply thermal paints that change color based upon maximum temperature. This requires
testing post rotor removal for paint inspection.
3) Relate the back EMF voltage generated at a constant speed to the magnet temperature. In the
case of a machine with rare-earth PMs, the back EMF voltage will drop with increasing
temperature while the opposite may be true in the case of a machine with ferrite magnets. The
relationship is typically linear over normal machine operating temperatures. Manufacturer-
supplied curves of the magnet characteristics as a function of magnet temperature can be used
to relate the measured back EMF to the magnet temperature. Figure 6 shows a typical rare-
earth PM material thermal characteristic.
Figure 6 —Curves showing the temperature dependence of the properties of a

typical rare-earth magnetic material as a function of temperature
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
4.5.3 Cooling-system characterization
Except for open-vented machines, common practices for cooling PM machines include forced-air draft,
closed-loop pressurized liquid, or liquid supply with gravity drain. Just as the machine under test should be
held at steady-state temperature, so should the cooling system. During loaded steady-state thermal
performance testing, keeping the cooling media at constant flow and temperature is critical. Tests should be
continued until machine temperatures have reached steady-state (see 4.5.1).
NOTE—At higher altitudes, the temperature rise will be greater than at sea level. While an exact conversion is not
available, a commonly used method allows for the influence of altitude. For each 100 m above 1000 m, the temperature
rise is reduced by 1% to obtain the rise expected at sea level. See IEEE Std 112 for details. 8
With the machine under test and its cooling system adjusted to a specified steady-state operating condition,
the following steps should be followed:
a) Record the machine loading conditions and the operating temperatures.

b) In the case of a liquid cooling system, measure the fluid flow rate and fluid inlet and outlet
temperatures. Maintain a constant flow, free of oscillations or surges. For closed loop systems, a
constant pressure should be maintained.
c) In the case of an air-cooled machine, measure the inlet air-flow rate (if possible) and inlet and
outlet temperatures, each averaged from several monitored points. If a flow measurement is
unattainable, keep constant pressure at the inlet to the machine or pin the position of the air damper.
WARNING
In conducting thermal tests for the purposes of cooling-system characterization, it is assumed that the
machine may be pushed to its limits. It is important that safe thermal limits be established for such tests. To
avoid potential demagnetization of the magnets, it is recommended that the machine manufacturer be
consulted before conducting any tests which may take the machine out of its rated operating range in terms
of loading or temperature. Along with monitoring the rotor magnet temperature, armature winding
temperatures are critical measurements for conductor insulation breakdown. Consult the conductor
manufacturer for insulation limits.
5. Transient tests
5.1 Retardation test
5.1.1 General
The retardation or coast-down test is used to determine the stored energy in the machine as the stored
energy is related to the loss that tends to decelerate the rotor during free coast-down. This test relies on the
relationship between the deceleration rate and the total losses.
Specifically,
dω m
Tdec (ω m ) = J c (8)
dt
8
Notes in text, tables, and figures of a standard are given for information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement
this standard.
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
where
ωm = Machine speed [rad/sec]
Jc = Total moment of inertia of the test machine and drive motor, if present [kg × m2]
T,dec (ωm) = Total decelerating torque of the test machine and the drive motor if present. Note that this
torque is a function of the machine speed [N × m]
If the inertia Jc is known and an accurate measurement of speed as a function of time can be obtained, a
highly accurate measure of total friction and windage loss torque can be obtained using Equation (8). This
test is performed for PM rotors with magnets non-magnetized. The machine loss as a function of speed can
then be obtained as:
Wloss(ωm) = ωmTdec (ωm) (9)
Note that this method requires a determination of the time-derivative of the machine speed. Although this
derivative can in theory be determined from the machine speed, it is well known that any noise in a
measured signal is greatly enhanced when a derivative of that signal is taken. Because this test typically
results in a relatively smooth, well-behaved speed transient, the accuracy of the method can be greatly
enhanced if a computer program is used to fit the measured speed data to a polynomial function of time. If
this is done, it is a simple matter to express the derivative analytically.
Figure 7 —Plot of measured and polynomial-fit ωm vs. time
For example, a polynomial function might be used to fit the speed as a function of time shown in Figure 7
in the form:
ωm(t) = a0 + a1t + a2t2 + a3t3 + ... (10)
Based upon the polynomial fit of Equation (10), the time derivative is given by:
dω m
= a1 +2a 2 t + 3a 3 t 2 +... (11)
dt
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
The loss of the drive motor, if present, should be well-defined so that the loss of the test motor can readily
be obtained by subtraction of the drive motor loss from the total loss.
As an alternative, the frequency may be recorded directly by using a data acquisition system or can be
obtained from the voltage induced in the stator coils. Because it is a smooth transient, the induced voltage
has a waveform that decays in amplitude and frequency as the rotating speed decreases. Accurate results
can be obtained if a computer program is used to determine the frequency by detecting the zero-crossing in
the voltage waveform. Then the derivative can be found in the same manner as above.
There are two methods to drive the machine under test up to the desired speed to perform the coast-down
test:
In the first method, the machine operates as a motor with no mechanical load connected to the shaft. A
power electronic control is used to bring the motor to the desired speed, then the power to the motor is
disconnected. The speed and/or the waveform of the induced voltage are recorded during the coast-down.
Since the PM machine rotor is magnetized, open-circuit loss can be derived from this test.
The second method is performed by driving the machine under test by a drive motor. The system is brought
up to the desired speed and then, the power of the motor is disconnected. The rotational speed and/or the
waveform of the induced voltage are recorded as the system decelerates. The loss of the drive motor PNL
while driving the machine under test with loss Pdm should be known. The loss in the machine under test can
be calculated by subtracting Pdm from PNL the total losses. Note that the inertia used to calculate the total
losses now includes the inertia of the drive motor.
Ploss_PM = PNL - Pdm (12)
This second method could be used with a dummy or non-magnetized rotor to take a measurement of
friction and windage loss alone.
5.1.3 Components of the no-load loss
The retardation test is typically performed with the terminals of the machine under test opened, so there is
no load current circulating in the stator windings. Since internal currents in various paths of the machine
during the test are small compared to the load current, the copper losses can be neglected. Because the
excitation flux of the magnets is always present with a magnetized rotor, the losses calculated by Equation
(12) have two components: mechanical and electromagnetic (or core) losses. The mechanical losses
comprise friction and windage losses, which can be measured separately as discussed in 5.1.2. In fact, to
separate the core losses from the frictional and windage losses of the test machine, the test machine’s rotor
is replaced with an identical test machine rotor but without the magnets on it and filled preferably with
equivalent nonmagnetic material of the same weight in the place of magnets and driven by the auxiliary
motor repeating the measurements. The measured power output of the drive motor excluding its own total
losses gives the mechanical (frictional and windage) of the test machine. Note that the copper losses in
Figure 8 refer to losses in the drive motor. The core losses are caused by the rotating magnetic flux of the
magnets and consist of the iron loss in the stator laminations and the eddy current loss in the stator coils.
The magnitude of the iron loss depends on the flux density in the magnetic circuit and the frequency which
decays with the speed. The eddy current loss in the stator coils can be significant in large machines with
form-wound windings for high-frequency high-speed machines. Figure 8 shows the profile of the no-load
losses in a high-speed machine measured during coast-down and its analytical segregation.
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
Figure 8 —No-load losses from retardation method

The magnitude of the no-load losses in PM machines depends on the rotor temperature. Because the
strength of the rare earth magnets drops as the temperature increases, the flux density in the magnetic
structure is reduced and the magnitude of the electromagnetic losses decreases, too. Figure 9 compares the
no-load losses of a high-speed machine measured at room temperature and the no-load losses measured
once the bearing reaches stable temperature. The strength of the magnets is reduced with the temperature
and the magnetic flux decreases as the temperature rises, reducing the losses dependent on the flux density
(i.e., iron losses in the stator laminations).
Figure 9 —No-load losses from retardation test at room and stable temperatures
5.2 Sudden short-circuit test
Sudden short-circuit tests are performed to verify both mechanical and electrical integrity of the machine
per IEEE Std 115. For PM machines, one most important consideration is the potential demagnetization of
the magnets due to terminal faults, such as a phase-to-phase or three-phase sudden short-circuits. If short-
circuit tests are specified, this potential for demagnetization must be considered as part of the design of the
machine.
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
5.2.1 Open-circuit test prior to sudden short-circuit test
Before performing the sudden short-circuit test, an open-circuit test is performed by following the
procedure in Clause 4. The reason for the test is to determine the open-circuit voltage before the short-
circuit test and to determine the no-load losses. The open-circuit test is again performed following the
short-circuit test to determine if the sudden short-circuit test affected the open-circuit voltage due to any
demagnetization of the magnets. The test should be performed on the cold machine before any heat run test.
As explained in Clause 4, the magnet temperature influences the open-circuit voltage of the machine.
Whenever direct measurement of magnet temperature is not practical, the open-circuit voltage may serve as
an indication of the quality of the magnet properties in the operational conditions.
5.2.2 Sudden three-phase short-circuit test
a) Sudden three-phase short-circuit test as a motor: Following the open-circuit test described in 5.2.1,
the machine is accelerated to the desired speed. After the desired speed is reached, the motor is
disconnected from the power supply. After the motor is disconnected, a sudden short-circuit is
applied to the machine terminals through an additional breaker. All phase currents should be
recorded as a function of time at a high sampling rate immediately following the sudden short-
circuit.
b) Sudden three-phase short-circuit test as a generator: Following the open-circuit voltage
measurement, the machine is accelerated to the desired speed using a drive motor. Shorting
switches are left open during acceleration. The shorting switches are closed to apply the sudden
short-circuit to the terminals of the test machine. All phase currents plus speed should be recorded
as a function of time at a high sampling rate immediately following the sudden short-circuit. A
typical recorded phase current is shown in Figure 10 for three-phase sudden short-circuit test
performed on a PM machine.
Figure 10 —Typical three-phase sudden short-circuit current waveform
5.2.3 Open-circuit test following sudden short-circuit test
After completing the three-phase short-circuit test, the open-circuit test is performed again to evaluate the
quality of the magnets.
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5.2.4 Sudden two-phase short-circuit test
Two-phase sudden short-circuit is performed similarly as three-phase, except sudden short-circuit is applied
to only two phases. During the two-phase short-circuit, oscillating torque due to unbalance may be
significant and cause additional noise and vibration.
PART II—MACHINE CHARACTERISTICS
6. Machine operating characteristics

In Part II of the guide, the PM machine characterization and model parameter determination from tests
performed following the test procedures of Part I are described. Many characterization and parameter
determination methods are similar to conventional wound-field synchronous machines. The users are
recommended to use IEEE Std 115 and IEC 60034-2-1 standards of wound-field synchronous machines as
references. References [B5] and [B7] have additional information on testing PM machine characteristics.
6.1 Stator voltage waveform
The no-load stator voltage waveform in a PM generator is a very important characteristic in that it gives an
indication of the magnet properties for overall performance of the machine. The voltage waveform with its
harmonic content and phase balance should be recorded during open-circuit tests described in Clause 4.
The total harmonic distortion of the stator voltage waveform should be analyzed using a digital power
meter. For PM machines, the magnitude of the open-circuit voltage is affected by the magnet temperature
since the remanent flux density varies with temperature. The voltage waveform deviation and distortion
factors may be determined by following the procedures of IEEE Std 115.
6.2 Losses and efficiency
6.2.1 Loss components
The loss components to be used in determining the efficiency of a PM machine are as follows:
a) Core loss
b) Friction and windage loss
c) Stray-load loss
d) Armature I2Ra loss using the armature current at the specified load and the dc armature resistance
corrected to a specified temperature
e) Additional losses due to drive voltage harmonics
Test procedures for determining some component losses and total losses have been described in Part I. PM
machine operating characteristics with respect to various losses are described in this clause. Due to the
absence of any field winding similar to the conventional synchronous machines, the rotor copper losses are
zero in PM machines. However, the magnets are somewhat electrically conducting and the eddy current
losses in the magnets may not be negligible. Although the magnet material’s conductivity is low relative to
copper, the losses may become significant for certain geometrical configurations, such as surface PM
(SPM) rotor with open slot stator. The armature slot ripple losses in the magnets are included in the
measured open-circuit core loss. The magnet eddy current losses under load are included in the stray-load
loss component.
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For PM machines, the loss and efficiency characteristics are given as functions of speed according to the
application. An example of a torque-speed characteristic of a multi-megawatts-rated wind turbine generator
application is shown in Figure 11. The wind generator is usually designed for operation over a speed range.
The maximum speed of operation may be specified higher than the rated speed. Some important
operational speed points are usually specified over the speed range. The losses and efficiency may be
measured at the specified speeds. Figure 12 and Figure 13 show curves of friction and windage loss and
open-circuit core loss vs. speed. Figure 14 shows a set of typical performance curves including efficiency.
Rated
Speed
Torque
Speed
Figure 11 —Torque-speed characteristic of a PM wind generator

Friction & Windage Loss
Rated
speed
Speed
Figure 12 —Friction and windage loss characteristic of a PM wind generator
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
Open Circuit Core Loss Rated

Speed
Speed
Figure 13 —Open-circuit core loss characteristic of a PM wind generator
Performance Curves
Efficiency Power Voltage Current
1 1.4
1.2
0.98
1
Efficiency (pu)
0.8
0.96
0.6
0.4
0.94
0.2
0.92 0
0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
Speed (pu)
Figure 14 —Efficiency and performance characteristic of a PM wind generator
For PM machines, internally generated stray-load loss can be determined similar to synchronous machines
during sustained short-circuit testing. Internally generated stray-load loss refers to stray-load loss due to
machine geometry and construction without considering the impact of drive voltage harmonics.
The internally generated stray-load loss can be found from short-circuit power by subtracting other
components of loss present in the machine from the total measured loss. Ideally, the friction and windage
loss, PFW, can be determined using a non-magnetized test as discussed in 4.2.2. The machine dc I2R loss
can be determined from the known phase armature resistance, operating temperature, and the current
readings during the short-circuit. The external shorting circuit I2R loss can be significant and should be
considered. Temperature readings during the test are used to adjust the measured armature and shorting
circuit resistance to the operating temperature. Because field flux due to magnets is still at full strength, the
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
short-circuit core loss due to field flux is difficult to measure directly. Overall, the stray-load loss can be
expressed as:
PSL = PSC,tot − PFW − Ia2Ra − Ia2Rshort − PSC,core (13)
where PSL is the stray-load loss of the machine itself and does not include the impact of any drive voltage
harmonics that may be present when the machine is operated under load. PSC,core is core loss under short-
circuit condition. There is no known test that can be made to determine PSC,core. However, with good
approximation, PSC,core can be neglected. Hence, Equation (13) can be approximated as:
PSL ≅ PSC,tot − PFW − Ia2Ra − Ia2Rshort (14)
The stray-load loss resulting from Equation (14) may not correspond to the rated current of the machine
since (depending on the reactance of the machine) the short-circuit current may be greater or less than the
rated current. To obtain the stray-load loss at a specific load point, the value from Equation (14) must be
scaled to account for the desired load current and frequency.
The open-circuit core loss and friction and windage loss for permanent magnet machines are determined
according to the procedures described in 4.2.2. The stator copper loss is determined using the stator current
for the test load and the dc resistance at the measured average winding temperature.
If the machine application calls for the machine to be loaded through a drive, it is necessary to determine
the loss under load and efficiency using a load test. The loading condition during the test should be as
similar as possible to the actual condition in the application. The total losses may be measured directly
from output and input power, and the component losses are subtracted from total losses to obtain an
estimate of the stray-load losses including those due to drive harmonics.
Total loss under load can be measured in two ways. The first is to calculate the difference between shaft
torque and electrical power at the machine terminals. This method requires subtracting two large numbers
in an attempt to arrive at a number that is 1% to 10% of the total measurement. Accordingly, there is a large
possibility of an erroneous result. Utmost care should be taken to calibrate the torque transducer and obtain
high accuracy in the current and voltage measurements. For high efficiency machines, it is important to use
a transducer that has the highest accuracy that is practical to obtain.
The second method for finding total loss under load is to calculate the heat rejection of the machine through
temperature rise and flow rate of the cooling fluid(s). Again, care should be taken to accurately measure
inlet and outlet temperatures and flows. The advantage of this method is that the measurement concerns the
loss only, not the total machine power, so a ± 10% accuracy may be sufficient.
The total loss for both machines in back-to-back tests can be determined as the difference of power input to
the machine operated as motor and the power output from the machine operated as generator. The total loss
in each machine can be separated by using the measured currents in each machine to separate the load-
dependent losses. Stray-load loss is determined after subtracting all components from the total loss.
6.2.2 Efficiency
The true efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the output power to the input power under specified
conditions. External loss, such as power to an external blower, may be added to the load loss obtained
experimentally. On small machines, these values can be measured directly. On larger machines where the
mechanical power cannot be measured accurately, efficiency is defined based on segregated losses.
For a generator:
losses × 100
Efficiency (%) = 100 − (15)
(output + losses)
32
IEEE Std 1812-2014
For a motor:
losses × 100
Efficiency (%) = 100 − (16)
input
In the above equations, power output, input, and losses are in the same units.
6.3 Thermal capability
The heat run or temperature tests are performed to determine the temperature rise of the machine above the
reference temperature. The reference temperature is normally defined by the cooling system used for the
machine as described in many standards. The thermal capability of the PM machine is defined by many
factors, such as the critical temperature of the magnets, the temperature limits of the insulation system, the
and cooling method.
6.4 Torque ripple
The instantaneous torque of a PM machine changes periodically as the rotor advances in rotation. The total
torque is made up of two components; a constant component and a periodic component. The constant
component can be described as the average torque, and the periodic component is a relatively smaller value
that can be expressed as a function of time or angle. Torque ripples in PM machines are contributed by the
machine and the drive. With respect to the machine, torque ripples are mainly caused by deviations from
idealized flux density distribution in the air gap of the machine as a result of several factors. One such
factor is variable magnetic reluctance due to slotting. The cogging torque as described in 4.2.3 is also
responsible for torque ripples, and the measurement of cogging torque is described in 4.2.3. The drive
contributes to torque ripples through time harmonics in the current waveform, time delays between
commanded and actual current, dc offsets in current sensors, etc.
There are methods available in literature for the minimization of torques ripple through machine design and
control techniques. However, it is a challenge to completely eliminate the torque ripples. The undesirable
effects of torque ripple include speed ripple, acoustic noise, vibrations, etc. All of these undesirable effects
degrade the performance of PM machines, especially in high-performance speed and position control
systems. The measurements for PM machines intended for use with a drive are taken with the machine
connected to the drive.
6.4.1 Definition of torque ripple
Torque ripple, expressed as a percentage, can be defined in several ways as shown below:
Tmax - Tmin
Tr1 = × 100 % (17)
Tav
Tmax - Tmin
Tr 2 = × 100 % (18)
Tmax + Tmin
Tmax - Tmin
Tr 3 = × 100 % (19)
Trms
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
where
Tr1, Tr2, Tr3 are the measured torque ripples
Tmax is the maximum torque
Tmin is the minimum torque
Tav is the average torque
Trms is the rms torque
The average torque and the rms torque in the above equations can be determined from the periodic torque
waveform as a function of the angle, α, by:
τp
1
Tav =
τp ∫
0
T (α )dα (20)
τp
1
Trms =
τp ∫
0
T 2 (α )dα (21)
where
τ p is the period of the torque waveform.
A more widely used definition for the torque ripple is the one given in Equation (17). For practical
purposes, the average torque can be calculated as:
Tmax + Tmin
Tav = (22)
2
In the above expression, all three quantities can be obtained from the same torque waveform expressed as a
function of time as shown in Figure 16.
6.4.2 Determination of torque ripple
Torque ripple measurements made under load conditions will give results that are very specific to the test
setup. The results obtained from this measurement do not give a clear indication of the torque ripple that
can be expected once the machine is connected to the specific driven equipment.
6.4.2.1 Test system requirements
Ripples in the torque are transferred to the load; therefore, they can be determined from shaft torque
measurements with the machine loaded. However, care should be taken to verify that the measured shaft
torque is representative of the electromagnetic torque developed in the air gap of the motor. Measures
should be taken to avoid the influence of inertial loads that are created by speed variations or bearing loads
that can also appear as shaft load.
For ripple torque measurements, a stiff system is desirable. Therefore, flexible couplings should be avoided
as much as possible. The selection of torque transducers is also important. High resolution and high
bandwidth torque sensors are effective in covering the major frequency components of the torque ripple.
In-line torque transducers that are typically connected to the rotor shaft tend to be susceptible to inertial
loads on the shaft. Any bearing loads can also be measured in error. Ideally, reaction torque transducers
34
IEEE Std 1812-2014
connected to the machine stator or gimbal-mounted dynamometers equipped with load cells can help to
avoid these errors [B3] and [B4].
The measurements for PM machines intended for use with a converter are taken with the machine
connected to the converter. The measurements can be taken at standard operating temperature. However,
machine temperature affects loading of the motor and the resultant torque ripple. Therefore, if it is desired
for comparability of the same machine under different conditions, the machine can be brought to stable
temperature at rated operating conditions prior to the torque ripple measurements at specified points.
6.4.2.2 Test setup
A simple dynamometer setup to measure torque ripple is shown in Figure 15. In this setup, the machine is
coupled to a dynamometer through a torque measuring device. A high-speed data acquisition system is also
shown for capturing the torque and speed signals during the test.
Torque ripple should be measured at the specified torque and speed operating points at nominal voltage.
For variable speed PM machines, at least three operating points should be selected over the machine’s
entire speed range or a specified speed range. The specified points should be selected so that they
correspond to those points where typically the machine can be observed to have high torque oscillations.
Also, at lower speeds, the influence of inertial torque may be reduced and therefore low-speed points
should be selected for testing.
The torque ripple measurement can be done by operating the machine at nominal voltage in speed mode at
the specified operating point. Operation in speed mode at constant speed is important in order to reduce
inertial loads on the rotor shaft, especially when in-line torque transducers are used. The load torque on the
motor is set at the given speed to the target average torque value while samples of the shaft torque are
acquired by the high-speed data acquisition system over a time period (e.g., three minutes). The torque
signal can also be monitored on a high-precision digital oscilloscope.
The torque ripple is calculated from the above formulae. The peaks and troughs of the measured ripple
waveform from a machine may not be at the same magnitude as high-frequency components are present
(see Figure 16). The ripple is calculated from the maximum and minimum recorded values.
Hi Speed Data Acquisition

System
ω
Device Torque and
Loading
Under Test Speed
dynamometer
sensor
Test Stand
Figure 15 —Setup to measure the torque ripple of a PM machine
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IEEE Std 1812-2014
It is important that the loading dynamometer in Figure 15 does not produce torque ripples of its own, which
may interfere with the measured ripples of the machine under test. Hysteresis brakes and eddy current
dynamometers can potentially produce lower ripple than dc generators or induction machines driven with
variable frequency controls as loading devices. In any case, ripple measurements and in particular
comparisons between machines are very challenging as there are a number of factors that come into play.
These factors include influence of inertial loads caused by speed variations, torque transducer bandwidth,
stiffness of the test setup, coupling type, bearing loads, and bearing imperfections.
140
135
130
125
Torque, Nm
120 Tmax
115
Tav
110 Tmin
105
100
1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100
Time, ms
Figure 16 —Torque ripple waveform of a permanent magnet machine

at 900 RPM and 130 Nm command torque
36
IEEE Std 1812-2014
Annex A
(informative)
Bibliography
Bibliographical references are resources that provide additional or helpful material but do not need to be
understood or used to implement this standard. Reference to these resources is made for informational use
only.
[B1] Bollen, M. H. J., “Definitions of Voltage Unbalance,” IEEE Power Engineering Review, pp. 49-50,
November 2002. 9
[B2] Ertan, H. B., and I. Sahin, “Evaluation of Inductance Measurement Metods for PM Machines,”
Proceedings of the International Conference on Electrical Machines, pp. 1670-1676, 2012.
[B3] Heins, G., M. Thiele, and T. Brown, “Accurate Torque Ripple Measurement for PMSM,” IEEE
Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. 60, no. 12, December 2011.
[B4] Holtz, J., and L. Springob, “Identification and compensation of torque ripples in high-precision
permanent magnet motor drives,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 43, no. 2, 1996.
[B5] Karmaker, H., G. Knierim, M. Ho, and B. Palle, “Methodologies for Testing a 2 MW Permanent
Magnet Wind Turbine Generator,” IEEE 2011 Annual General Meeting Panel on Wind Generators, 2011.
[B6] Prescott, J. C., and A. K.El-Karashi, “A Method of Measuring Self-Inductances Applicable to Large
Electrical Machines,” Proc. IEEE-Part A Power Eng., vol.106, no. 16, pp. 169-173, April 1959.
[B7] Saban, D. M., C. Bailey, and D. Gonzalez-Lopez, “Beyond IEEE Std 115 & API 546: Test
Procedures for High-Speed, Multi-Megawatt Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Machines,” IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 1769-1777, Sep/Oct 2010.
[B8] Stumberger, B., B. Kreca, and B. Hribernik, “Determination of Parameters of Synchronous Motor
with Permanent Magnets from Measurement of Load Conditions,” IEEE Transactions on Energy
Conversion, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 1413-1416, 1999.
[B9] Union of Electricity Industry, “Application guide to the European Standard EN 50160 on voltage
characteristics of electricity supplied by public distribution systems,” Ref:23002Ren9530, 1995.
9
IEEE publications are available from The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854,
USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).
37
IEEE Std 1812-2014
Annex B
(normative)
Nomenclature
Br remanent magnetic flux density

E electromotive force (emf)
E0 open-circuit phase voltage
H magnetic field intensity
Ia,b,c phase current
Isc short-circuit current
Jc moment of inertia of test machine and drive motor
P drive total power drawn by a drive motor
Ploss,drive internal loss of a drive motor
Ploss,PM PM machine total loss
Pcore,OC open-circuit core loss
PFW friction and windage loss
Poc loss measured under open-circuit conditions
PSL stray-load loss
Ra armature phase resistance
Rshort resistance of shorting circuit
TFW friction-windage torque
TOC open-circuit loss torque
Tr1,r2,r3 torque ripple
Tmax,min,av,rms maximum, minimum, average, and rms torque
VOC rms line-line open-circuit voltage
Wloss total machine loss
Xs synchronous reactance of the test machine
Zext external reactive impedance in the shorting circuit added to limit the steady state short-
circuit current during a short-circuit test
ω electrical frequency in radians per second
ωm rotor shaft speed in radians per second
τp
period of waveform
38
IEEE Std 1812-2014
Annex C
(informative)
Background on demagnetization
Permanent magnets are among the most critical components in PM machines and due to various causes, the
magnets are susceptible to damage through irreversible demagnetization process. The magnet
demagnetization often leads to reduced or unbalanced rotor flux along with overload/increased vibrations
and rotor faults. The magnet demagnetization occurs due to the following causes, which are ultimately
manifested through thermal and magnetic phenomena:
a) Thermal stresses
b) Electrical faults (e.g., terminal or winding short-circuits)
c) Mechanical stresses
d) Unbalanced load
e) Rotor faults (e.g., eccentricities, damaged magnets)
PM demagnetization due to the above reasons results in degradation of motor/generator performance,

efficiency, and reliability.
A typical demagnetization characteristic of the NdFeB magnet material is shown in Figure C.1. Figure
C.1(a) shows the remnant flux density of Br and is linear with a relative permeability of about 1.05 over the
second quadrant and extending into the third quadrant. In this linear region, the recoil line coincides very
closely with the demagnetization line.
(a) Demagnetization characteristics at lower (b) Demagnetization characteristics at higher

temperature temperature
Figure C.1—The demagnetization characteristic of a NdFeB magnetic material

Operation of the magnet into the curved portion beyond magnetic field intensity HD or flux density BD
produces permanent demagnetization and hence should not be allowed in the design requiring operation at
high temperature. The limit point (BD, HD) is temperature dependent, rising into the second quadrant as
temperature is increased as shown in Figure C.1(b). Typically, BD is in the range of -0.5 T to some positive
flux density at rotor temperature of 20 °C to 100 °C. High energy NdFeB magnets are considered to have
linear characteristics. However, in practical applications, PM has an undesirable demagnetization
characteristic. Worst-case demagnetization conditions for Neodymium are hot, and for ferrite it is cold.
39
IEEE Std 1812-2014
As discussed above, the irreversible demagnetization process can further initiate and enhance
manufacturing cracks, mechanical, thermal, and electrical stresses including corrosion. Therefore, it is
important to monitor the quality of magnets in PM machines in order to verify their expected performance.
C.1 Stator faults
A major fault condition of PM machines is a stator fault due to drive switching events of one or more stator
winding phases, and winding insulation failures. The stator faults in the drive system or motor are due to
switching events of one or more stator winding phases and winding insulation failures. Such conditions will
increase the demagnetizing magnetomotive force (MMF) significantly and can lead to irreversible PM
demagnetization.
Figure C.2—First-order increasing transition curves for NdFeB PM-material
A hysteresis behavior model to predict and monitor magnet demagnetization during fault conditions is
shown in Figure C.2. Figure C.2 shows how the magnet performance is affected by demagnetization due to
high short-circuit currents, and is shown by dashed lines.
The hysteresis model helps to analyze and design PM machines with variable design parameters to achieve
reliability to avoid irreversible demagnetization of PM magnets. Analysis of such information from
hysteresis can then be used to detect magnet demagnetization.
C.2 Asymmetric demagnetization
For asymmetric demagnetization, i.e., the presence of asymmetric airgap flux (due to unbalance impedance,
voltage, saturation, etc.), it has been demonstrated that a current signature with the same characteristic fault
frequency can be detected and used for diagnosis purposes. By detecting this signature current, asymmetric
faults can be detected. Among other methods, currents under faulty and normal conditions can be
compared, and the information can be used to detect faults through learning algorithms and artificial
intelligence, or through model-based methods and system identification techniques. Analysis of such
40
IEEE Std 1812-2014
information can then be performed to detect a faulty condition. One challenge of using this current
signature is that if the same current signature indicates multiple possible fault conditions (e.g., asymmetric
faults, such as rotor dynamic eccentricity, load unbalance, etc.), then the isolation of the faults may pose a
problem.
For both asymmetric and symmetric damages and demagnetization, the flux produced by the magnets is
reduced, which is also used for the detection of such faults. The torque constant Kt of brushless direct
current (BLDC) machines with trapezoidal flux is estimated and used as an indicator of the magnetic fault
and can be written as:
Kt = (V − 2 Rs Idc) / ωr = E/ ωr (C.1)
where
supply voltage (V) and the dc-link current (Idc) are averaged over 60° of rotor position during steady-state
Rs is stator resistance
ωr is rotor angular speed
E is back electromotive force (EMF)
C.3 Detection of demagnetization
When a drive is used to supply the machine, the magnet faults can be detected based on the pattern of the
resulting stator current. The current response to the pulsating field is a function of equivalent winding
inductances, which is influenced by magnetic saturation. When the magnet is partially demagnetized, the
magnetic saturation level is reduced, which is reflected in the stator current response.
Measurement of back EMF or open-circuit voltage magnitude is another way of detecting a change in the
machine’s magnetic flux. Readings of open-circuit voltages should be taken at the same speed and
temperature. Any decrease in voltage may indicate a partial demagnetization.
C.4 Demagnetization due to temperature
Another practical challenge with magnetic fault diagnosis is the temperature-dependent strength of the
magnet. At high temperatures, the residual flux density is reduced. Thus the flux produced by the magnet is
reduced. When a reduction of the magnet strength is detected, it becomes necessary to differentiate whether
this reduction is due to high magnet temperature or magnet fault. A simple thermal analysis may help to
indicate sources of this problem.
41
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IEEE Trial-Use Guide for Testing

Permanent Magnet Machines

IEEE Power and Energy Society

IEEE Trial-Use Guide for Testing

Electric Machinery Committee

Approved 10 December 2014

IEEE-SA Standards Board

Keywords: characteristics, IEEE 1812™, permanent magnet machines, testing

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Copyright © 2015 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

PDF: ISBN 978-0-7381-9469-1 STD20066

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Laws and regulations

Haran C. Karmaker, Chair

Emmanuel Agamloh M. Abul Masrur Daniel M. Saban

Emmanuel Agamloh Frank Gerleve Michael Newman

John Kulick, Chair

Peter Balma Michael Janezic Ron Petersen

Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative

3. Condition and integrity tests ....................................................................................................................... 3

4. Steady-state tests ........................................................................................................................................ 6

5. Transient tests ............................................................................................................................................24

6. Machine operating characteristics .............................................................................................................29

Annex A (informative) Bibliography ............................................................................................................37

Annex B (normative) Nomenclature .............................................................................................................38

Annex C (informative) Background on demagnetization ..............................................................................39

1.3 Organization of the guide

IEEE Std C57.13™, IEEE Standard Requirements for Instrument Transformers.

NEMA MG1, Motors and Generators. 7

PART I—TEST PROCEDURES

3. Condition and integrity tests

3.1 Resistance measurement

3.2 Phase sequence

Comments on these tests are given below.

3.2.2 Method 1: Phase-sequence indicators

3.2.3 Method 2: Indication of differential voltage

3.2.5 Voltage unbalance

3.3 Insulation resistance

3.4 Dielectric and partial discharge tests

3.5 Polarity tests for magnets

3.6 Shaft and bearing current

There are two main classifications for bearing currents:

3.7 Over-speed tests

3.8 Resistance to demagnetization

3.8.1 Testing to evaluate resistance to demagnetization

3.9 Acoustic noise

4.1 Introduction to steady-state tests

4.2 Open-circuit tests

4.2.1 Open-circuit voltage test

4.2.1.2 Test procedure

In all cases, the following measurements should be made:

4.2.1.3 Machine open-circuited

4.2.1.4 Machine operating as a generator

4.2.1.5 Machine operating as a motor

4.2.2 Open-circuit losses

4.2.2.2 Friction and windage loss

PFW = ωmTFW (1)

PFW = Pdrive − Ploss,drive (2)

4.2.2.3 Total open-circuit loss

POC = ωmTOC (3)

If TOC is expressed in N × m and ωm in rad/sec, POC will be in Watts.