EPIDEMIOLOGY
LEC. 1
→ Epidemiology is the study of how
disease is distributed in populations and
the factors that influence or determine
this distribution.
→ ask the questions, Why does a
disease develop in some people and not
in others?
OBJECTIVES OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
1. To identify the etiology or cause
of a disease and the relevant risk
factors
2. To determine the extent of
disease found in the community
3. To study the natural history and
prognosis of disease → the
severity of the disease
4. To evaluate both existing and
newly developed preventive and
therapeutic measures and modes
of healthcare delivery.
5. To provide the foundation for
developing public policy relating
to environmental problems.
DISEASE CONTROL:
1. Extinction → target untuk
membasmi
- The specific infectious
agent no longer exist in
nature or in the laboratory.
2. Eradication → Termination of all
transmission of infections by
extermination of infectious agents
(masih ada penyimpanan di lab
untuk penelitian tertentu).
3. Elimination → Reduction to zero
of the incidence of a specified
disease in a defined geographical
area as a result of deliberate
efforts.
- Con. Malaria (cara basmi?
→ modif lingkungan,
protect penduduk yang
padat dengan anti nyamuk
- Con. TBC (tropical
countries)
→ rumah ceiling tinggi biar
sirkulasi bagus
→ naikin status ekonomi
dan gizi.
4. Control → public policy
intervention that restricts the
circulation of an infectious agent
beyond the level that would result
from spontaneous individual
behavious to protect against
infection.
→ Controlling (Ongoing
Operations) reduce incidence
duration, prevelance, risk of
transmission, effect of infections,
impact of social and economy.
→ Con. PPKM pas Covid-19
EPIDEMIOLOGY THINKING
- Diseases are not randomly
distributed in human populations
- Disease have patterns/clues and
risk factors
- Why do some diseases develop
in some people and not in
others?
→ Penyakit Khas (berhubungan
dengan genetic ataupun pola
makan yang khas pada daerah
tertentu
 → con. Penduduk Jawa lebih
cenderung terkena diabetes
karena pola makan yang manis.
→ con. Suku Han lebih
cenderung terkena nasopharynx
cancer karena pola makan yang
cenderung asam pedas.
MAJOR USE OF
EPIDEMIOLOGY
1. Direct do preventive
efforts, such as screening
programs (con. anjing
yang bisa cium kanker) for
early disease detection.
2. Identify the specific factors
or characteristics that put
them at high risk and then
try to modify those factors.
→ con. Kecelakaan
banyak disebabkan oleh
ngantuk → bikin tempat
istirahat yang banyak +
terang
Notes!
→ Risk Factors = probabilitas (belum
pasti penyebabnya)
→ diagnosis of diseases are done by
pathologists
DIFFERENT DISTRIBUTIONS based
on the degree to which it has spread
1. Endemic occurs when a disease
spreads and is consistently
present but limited to a particular
region.
→ grafik naik konstan
→ con. Chicken pox
2. Epidemic occurs when a disease,
specific health-related behavior,
or other health-related event
spreads unexpectedly or quickly
across a specific geographical
area or population.
→ con. Cholera, measles,
malaria, dengue fever
→ grafiknya naik drastis tapi
akan turun
3. Pandemic occurs when a disease
outbreak has spread across
countries or continents.
HYPOTHESIS
→ An educated guess based on
observation or reasoning, that can be
tested or supported or refuted through
investigation.
→ Tested the Hypothesis by collecting
data observing data
#
→ Established the association
CONTOH KASUS CHOLERA
↳epidemic
Facts
→ swept Europe in the early 1800s
→ Epidemics in London, Paris, NY
→ 7000 died in London
Symptoms
- Nausea + dizziness
- Violent vomiting and diarrhea
- Extreme muscle cramps
- Insatiable thirst → cardiovascular
collapse → death
 Beliefs about the transmission of
Cholera
- Person to person through
‘Miasmas’ → mysterious vapors
from cemeteries and swamps.
John Snow’s Hypothesis
→ learned that the symptoms were
gastrointestinal not pulmonary →
reasoned that the disease might be
transmitted by water or food.
→ He conducted a landmark series of
studies which:
1. Test his hypothesis about mode
of transmission penceganan
->
2. Lead to an intervention
→ He determined a certain company of
water pumps that supplied a certain
area of London's population that
became victims to cholera and had them
removed.
→ founded that cholera was caused by
a bacteria called Vibrio cholera
Significance of John Snow’s
Endeavors
1. Proposed a hypothesis for how
cholera was transmitted based on
observation and reason.
2. He tested the hypothesis by
collecting data systematically and
comparing groups of people.
3. Established an association
↓ between drinking water from
causal
Cada exposure
pumps and victims to cholera.
dan
outcomes4. Argued for an intervention that
prevented more cases.
Notes!
→ Menteri kesehatan Dr Endang
meninggal dunia karena kanker
paru-paru
https://nasional.tempo.co/read/401169/ri
wayat-kesehatan-menteri-kesehatan-en
dang
TUGAS EPI INTRODUCTION
ASSOCIATION OF FLU SHOT AND
DYSTONIA
FACTS
→ flu shots (influenza vaccines) are
vaccines that protect against the four
influenza viruses that research indicates
will be most common during the
upcoming season (sept and oct).
→ Indications for vaccination = all
children aged 6 through 59 months
and all adults above 50 years old.
→ The most common way that flu
vaccines are made is using an
egg-based manufacturing process
→ Manufacturers of cell-based
quadrivalent vaccines for the 2023-2024
season should include these four virus
strains: an A/Wisconsin/67/2022
(H1N1)pdm09-like virus; an
A/Darwin/6/2021 (H3N2)-like virus; a
B/Austria/1359417/2021 (B/Victoria
lineage)-like virus
→ Dystonia = a state of abnormal
muscle tone resulting in muscular
spasm and abnormal posture, typically
due to neurological disease or a side
effect of drug therapy.
→ neurological movement disorder that
causes spasm that can be painful.
→ commonly affects people in their 40s
and 50s and is frequently referred to as
adult-onset dystonia.
→ affects women 3x as much
→ causes of Dystonia → Some
causes of acquired dystonia include
birth injury (stroke) (including hypoxia, a
lack of oxygen to the brain, and
neonatal brain hemorrhage), certain
infections, reactions to certain drugs,
heavy metal or carbon monoxide
poisoning, trauma, or stroke.
→ triggers of Dystonia → the disease
can be inherited, acquired or idiopathic
(no known cause).
Desiree Jennings Case
→ healthy until she received the
seasonal flu vaccine
→ 10 days later she developed a severe
respiratory illness (flu)
→ developed a neurological reaction
where she had difficulty speaking,
walking with involuntary muscle
contractions and contortions.
→ movements seen in the video are not
compatible of those with dystonia but
more to psychogenic dystonia
→ Fixed dystonia means that the
affected body part is stuck in the
abnormal posture at rest, whereas
mobile dystonia presents as repetitive,
prolonged twisting movements.
Psychogenic dystonia more commonly
manifests as fixed dystonia and may be
preceded by an injury to the affected
body part.
→ story was picked up by anti-vaxxed to
exploit and campaign
Sumber:
https://theness.com/neurologicablog/ind
ex.php/the-dystonia-flu-shot-case/
https://dystonia-foundation.org/what-is-d
ystonia/common-misunderstandings/#:~:
text=REALITY%3A%20There%20is%20
no%20evidence,dystonia%E2%80%9D
%20following%20a%20flu%20immuniza
tion.
→ asosiasi tapi bukan kausalitas
(berhubungan tapi belum tentu sebab
akibat)
→ dystonia can be caused by
psychologically where excessive mental
pressure can cause physical symptoms
like dystonia (anxiety when getting flu
shots)
TUGAS 2
DO YOU RECOMMEND QUITTING
EXERCISE IF I WANT TO AVOID A
HEART ATTACK?
FACTS
→ Heart attacks (myocardial
infarction) happens when a part of the
muscle doesn't get enough blood.
→ The more time that passes without
treatment to restore blood flow, the
greater the damage to the heart muscle.
Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the
main cause of heart attack.
→ penyumbatan mendadak yang terjadi moderate-to-vigorous physical activity
pada arteries. gain some health benefits.
→ safety measures should be
→ symptoms include = chest pain or implemented while exercising to
discomfort, feeling weak, light-headed or maximize the benefits of exercise.
faint, pain or discomfort in one or both
arms or shoulders, shortness of breath → risks of physical inactivity > than
excessive exercise
→ Coronary artery disease = happens → memperhitungkan batasan heart rate
when coronary arteries struggle to pada olahraga
supply the heart with enough blood,
oxygen and nutrients → otot yang menebal karena excessive
→ 82% of people who die of CAD are exercise jadi jantung bekerja lebih
65 or older kencang dan suddenly stops (sudden
cardiac arrest)
→ Exercise can cause blood pressure
to rise due to increased cardiovascular LEC. 2
demand and oxygen uptake from EPIDEMIOLOGY FUNDAMENTAL
working muscles. ASSUMPTIONS
→ In most cases, damage done from 1. Human disease does not occur at
high blood pressure (HBP or random, there are factors or
hypertension) occurs over time. Left determinants which can increase
undetected or uncontrolled, high blood or decrease the likelihood of
pressure can lead to: Heart attack — disease.
High blood pressure damages 2. The casual and preventive
arteries that can become blocked and factors (determinants) can be
prevent blood flow to the heart muscle. identified by systematic
investigation of populations or
CASE ARTIS MENINGGAL USAI OR subgroups within the population.
→ Fundamental measurement:
→ intense exercise can lead to high frequency of disease ->
estimate and compare
blood pressure which with other - To estimate risk
supporting factors can cause a heart - To compare risk
how?
attack → Distribution: PPT
->
+

→ Being physically active can improve - Who gets it (characteristics of

your brain health, help manage weight,
reduce the risk of disease, strengthen
bones and muscles, and improve your
ability to do everyday activities. Adults
who sit less and do any amount of
victims)?
- Where does the disease occur?
- When (occurrence over time)?
- How a disease would be
distributed if whistles caused it.
3W → Who, Where, When
PPT → Place, Person, Time
→ The study of the distribution and
determinants of health and disease
frequency in human populations.
HIPPOCRATES (460-377 BC)
→ greek physician known as the ‘Father
of Medicine’
→ Wrote the ‘Hippocratic Oath’ → a
code of conduct for doctors and the
basis of all medical practice today
→ believed that illness and disease was
not caused by evil spirits
→ stressed the importance of good diet,
fresh air, cleanliness and exercise
→ learned by OBSERVATION
→ Epidemiology studies how diseases
spread
→ MASA INKUBASI = masa kontak
dengan kuman sampai muncul gejala
penyakit (signs and symptoms).
IMPORTANCE OF DATA ANALYSIS
- Hypothesis yang bagus harus
bisa dibuktikan
→ CON. DOWN SYNDROME
- Ada ciri khas (pattern) yang
dapat terlihat pada korban down
syndrome tanpa melihat ras,
suku dll.
- Faktor resiko seorang dengan
down syndrome → kelainan
genetik (susah + mahal diperiksa)
- Usia saat kehamilan wanita
menjadi acuan (semakin tua,
semakin tinggi probabilitas untuk
punya anak down syndrome).
→ CON. ZIKA VIRUS
- Disebarkan dengan gigitan
nyamuk di Brazil (membawa zika
virus) yang ada kontak dengan
ibu hamil.
- Ibu tidak mengalami gejala,
namun anak dapat mengidap
deformitas kepala (microcephaly
→ ciri khas)
- Nyamuk tersebut suka hidup di
air bersih sehingga mengalami
peningkatan saat perubahan
musim karena banyak genangan
air.
- Grafik kapal kuda → grafik
penyakit yang terus meningkat
namun dapat turun tiba-tiba (day
4) → bahaya karena pasien
sudah merasa oke terus shock.
→ CON. STROKE
- Ditemukan pola dalam 100 orang
yang mengidap stroke, mayoritas
memiliki HBP → disebut risk
factor/probabilitas.
- Smoking, poor diet, physical
inactivity
PEOPLE’S BELIEFS
→ masyarakat lebih pengen ke dukun
daripada ke dokter buat masalah
persalinan dll → karena lebih murah +
bisa nyicil + diurus sampai dimandiin
bayi dll.
→ what should we do? → don't get rid of
midwives completely but educate them
on safe and sterile birth procedures.
 - BubonicPlagueac re

KASUS BLACK DEATH die (fingers toes nose)

KASUS SCURVY
→ 25-33% of the European population → Vitamin C deficiency = abnormal
died collagen synthesis
→ adanya pemetaan yang penting SYMPTOMS:
untuk dilihat (con. Zona hijau, merah, - Capillaries become fragile
oren saat COVID) (rupture easily)
→ MITOS = caused by God’s - Purple blotches on skin
Punishment (ada benjolan di belakang - Hemorrhage into muscles, joints,
kepala), poisoning by the Jews, contact digestive organs
with lepers, walking in the sun, Miasmas - Bleeding, swollen gums, anemia
(polusi). - Jaundice, edema, fever,
→ TRUE CAUSE = Yersinia pestis convulsions, heart failure →
(bacteria spread by rodents and fleas). death
→ Rodents and Fleas (VEKTOR) → → Lord Anson’s global expedition
pembawa agent penyakit 1740-1744 → banyak yang meninggal di
→ High population density kapal
(ENVIRONMENT) → James Lind, a scottish naval surgeon
→ Poor sanitation and hygiene (HOST) conducted a trial where they had
→ harus tau pola/rantainya biar bisa tau different people who had scury to try
cara mutusinnya different remedies → those who got
-> failed in evaluating oranges and lemons got fit.
FAILURE OF PUBLIC HEALTH hypothesis and
testing them

→ No concept of testing hypotheses in a EPIDEMIOLOGIC TRIAD OF DISEASE

systematic way in groups of people. → Disease is produced by exposure of
(harus ada evidence yang back up the a susceptible host to a noxious agent in
hypotheses). the presence of environmental factors
→ No structured way of evaluating that aid or hinder agents of disease.
information. → penting untuk tahu agar dapat
→ ASOSIASI BUKAN KAUSALITAS = mutusin rantainya.
berhubungan tapi belum tentu bersifat
sebab akibat
→ asks the question “what factors were ->
Faktor Korban

associated with the disease?”

influenza
KASUS SPANISH FLU
->

-> sansbat agent

→ Flu akan terus mutasi → butuh

penanganan yang terus berevolusi
→ T Cells yang sudah bisa kenalin dan
buat perlindungan
[virus sautee Santor lingung an
 AGENT → Penyebab Penyakit 2. To detect
1. Biological (bakteri,virus) 3. To test
2. Chemical (poison, alcohol, 4. To isolate
smoke) 5. To treat
3. Physical (trauma, fire)
4. Nutrition (lack, excess) TYPES OF MODELING
VEKTOR → pembawa agent
HOST → Factors from the victim
- Age, sex, race, genes, medical
history, customs, backgrounds
ENVIRONMENT → faktor lingkungan
- Temperature, altitude, housing,
water, food, pollution, noise, etc.

CON. KASUS COVID-19

VOCAB DEFINITIONS
1. Reservoir of infection
↓
source - The source of an
infectious agent
2. Carrier OTG
-

- An individual who carries

an infectious agent without
manifesting symptoms, yet
who can transmit the
Host → manusia (dipakaikan masker +
agent to another
ppkm biar ga ketemu dengan agent)
individual.
Agent → Virus COVID-19
3. Fomites inanimate ventors
->

Vektor → udara
↓ - Any inanimate object
X Environment → mengadakan semprot
contaminated capable of being an
- COK-

gaada desinfektan rutin Intervention (pencegahans

->
clothings. arum
sinulasi crowded
+

intermediate in the indirect

dI

transmission of an
CARA MENGATASI PANDEMI (CDC
infectious agent.
US dan IHR) the
4. DESCRIPTIVE EPI -> answerson t
1. To prevent cra
↓
BY - Examining the distribution
2. To detect
PDR of a disease in a
3. To respond
population and observing
the basic features of its
CARA MENGATASI PANDEMI (WHO)
1. To trace WHO
-> community health survey

TBT 1 T

;;3
 distribution (time, place, covid krn banyak kerjaan disni (pusat
person) ekonomi pemerintah dll)
- Typical study designs:
community health survey. TUGAS LEC 2
answers the question
5. ANALYTIC EPI - why how? and
SHOULD YOU GET A MASTECTOMY?
↓ - Testing a specific
cohort, hypothesis about the MASTECTOMY → A mastectomy is
case control relationship of a disease to surgery to remove a breast. Sometimes
experimental. a specific cause by other tissues near the breast, such as
conducting an lymph nodes, are also removed.
epidemiologic study.
- Typical study designs: → high risk women for breast cancer →
cohort, case-control, BRCA gene
experimental design → A mastectomy is used to remove all
breast tissue if you have breast cancer
KASUS PENYAKIT KARENA Pb or are at very high risk of developing it.
→ Penyakitan karena cat → bau cat, You may have a mastectomy to remove
kontak fiisk cat (mainly → masuk/nular one breast (unilateral mastectomy) or
lwt pencernaan/mulut) both breasts (bilateral mastectomy).
→ dengue → harihari inkubasi
→ keracunan makan → jam → A preventive (prophylactic) or
risk-reducing mastectomy involves
EPI CURVE removing both of your breasts and
→ Describes significantly reduces your risk of
- Start, end, duration developing breast cancer in the future.
- Peak
- Importance PROS
- Atypical cases - treat breast cancer and reduce
→ Helps to develop hypotheses the chances of developing the
- Incubation period condition in the small number of
- Etiological agent infectious pathogen.
->
substances
contain a
expected to
women who have a high risk.
- Type of source - By removing as much breast
- Type of transmission tissue as possible, a mastectomy
- Time of exposure can reduce your risk of breast
cancer by up to 90%-95%
→ Grafik naik turun → single cause → CONS
infectious disease - Mastectomy takes longer and is
→ Penyebaran disease berhubungan more extensive than lumpectomy,
dengan mobilitas → jakarta plg byk with more post-surgery side
 effects and a longer recuperation
time.
- Mastectomy means a permanent
loss of your breast.
- You are likely to have additional
surgeries to reconstruct your
breast after mastectomy.
- Irreversible (gabisa nyusui +
punya anak)
SIDE EFFECTS
- Bleeding
- Infection
- Pain
- Swelling (lymphedema) in your
arm if you have an axillary node
dissection
- Formation of hard scar tissue at
the surgical site
- Shoulder pain and stiffness
- Numbness, particularly under
your arm, from lymph node
removal
- Buildup of blood in the surgical
site (hematoma)
FACTORS TO CONSIDER
- You have two or more tumors in
separate areas of the breast.
- You have widespread
malignant-appearing calcium
deposits (microcalcifications)
throughout the breast that have
been determined to be cancer
after a breast biopsy.
- You've previously had radiation
treatment to the breast region
and the breast cancer has
recurred in the breast.
- You're pregnant and radiation
creates an unacceptable risk to
your unborn child.
- You've had a lumpectomy, but
cancer is still present at the
edges (margin) of the operated
area and there is concern about
cancer extending elsewhere in
the breast.
- You carry a gene mutation that
gives you a high risk of
developing a second cancer in
your breast.
- You have a large tumor relative to
the overall size of your breast.
You may not have enough
healthy tissue left after a
lumpectomy to achieve an
acceptable cosmetic result.
- You have a connective tissue
disease, such as scleroderma or
lupus, and may not tolerate the
side effects of radiation to the
skin.
SUMBER
https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-proced
ures/mastectomy/about/pac-20394670
or
 EPID LEC 3 Interpret → to give the meaning of,
explain, or make clear.
Chain of Transmission → how the
disease spread? (orang yang terlibat
siapa?)

TYPES OF ASSOCIATION
1. Causal → cause and effect (ada
sebab yang menghasilkan
sebuah akibat)

Association → things that are Con. Kena bersih (droplets) →

associated are linked in some way that
makes them turn up together. (turn up
together). → turn up together bukan
berarti causal
→ 2 variables that are linked in some
way that makes them turn up together
but have no actual relationship to one
another
dapet COVID-19
2. Chance → kebetulan yang terjadi
(harus bisa nyari konsistensi
(bandingin penelitian ini dengan
penelitian orang lain → hasilnya
sama ga? → kalo ngga →
CHANCE!)

Causal → Cause and effect (anything Con. chance → drowning rises,

that produces an effect) → how can we ice cream sales rises (kebetulan
prove? kalo summer makin banyak
→ Exposure and Outcome (disease) orang berenang makin banyak
orang beli es krim = tidak ada
X Descriptive Epidemiology → cause and effect langsung)
observe
Formulates Hypothesis (identify high
and risk factors dari outcome) serta 3. Confounding → ada faktor
examine menjawab pertanyaan: rancu lain (a third factor yang
dete
- Place bisa make it appear that an
- Person observed exposure causes an
- Time outcome (faktor yang ga keliatan/
ga diobserve tp berhub dengan
Analytical Epidemiology → Tests
Hypothesis faktor pertama)
4. Reverse Time Order → the
→ ask the questions (why and how) hypothesized time order of an
Cause → anything that produces exposure and an outcome is
actually reversed and the
Risk Factor → An exposure that
outcome really comes before the
increases the likelihood of a specific
outcome exposure
-- outcome
exposure
--
 → design study pada penelitian: information in a study →
variable ga konsisten
-
Cross Sectional (weak) =
melihat exposure dengan Notes!
outcome secara
Validity → 100% bener
bersamaan (buka tubuh
ngeliat organ secara Reliable → bisa bener bisa ngga
langsung) —> sulit bedain Other Factors can Change Apparent
sebab akibat Disease Frequency Over Years
(contamporality)
aut loss
- Cohort Study -> (Mid) = tO 1. Change in incidence due to
exp- ↓ penelitian mulai dari follow up environmental or life-style
exposure (peneliatan changes (epidemic of obesity)
relative (weakness) 2. Improved
Misce bandingin variable yang diagnosis may
terus diikutin sampe dapet increase cases reported even if
incidence is not changing (PSA)
->
ep outcome)
T o exp 3. Change in record keeping
at i- Case Control (Mid) =
kasus diliat/mulai dari accuracy
odds B
outcome —> nyari 4. Improved treatment may
Ratio
historynya yang bisa decrease mortality rates.
menjadi faktor pendukung 5. Change in the age distribution
of a population can produce
→ design study paling kuat = changes in the overall rate of
Randomised Controlled Trial disease, even though
5. Bias → a faulty assumption in a age-specific rates are not
study that makes things appear changing.
differently from how they really Relative Risk → a way of showing the
are.
- Selection Bias = a faulty I relationship between two risks
perbanding an a peluang

assumption in a study → tells us the number of times one risk

because of a systematic is larger or smaller than another
difference in how subjects
→ rate of condition among exposed
were chosen to be in the
divided by rate of condition among
study (kelompok yang
unexposed.
dipakai dalam studi tidak
mewakili populasi) → risk of an outcome in one group
- Information Bias = any divided by the outcome of another
systematic difference from group.
the truth that arises in the
→ relative risk = 1 (the exposure is not
collection, recall, recording
associated with the outcome)
and handling of
 → relative risk > 1 (the exposure is RISK = Odds/(1+Odds)
associated with an increase in the
Odds = Risk/(1-Risk)
outcome)

→ relative risk < 1 (the exposure is

associated with a decrease in the
outcome)

pengault dull barn penyebab

→ Qualitative/Kategorial
~nenthin
CASE CONTROL STUDIES - Nominal
- Ordinal

→ Quantitatif/Numerical

- Interval
- Skala Ratio

VARIABEL

- Nominal → hanya 1 tingkat (jenis

kelamin, goldar)
Odds Ratio = (Odds Case/Odds Control) - Ordinal → Bertingkat (ada yang
lebih kurang, tidak ada kali lipat
PR and OR (kelas pendidikan, tingkat cancer)
- Interval → ada tingkat, memiliki
kelipatan, no absolute 0
(temperature in fahrenheit)
- Ratio → ada tingkat, memiliki
kelipatan, absolute 0 (time, berat,
tinggi)

notes!
KOMORbid
kan
untuk menuns un
↳ Istilah kedoktekan
penyaultutama
penyahit penyenta selain
yung sedang dideRita.

life expectancy
hematian di suatu umur
3 cara melihat
apanah
199a.
atau
bersifatwasan
 epid Relative RISK -> hubungan antar pelhang
Rumus 2

disease exposed
Relative -

Risk
t un exposed
case control studies -

Heis
case b
CONAROI exposure, a

relative.
- a C -

[
C

b
d
-

Relative RISK

control odds R (
case odds Odds Ratio: odds disease 1 no differences
=

a odds non-disease R<1 ( decreases

I
-
I

I
I RY C increase s
=2 x
OddS RAHO =

Odds Ratio I
case odds
-

odds RISK

gods,
control

sus
=
odds

perfanyaan

Rish/ proportion =
1 a
Ratio of male:male
-

femmle
 COUSOl 1
An investigator seeks out cases of a particular disease that she wishes
to study. She then recruits people who do not have this disease from
the same population. For each study participant, she researches past
exposures of those who do not have the disease. What type of study
design is this? Select one:
senaligus (kombinah paparan)
a. Cross sectional -> mengunur beberapa variabel

terballulogin a
dengan menggunakan
b. Case Control (neutrin
hausan
->
analisis hub
benyebab)
penyamt dull barn

c. Experimental Study Introduce intervention and study the effects.

->

d. Cohort nentuin penyebab

-> penyalt
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To assess the association between Kawasaki syndrome (KS) and carpet

shampoo, investigators conducted a case-control study with 100 cases
(children with KS) aand 100 controls (children without KS). Among the
children with KS, 50 had a history of recent exposure to carpet
shampoo. Among the controls, the number with a recent history of
exposure to carpet shampoo was 25. For this study, the odds ratio was:
select one: 25

was
disease -> 100 -> to + odds cust
a. 3.0
b. 0.3
c. 1.6
no disease wo -

1
d. 6.1 50
r it
For
the relative risk is the incidence in the non-exposed divided by the
- -

1
incidence in the exposed
A. True relationship between kisks. 2

B. False
exper
-

w er