Fastners, Cutting Tools and Limit –fit- Tolerance
INTRODUCTION
In automobiles , many parts are assembled to
make a vehicle, these parts are assembled with
the help of fastners. These parts can be opened or
closed as per requirement. These are made by
various materials in different sizes/ for fastening,
various types of nut-bolts, screws, rivet and keys,
etc. are used for fastening. It is necessary to be
aware of the specification of each fastner before
using them. A variety of cutting tools are used in
the workshop to cut the job to the appropriate
size.
2.TYPES PF FASTENING
Fastenings are of three types:
1.temporary fastening 2.semi permanent
fastening 3.permanent fastening
1.Temporary fastening : This is a method
through which separate parts can be joining and
loosened without being damaged. Following
fasteners are used for this for example, bolt, nut,
screw, key, cutter, pin etc.
2.Semi- permanent Fastening: This kind of
the joint can be loosened but not easily. Usally .
parts and fasteners get damaged shile loosening
such joints. For example, joining parts through
soldering.
3.Permanent Fastening: This kind of joints
become part of the machine or part after being
joint. Tp separate some parts of machine and part
can be completely damaged. Fasteners of the
following types are used for this fastening. For
example, welding , riveting, bridging etc.
FASTNERS
For fastening, normally following fasters are
used:
A. Bolt
It is made of round rod whose one end
has a head and the other end has threads
cut on it (see Fig. 1). Nut can be fastened
on these threads. Usually bolts are made
of mild steel but they can be made of
brass, light alloy for some special jobs.
They are classified according to diameter
of the part with threads , length and
material.
Diagram
1.hexagonal head bolt: This is the bolt
used most often. It has sides. Spanners are
used to turn its head. The upper end of its
head is chamfered at 30 degree angle (see
fig 1 and 2).
2. Sqare head bolt: the head of this bolt is
square,. Theis bolt is used a little less than
the hexagonal head bolt. Its head is used
after fixing it in a rectangular or square
slot so that it does not turn when the mut
is screwed or loosened. It is also used for
oridinary jobs or in bearing for shaft (see
fig 3.).
Digram
3.Cup head bolt: the head of this bolt is
semi- circular . below the head, there is a
small rectangular neck, this bolt is mostly
used for work of wood.(see fig.4).
Diagram
4. T Head BoltL this boly’s head is similar
to the shape of ‘T’ . it is mostly used for
machine table job or for tighterning other
types of clamping device. Its head fits into
the ‘T’’ slot of the table of machine (see fig
5.).
Diagram
5.Eye Bolt: its head is round with a hole in
it. That is why is called eye bolt. It is used
to lift heavy engine machines, they are
thick and machime and thin according tyo
the weight of the machine and the threads
are cut on the whole length of their body,
this bolt is also fixed on electric motors.
Diagram
6.Hook Bolt: this bolts is not completely
round but cut from the one side, the end
with the cut has a hook and the other end
has threads. This kind of the bolt is
commonly used with cranes to carry
 heavy machines heavy materials from one
place to another. This bolt is also need to
fit roofs (sheets of cement, G.I. Sheet ). (see
fig.7).
B. Screw
Screws are used to join two parts and to
keep them in proper condition. These are
similar to bolts but, there is slot cut on
their whole bodies. Screw can be
tightened and loosened with the help of
screw driver. Allen screw has no head and
allen key is used to tighten and loosen it
(see Fig.8).
Screws are made of mild steel carbon
steel, brass, ets. Nut is not required to use
screws figure.
Figure
Screws are two types:
1.Machine screw 2 Caps screw
3.Set screw 4. Shoulder screw
1.Machine Screw: Machine screw has four
types. This kind of screw is used for the
temporary fastening of machine parts (see
Fig.9).
Figure
1. Counter sunk jhead screw
2. Round head screw
3. Fillister head screw
4. Oval counter sunk head screw
2. Ca[ Srew: This is like bolt. A small part below
the head is without threads. According to the
head they are of different types (see Fig. 10)
1 .Counter sunk head screw 2. Round head screw
3.filister head screw 4. Hexagonal head screw
5. Socket head screw
Figure
3.Set Srew: Set screws are mainly used to set and
tighten the part of machine etc. set screws tighten
the parts with the pressure of their point. They
are available both with head and without head.
Headless set screw is also called gurb or safety
screw, at one end of this screw, there is a slot on
which screw driver is set and screw is turned.
Some screws have socket head which means
round head with hexagonal slot. This screw is
tightened and loosened with the help of Allen
key. It is called “Allen screw” or socket head
screw. Their bottom point is either flat, conical or
oval (wsee Fig.11).
Figure
4.Shoulder screw: Its body is plain , which is
bigger in diameter compared to threaded part.
This kind of screw is used when other parts have
to be turned on the screw. That is why it is called
shoulder screw (Fig . 12)
Figure
C. Stud:
It is similar to bolt and it has no head. Its
both ends have threads and the middle
part is plain. It is used to tighten a third
part between two parts. Such as tappet
cover, etc. because in it joined parts can be
separated just by loosening the nut.
Therefore, stud is not needed to be
loosened. Studs are commonly made of
mild steel (see Fig. 13)
Figure
Stud is often used in automobile. For
example, to join cylinder head with
cylinder block . to loosen these studs are
fixed on the upper part of cylinder block.
To loosen these studs, mechanic use chuck
nut. To loosen the studs quickly, there is a
special tool called stud remover(Fig. 15).
Fig

D.Nut
It is piece of iron or non-iron which has
thread cut inside it. It is mounted on a bolt
or stud to tighten one or more than one
part. They are of many types depending
on their shape. According to shape, these
are as follows:
1. Hexagonal Nut: It has six sides and it
has chamfers at the 30 degrees angle. It
is used more often. It can be easily
tightened and loosened with the help
of spanner.
Figure
2. Sqaure Nut: This nut is four sided. Its
upper part has chamfer at 30 degrees
angle. This nut is preferred after
hexagon nut . this is used a little less
compared to hexagon nut. As its
thickness is less it is used for light jobs.
3. Cap Nut: it is also similar to six sided
mut with the only difference that it has
a cap on it. The cap keeps the bolt
covered and protects it from rust and
there is no risk of leakage at the place
of pressure.
4. Flanged Nut: If hexagone nut has a
collar under it. It is called flanged nut.
Whole using this nut, washer etx. Are
not required.
5. Dome Nut: it is similar to cap nut. The
only difference is that its head is like a
dome.
6. Capstan Nut: it is a round nut and
holes of 3/6 inch are drilled on its
outer surface. These nuts can be
tightened and loosened with the halp
of “C” spanner.
7. Ring Nut: It aslo has a circular shape
like capstan nut with the only
difference that on its outer surface slot
is cut instead of hole. It can be
tightened and loosened with the help
of “c” or hook spanner. It is mainly
used for locking in pair.
8. Knurled Nut: It has circular shape. Its
outer surface is knurled , which makes
it easy to tighten and loosen it with
hand. It is used with measuring tools
to frequently tighten and loosen
9. Thumb Nut: it is also similar to
knurled nut. Its outer surface is
knurled and its head is like a dome. It
is mostly used with measuring tool
such as in combination set to tighten
the blade.
10. Fly Nut: It is also called wing nut. Its
outer surface has two wings which
help tighten and loosen it easily. It is
used in those jobs where frequent
tightening and loosening by hand is
required . for example, to tighten the
blade of hexa frame and air cleaner
cover etc.
11.
5. LOCKING DEVICES
To lock the fastners , locking devices
are used. Explanation of some main
locking devices are as follows:
1. Washer
When a part is tightening by a nut
washer is used to protect the
surface of the part from damages
and for more pressure. A washer is
a round blade qith a hole below
the nut. Washer is usually made of
metal sheet but washers are also
made of brass, copper and
aluminium according to the type
of the work.
Washer is of many types:
1. Plain Washer: It is round
shape and at its centre there is
a hole according to the size of
the bolt. It is used by putting
under the nut which is screwed
in the bolt. Washer protected
nuts thread and makes it easy
to tighten and loosen the nut.
Some washers have chamfers
at 30 degrees.
2. Locking Waher: Locking washer is
of many types and is made
according to the nut. It is used
when there is a risk that nut or
bolt would loosen due to vibration
 after being tightened. Locking
washers are mostly used in
autombiles.
3. Spring Waher: This washer is used
when there are more vibrations.
Nut does not get loose when
spring washer is used while
tightening nut. These washers are
made of steel and are tempered.
As washers have an opening , they
put upward pressure on the
threads of the nut, which keeps
the nut right.
Figure
2. Check Nut: After tightening standard
nut, another nut is tightened upon it
which is thinner than normal nut. Both
sides have chamfers at the angle of 30
degrees. Check nut does not let the
standard nut become loose. It is used
more often in automobiles for
examples in shock absorber. (Fig. 19.).
3. Castle Nut: Its shape is also similar to
hexagon nut. The only difference is
that there is a collar on its head. The
collar
Has notches cut on it. The bolt used
for it has one hole. After doing play
adjustment or tightening the nut
completely a split pin is attached to
the notch and the hole and pin’s
opening is spread out to right or left.
This makes sure that nut does not
become loose. It is used in
automobiles front axle and rear axle,
etc.(Fig 19(2)
Figure
4.Slotted Nut:
It is also like castle but it has no collar
due to which it is weaker than
common locking nut. The upper part
of this nut has slots cut opposite each
other the bolt has a hole. After
tightening when the slot is in
alignment with the hole, the split pin
is attached and pin’s tail end is spread
either to right or left.(Fig 19(3) ).
5 Split Pin Nut : This nut is similar
to ordinary nut. Aftter tightening
the nut on the bolt a hole of 3/16
D is made between nuts head and
bolt. A split pin is hitched in this
hole and pin’s tail end is spread to
either right or left. It ensures that
the nut does not become loose.
(Fig19(4)).
6 Self Locking Nut: On the upper
part of this nut, there is a
collar. Whose inside diameter
is smaller than the bolts core
diameter. When nut is
tightened, bolts one end cuts
thread in this ring. It helps the
ring hold bolt’s threads tightly
and then there is no danger of
nut getting loose. It cannot be
used again afgter being used
once. If it has to be used again ,
then spring washer should be
used under the nut. It is mostly
used in automobiles.(Fig
19(5)0.
7 Grooved or Pin Nut: this nut’s
bottom end is circular on
which a groove is cut. The
circlular part of the nut fits into
the counter bore hole of the
part which has to be fitted. It is
firmly fixed with the help of set
screw fixed on its side which
makes sure that there is no
danger of nut getting separate.
(Fig 19(6).
8 Willes or Swan Nut: on the side
of this nut a slot is cut till the
moddle. Above this slot there
is a clear hole with bigger
diameter than that of the screw
whcich has to be fitted. The
below part of the nut has
threads cut on it. After
tightening the nut the screw in
the slot is also tightened which
somewhat presses down the
upper part of the nut. This
increases the friction in threads
due to which there is nodanger
of nut getting loose.(Fig19(7)).
9 Pin Locking: In this device, nut
is tighter and a pin or a
headless screw is fixed along
one of its sides which saves it
from, loosening.
10 Locking or Stop Plate: It is a
plate with six notches. After
 tightening the nut, this plate is
tightened by the screw which
ensure the nut does not
become loose.(Fig. 19(9) ).
Note : Apart from the above,
there are many other kind of
locking devices depending on
the type of job which are used.
(see Fig.19).
5.KEY AND KEYWAYS
To the transmit power from
one part to another i. e. to provide
speed to move hub or shaft’s
upper pulley, gear and other parts
a key is fitted between them,
which joins both parts. It is made
of steel and is fitted parallel to the
axis line. Its size is based on the
size of the shaft. It is also called
key-way. It is also a temporary
fasteners
Keys can be divided into
two categories:\
1. Sunk key\
2. Saddle key.
1. Sunk key : It is also of many
types according to the shape.
(a) Gib Head Key: This key is used
in all types of work. It is plain
on one side and tapered on the
top (Fig. 20). On one of its
ends, there is a head which
helps in taking it out.
Figure
(b) Feather key: Its shape is
rectangular. Sometimes its
ends are made round. To fit
this key , key – way is cut
length wise in the middle of
the shaft. Sometimes machines
screw is also used to fit this
key, it is of many types such as
plain-headed feather. Key,
single-headed feather key,
double-headed feather key.
(Fig.21).
Figure
© It is a parallel circular disc
whose upper part is rectangular and
the lower part is semi- circular. Key-
way is made according to its shape in
which it is fitted. It is normally used in
machine who do not move very fast. It
is completely different from other keys
in shape (see Fig.22).
Figure
(d) Round key: it is circular cross
section, parallel and taper pin.
Its taper is 1.50. it is fitted half
into the shaft and half into the
hub (see Fig. 23)
Figure
2. Saddle key: it has two
typesFig. 24)
(a) Flat saddle key : it is used
for light work, where much
power is not required, in it
shaft’s upper part is made a
little plain.
(b) Hollow saddle key: It is like
flat key. The only
difference is that its lower
surface is round instead of
flat and this roundness is
according to the shaft’s
diameter as has been
shown in Fig. 24.
Figure
6. RIVETS AND RIVETING
Rivet is round piece of a metal. It is
used to join two or more than two
plates of metal. Rivets are mostly used
in sheet metal of fabrication section.
(Fig. 27)
Rivets are usually made of mild
steel or wrought iron. But for some
special jobs it is also made of copper,
vrass, aluminium or other alloy metals
, rivets used are of the same metal as
the metal of plates which have to be
joined. Rivet has three parts:1.head
2.body 3.tail
Depending on function and shape,
rivets are various types. Some main
rivets are as follows:
1. Snap head rivet: It is the most
often used rivets. Its head is semi-
circular. It is also called cup rivet.
It is used often strong joints are
required.
2. Pan head rivet: It is used in
engineering for heavy jobs such as
guarder engine, boiler, etc. because
its head is very strong.
3. Pan Head Taper Rivet: this rivet is
sililar to pan head rivet with the
only difference that the part below
its head is taper . it is used in high
pressure boiler or engine etc.
4. Flat Head Rivet: It is used to join
thin sheets. It is mainly
appropriate for non- iron metal
such as aluminium , brass, copper
etc.
5. Conical head rivet: It is used for
small tasks. Its head is made
conically by hammering.
Figure
Riveting
The process of fitting rivet
in the hole of a plate or job and
spreading the end of its tail is
called riveting. In this process two
or more than two cold or hot plates
are joined together with the help of
rivet. Very often rivet is made red
hot first for riveting for doing
riveting in more amount on some
jobes, hydraulic gas or neumatic
hammer is used. Following tools
are required for doing cold
riveting by land.
1. Ball peen Hammer: It is used to
strike while doing riveting.
2. Pocker: It is used to align the
holes of plates before doing
riveting.
3. Rivet set: It is used to pull rivet
above and to set properly the
raised metal around it. It has
been shown in Fig. 29.
Figure
4. Rivet snap tool: It is tool the
chisel, and punch. It is used for
doing the finishing of head
after doing riveting by
hammer.
5. Caulking and Fullering:
Caulking tools is similar to
chisel. Its sharp edge is square.
When job or plates have to be
joined by riveting and they also
have to be made water light
and air light then rivet head’s
edges and plates are presses
down by caulking tool. It
removes are carried out by
numeric hammer. The only
dufference is that fullering
tool’s thickness is equal to the
thickness of plate as has been
shown in Fig. 30.
Figure
6. Rivet Drift: It is a round iron
rod made taper in diameter,
which is oftenly used to align
the holes of the rivets. (see fig.
29(b)).
7. Riveted Joint
8. Riveted joint is mainly of two
types
9. 1. Lap joint 2. Butt joint
Figure
1. Lap joint: When edges of
two plates overlap and are
joined by rivet, it is called
 lap joint. Lap joint is of the
following types:
(i) Single rivet lap
joint: It is a lap joint
which is done in
one line.
(ii) Double rivet lap
joint: a lap joint
done in two lines.
2. Butt joint : In this the edges
of plates that have to be
joined are put adjacent to
each other. Then cover
plate is put either on their
one side or both sides and
they are permanently
joined by rivet. This
process is called butt joint
[see Fig.31(b)].
When riveting is
doen after putting
plate on one side. It
is called single
riveted single cover
butt joint. But often
plates are put on
both sides of the
joint to make it
strong, it is called
double cover butt
joint.
7. COTTER JOINT
When two shafts, which are
under tension or compression are
joined by cotter such a joint is
called cottled joint.
Figure
7. SPLIT PIN
Split pin is made by bending the wire
of semi-circular cross section. It is in
annealed condition vecause after
passing throught the hole both its ends
are twisted on both sides so that pin
does not come out on its own . Pin’s
loop I used to take out the pin.(fig.33).
9.CIRCLIPS
These are made from dies of spring
steel sheets, cut into different sizes.
Hardened and tempered. These are
fitted in the special slits made in the
job with the help of plier. As soon as
the pressure of the plier is removed,
they come back to the previous
position.
Figure
10.CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS FOR
FASTNERS
Many times in automobile
workshops during the repair of engine
and vehicles, worksheet gasket or
head gasket is joined to shaulk so that
leakage of oil and gases can be
stopped. Inside of body of the vehicle.
On same part of the reline roof,
dashboard etc. recsin is joined to metal
by an adhesive. Steel tape is used to
join Bakelite of plastic as well as to
insulate the electric wires. Various
types of adhesive chemical liquid are
available in the form of paste in the
market. One of these Is anti seze
compoiund that is applied on the
threads of a bolt, which can be fitted
into a threaded hole of aluminium.
(fug.35).
Figure
11.OTHER METHODS OF
FASTENING
For joining work pieces instead of
fastners following methods
1. Soldering : The action of
joining two or more metal
pieces by solder is called
soldering. Solder is an alloy
metal. It is soft and its melting
point is below 427 degrees
centigrade. It is also called ‘soft
tack’ . iron is used for soldering
. tacking on the electronic
circuit board is done by
soldering.
2. Brezing: It is also call ‘brass
tack’ / it provides stronger
joint than soldering. The filler
metal used in brazing is called
 spelter. Its melting point is square therefore
above 427 degree centigrade. In it is used in both
automobile, brazing is used for methods.
maintenance of radiator etc. 2. Arc welding: to make
3. Welding: to join the metal arc in A.C. welding
perminantly with the help of power is taken from
heat and pressure etc. is called transformer, in D.C.
welding. welding power is taken
Two types of welding are from D.C. generator or
used to repair vehicles. rectifier. The ends of
1. Gas welding 2. Arc metal piexes, which
welding have to be joined are
1. Gas welding: In this heated at their interface
method joint is made by with a continuous arc to
using different gases for join them. This joint
heat. It is a type of forms with or without
fusion welding . metals the use of filler metal.
edges are melt and in 12. PINNING:
the resultant empty In many fastening procedures of
space joints are made automobiles, some procedures are
by melting the filler rod such in which pin is used . the
with hot flame. The procedure to join two or more parts
filler rod is of the same with pin is called pinning.
metal as the metal of Procedures of pinning: Its procedures
pieces to be joined. This are as follows:
method is suitable for 1. Parallel pins: It is a fastening
the welding of thin device.. pin of parallel diameter is
aluminium copper, used to fit into a rimmed hole. It is
brass, and non-ferrous necessary to use recanting ring to
metals gas welding is of set it in proper position.(fig.37).
two types:
(i) Low pressure
gas welding: In
this method low
pressure Figure
acetylene
generator is
used for heat. 2. Spring pins: It is used in parts to
(ii) High pressure retain slight straightness.(fig. 38).
gas welding: In 3. Taper pin:It is used to keep parts
this method, in fit condition. It is made in
acetylene gas is standard sizes and fit into a
used for heat in rimmed hole. Parts can be easily
which its joined and in-joined.(fig.39).
pressure is Diagrame
almost 15.5 kg
per centimetre
square in
4. Cotter pin: cotter pin joins any two
compressed
parts. Its tapered body is used to
foam, oxygen’s
tighten nut on the thread of one
pressure is
end. (fig 40).
almost 12.5 kg
per centimetre
 Figure
5. Peening: in this procedure,
assembling is done like in riveting.
(fig.41).
Figure
6. Doweling : this procedure is used
to keep in fit condition more than
two parts. To prevent the
assembled parts from loosening,
dowel pins are used to tighten
screw on them. (*fig 42.).
\ condition, some lock rings have holes
Figure
7. Staking: It is a fastening procedure
in which one part is fitted into
another part. If increase the work
capacity.(fig.43)
Figure
13. TORQUE FASTENERS
Due to interference value in threads
nuts and bvolts resist loosening. They
do not need cotter pins and being
locked. The upper threads of nuts
made of every metal get distorted due
to interference value. Hence in some
nuts nylon layer is put on the thread .
by fitting nylon insert washer in the
upper or lower part of the nut, the
possibility of its becoming loose ends
completely. Similarly, interference
value causes distortion in some
threads of bolts. In some special types
of bolts the possibility of loosening can
be removed by fitting nylon screw or
blade in the bolt or by applying dry
adhesive coating. (see
figs44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52).
Figure
If due to some reason threads of a hole
are damaged, then threads insert is
fitted in its place. Before fitting thread
insert, damaged thread should be
cleaned by drill. Subsequently, thread
is made by thread repair kit or some
special tool. After that fit the thread
insert into the hole (see fig. 53).
Figure
14. LOCK RINGS
Lock ring are used to fix or lick any
device at a place. Lock or snap ring are
of two types;
1.Internal lock rings 2. External rings.
1. Internal lock rings: These rings are
commonly fitted into housing because
they keep the shafts and other
components in proper working
so that they can be taken out and fitted
easily.
2.External lock rings: These rings are
fitted at outside the housing. These are
normally used to prevent left and right
movement of collars and gears fitted
on shaft.
15. GASKET
A gasket is fastening auxiliary
device made of matalic
material,rubber, plastic and paper. It is
used nto obtain a suitable bond
between nuts and bolts or other
fastners or joining devices. It helps in
fightening the fasteners properly.
Gasket is normally made form the
following materials:
1. Asbestos: It is a aheat resistant
silicate mineral that can be woven
into fabrics. It can bear up to 600
degrees centigrade temperature
and its melting point is 1500
degree centigrade. Small pieces of
fiber are mixed with asbestos to
make with asbestose sheet and
board.
2. Sheet fibre: sand paper is mixed in
the Zinc chloride solution and
pressed to make sheet. It is used in
the tractor manufacturing industry
where insulating core and washer
are used for starter in motor or
nature. Apart from it, it is used to
 make spring, etc. for step bearing
and washer coupling clutch.
3. Commercial leather: it is used to
make leather parts of a machine,
driving belts and many other
items.
4. Cork: it is a device to make gasket
pressed cork sheet is used to seal
different joint of gasket. To protect
the cork washer from, damage and
breakage due to bending a layer of
glue is applied on both sides of its
cork board.
5. Asbestos rubber composition: It is
a type of rubber which is used for
packing . it is made by mixing
graphite red lead, iron oxide and
rubber with asbestos. This gasket
has the capacity to bear 12
atmospheric pressure and 185
degree centigrade temperature.
Before applying on a joint a layer
of oil is put on it. The speciality of
this gasket is that it is very strong
and elastic at high temperature. To
avoid any kind of leakage between
the hard surface of gasket and
joint’s surface and to make good
connection , gasket is covered with
a layer of water glass or red lead.
6. Semi-course wool felts: felts are
commonly used to prevent leakage
of lubricant on abrasive surface
and to prevent dust and oil from
reaching abrasive surface. It same
metals’ surface from rust and
reduces friction. It also protects
from dust etc. it endures jerks and
vibration.
16. OIL SEALS
In the engines of motor cars, there is
no leakage of oil between the
stationary and moving parts, so that
oil seals are used between them.
About 15 seals are used in the engine
of car and truck etc. for example a seal
is placed on the crankshaft before the
fly wheel and in the axle before the
brake drum to prevent oil entering
form the clutch or brake.
17. HACKSAW
Hacksaw is used to cut a job.
Hacksaw is a main tool and a good tool to cut
metal. The process to cut metal with hacksaw is
called hacksawing. Though chisel can also be
used to cut metal, but it can damage the metal.
Hacksaw has two main parts. Which are as
follows:
1. Hacksaw frame 2. Hacksaw blade.
1. Hacksaw Frame
2. It has also of two types:
(a) fixed hacksaw frame
(b) adkistab;e jaclsaw fra,e/
(a) Fixed hacksaw frame
Its both ends are turned at right
angle and its whole body is made
of one piece. It is made of mild
steel and tempered only one size of
blade can fit in this. Blade can be
loosened with the help of fly nut
(see Fig.55). its main parts are as
follows.
1. Frame 2. Handle 3. Wing nut.
Figure
(b) Adjustable hacksaw frame
It is made of two pieces of metal.
Blades of different sizes are used to
in this hacksaw is adjusted
according to the blade. Its one
piece has some notches and the
other piece has a pin which helps
the balde to fit in.
Apart from these two
hacksaw frames are also made of
tube. In tube hacksaw frame, one
tube moves into another tube. Four
or five holes are made into the
moving pipe and a pin is fitted
into the other tube. (see fig.56)
Figure
2. Hacksaw Blade
Hacksaw blade is a steel strip
whose both ends have one hole
each in them. Hacksaw frame
and blade help in cutting the
metal . blade is usually made
by high carbon steel, high
speed steel and low alloy steel,
it is also level and tempered.
Hacksaw blades are of two
types:
(a) Flexible blade: In this type
of blade, only the part with
teeth is tempered . Rest of
the part is kept soft. Hence
the blade does not break
easily even when it receives
jolts. During cutting the
metal . it can withstand
jolts. It is used to cut pipes.
Thin sheets etc.
(b) All hard blade: this type of
blade is completely
tempered . it is brittle and
even a slight jerk can break
it. It is used to cut cast
brass, iron etc.
Selection of blade: three main
points should be kept in mind
prior to using the blade.
1. Length of blade
2. Grade
3. Setting of teeth.
1. Length of Blade:
according to the
length, blades are
available in different
sizes such as 6” , 8”,
10”, 12” . Blades
bigger than these are
also available which
are used in power
hacksaw. Their size is
the distance between
the centre of one hole
of blade to the centre
of the other hole.
2. Grade: according to
the grade blades are
of four types:
(a) coarse
(b) medium
(c) fine
(d) very fine.
(a) Coarse: In this 1. The setting of blade should be checked before
blade every one
inch has 14 teeth
cut into it. It is
used to cut thicker
and soft metal
such as copeer,
brass, aluminium
etc.
(b) Medium : In this
every one inch
has 18 teeth cut
into it. Its main
use is to cut mild
steel and cast iron.
(c) Fine : In this blade
every one inch has
24 teeth cut into it.
It is used to cut
medium carbon
steel, brass sheets ,
and thin tubes.
(d) Very fine: In this
blade, every one
inch has 32
notches cut into it.
It is used to cut
pipes, hard metals
and sheets of thin
gauge.
3. Setting of Teeth
According to setting
of teeth, blades are of
three types:
(a) Single setting: In
this setting, ytwo
teeth are turned
on right side and
one tooth is
turned on the left
side.
(b) Double setting: In
this two teeth each
are turned on
right and left side
(c) Zig-zag or wavy
setting: In this the
teeth of this blade
are turned in the
proportion2:3.
Precautions
using hacksaw.
2. While fastening job in the vice3, it should be its angle is from 65 to 85 degrees. It is
taken care of that the job does not protrude used to file soft metal.
from the jaw of the vice. In double cut file, teeth are cut on both
3. A little cutting cut should be made on the job sides of the file and cross each other.
by the triangular file. On one side, teeth’s angle is form 40-
4. Initially hacksaw should be moved slowly on 45 degrees and on the other side,
the job. teeth’s angle is from 70-80 degrees.
5. While moving hacksaw, pressure should be This file can be used to cut a job very
more moving forward and less when moving well. (see fig.59.).
backward. Rasp cut is often used by
6. When the cut is about to end, blade should be carpenters. Additionally , it is also
moved slowly and job should be above the used on hard rubber, plastic fibre and
hold length. hard board. Its teeth are in the shape
7. 40 to 50 stocks should be made in one minute. of arc which is why it is called rasp cut
8. Blade should be move the whole length. file (see fig59).
9. Coolant should be used while cutting.
10. If the blade break while working, then new
blade should be run from the beginning
immediately. Figure
11. Blade should always be moved straight.
2. According to length: Files are of
18. FILES
various sizes according to length. Files
While fitting new parts in any machine, are chosen according to the job such as
their size may be a little smaller or bigger than the 4”,6”,8”,10”,12” etc
machine. To rectify their size, files are used. In
addition to it, filing is also needed on those
machines whose parts undergo soldering,
brazing, welding (electrical or gas). Apart from,
filing is also used for other purposes suxh as for
making die to prepare the surface of a job to file a
part of a machine etc. file is a cutting tool, which
is made of high carbon steel or cast steel. It is
tempered except the long parallel lines are made
on its body. Its size is its whole length except
tang(see fig.58).

Figure

Classification of file: classification of file is as

follows:

1. According to cut
2. According to length
3. According to grade
4. According to shape or section
1. According to cut: according to cut, file
is of three types: single cut, double cut.
Rasp cut in single cut, teeth are cut on
the file at only one angle (see fig.59.).