UNIT 6

Lesson 1

Experience

Some actions are genuinely immoral, while others are simply amoral. Immoral actions go against
accepted moral standards and can cause harm to others, while amoral actions lack any moral content
and exist outside of the realm of morality.

For example, a friend's comment may have been insensitive, but it wasn't necessarily immoral because it
didn't go against any fundamental moral principles or cause tangible harm to anyone. However, this
doesn't mean we should excuse all amoral behavior, as some actions may still be harmful or
inappropriate.

It's important to distinguish between immoral and amoral behavior to avoid condemning people for
things that aren't actually morally wrong. Understanding the nature of people's actions can help us
make more informed judgments and decisions about how to respond to them.

Assess

1. "Yes, you have a moral responsibility toward yourself."

Doing what makes us happy is vital, but we also have a moral obligation to care for ourselves and follow
our beliefs. Neglecting this obligation can harm us and others. If we put happiness over health, we may
adopt harmful behaviors that affect our bodies and brains, burdening others. Thus, we have a moral
imperative to care for ourselves since it can lead to long-term enjoyment and well-being.

2. "An individual's personal rights are more valuable than the demands of one's community."

Individual rights should be prioritized over societal norms, which help preserve communal order.
Personal freedom allows people to express themselves and achieve their ambitions. Individual rights
also defend against repressive and discriminatory societal norms. Thus, social standards should be
maintained, but not above individual rights.

3. "An individual has a moral responsibility towards her natural environment."

Humans need nature to survive. We must conserve it for future generations. Reduce our carbon
footprint, save natural resources, and avoid environmental destruction. This neglect can cause climate
change, biodiversity loss, and natural calamities. Thus, realizing our environmental morality is essential
for a sustainable future.

Challenge

Multiple ethical theories and frameworks reflect the complexity of ethical decision-making and the
diversity of human values and opinions. Because ethics is subjective and each moral circumstance is
unique, philosophers have struggled to establish comprehensive ethical theories. Ethical decision-
making includes context, cultural values, and individual viewpoints, making a universal ethical
framework problematic. Ethics involves contemplation and a dedication to empathy, compassion, and
justice.

Harness

US slavery was formerly considered "morally defensive" but is now immoral. Many rationalized it as
ethically essential, but now it is unanimously denounced as violating fundamental human rights. Slavery
is now widely considered unethical. Critical conversation and education can help people see their
prejudices. This might include studying the historical and cultural backgrounds that affected past beliefs
and behaviors and discussing current ethical challenges. We might also challenge individuals to examine
their prejudices and ideals. Open-mindedness and intellectual curiosity can assist in raising awareness
and comprehension of complicated ethical concerns.

-----------------------

Lesson 2

Experience

As a college student, I am Donna Mae Castro, and I find myself embodying the concept of being a cross-
point. It's fascinating to see how I am shaped by many forces that intersect and intertwine to create the
person I am today.

Physically, I can't help but notice that my appearance reflects the genetic traits inherited from my
parents.
When it comes to my interpersonal relationships, they have played a significant role in shaping my
values and aspirations. The bonds I share with my family, friends, and mentors have influenced how I
see the world, my choices, and the goals I strive to achieve.

Growing up in a multicultural environment has broadened my horizons and shaped my perspective on

life. The diversity of cultures, traditions, and ideologies I have been exposed to has expanded my
understanding of the world and nurtured my empathy and appreciation for different perspectives.

Furthermore, I must recognize the impact of historical events on my development. My history has
indirectly shaped my possibilities, society's ideals, and our lives. Past lessons and adjustments have
shaped my identity.

Intriguingly, even the slightest change in these cross-points could have resulted in a completely different
version of myself. If my physical traits were other, my relationships took a different course, I grew up in
a different cultural setting, or even if historical events unfolded differently, I would be a distinct
individual shaped by those altered circumstances.

Assess

James Rachels identifies the following arguments in favor of cultural relativism:

Different cultures have different moral codes.

There is no objective "truth" in morality.

Moral truths are relative to culture and society.

However, Rachels also presents arguments against cultural relativism:

Cultural relativism is self-contradictory.

Some moral practices are present in all cultures.

Moral progress is possible.

While cultural relativism recognizes the importance of cultural diversity and the need to avoid
ethnocentrism, it ultimately fails to provide a solid basis for moral decision-making. Rachels argues that
the existence of universal moral practices and the possibility of moral progress suggest that there are
objective moral truths that transcend cultural boundaries. Additionally, the self-contradictory nature of
cultural relativism suggests that it is not a tenable ethical position. Ultimately, while cultural relativism
offers some valuable insights, it cannot provide a coherent and reliable foundation for ethical decision-
making.

Challenge

An individual's religion or religious conviction may drive moral actions, but moral philosophy still
matters. Philosophical thinking can help people explain their ideals, analyze alternative views, and assess
their behavior. Ethical decision-making involves both faith and reason, which provide direction and
understanding.

Harness

After visiting an ethnographic or historical museum in Bulacan and reflecting on how the physical
environment and historical events have shaped my people's culture and my own identity, I can promote
cultural awareness through education, participate in cultural events and activities, and support local
cultural preservation efforts to preserve my people's legacy while also opening new doors.

--------------------

Lesson 3

Experience

When I needed to transfer schools, my mind was keen on exploring, but my heart wanted to stay near
family and friends. This conflict may be resolved by carefully weighing the benefits and drawbacks of
both alternatives, seeking counsel from reliable people, and eventually doing what seems right.
Acceptance and serenity with one's decision determine satisfaction with the ending.

Assess

Kohlberg's Six Stages of Moral Development are as follows:

Level I: Pre-Conventional Morality

Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation

Stage 2: Self-Interest Orientation

Level II: Conventional Morality

Stage 3: Interpersonal Accord and Conformity

Stage 4: Authority and Social Order Orientation

Level III: Post-Conventional Morality

Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

Example of Stage 1: A person who stops at a red light because he doesn't want to get a ticket or be
caught by a traffic enforcer.

Example of Stage 2: A person who cheats on an exam because he wants to get a high grade.

Example of Stage 3: A person who pays her taxes because she wants to avoid legal issues.

Example of Stage 4: A person who follows traffic rules because he wants to avoid accidents and chaos.

Example of Stage 5: Mahatma Gandhi, who protested against the British government's salt tax by
breaking the law and encouraging others to do the same.

Example of Stage 6: Nelson Mandela, who fought against apartheid in South Africa and spent 27 years in
prison for his beliefs, but never compromised his principles.

To resolve the tension between the mind and the heart, one can evaluate the situation, consider the
moral principles involved, and make a decision based on what is ethical. The individual may not always
be satisfied with the conclusion, but it is important to act according to one's conscience and moral
beliefs.

Challenge

The expression "follow your heart" does not inherently contradict the aim of moral philosophy, which is
to develop moral reasoning. Still, it should be used with a sound moral sense, as blindly following one's
heart could result in immoral or unethical behavior.
Harness

Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development identifies different stages of moral reasoning, and
moral exemplars are individuals who exemplify the highest stages of moral development. Here are some
examples of Kohlbergian moral exemplars, including both real-life and fictional examples:

Mahatma Gandhi: A real-life example, Gandhi advocated for nonviolent resistance and fought for India's
independence from British rule, displaying a commitment to justice and ethical principles.

Nelson Mandela: Another real-life example, Mandela fought against apartheid in South Africa,
demonstrating resilience, forgiveness, and a dedication to equality and human rights.

Atticus Finch (from "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee): A fictional example, Atticus Finch is a lawyer
who defends an innocent Black man accused of rape in a racially charged society, embodying principles
of fairness, courage, and standing up for what is right.

Jean Valjean (from "Les Misérables" by Victor Hugo): A fictional example, Jean Valjean transforms from a
criminal to a compassionate and selfless individual, guided by his sense of justice, mercy, and
redemption.

Oskar Schindler: A real-life example, Schindler was a German industrialist who saved the lives of over a
thousand Jewish people during the Holocaust, risking his own safety to protect others, showcasing
courage and moral responsibility.

Hermione Granger (from the "Harry Potter" series by J.K. Rowling): A fictional example, Hermione
Granger consistently displays strong moral values, such as fairness, loyalty, and fighting for the rights of
marginalized groups.

Martin Luther King Jr.: A real-life example, King was a civil rights leader who advocated for racial equality
and justice through nonviolent means, demonstrating moral courage, empathy, and a vision for a better
society.
Frodo Baggins (from "The Lord of the Rings" by J.R.R. Tolkien): A fictional example, Frodo Baggins takes
on the burden of the One Ring, resisting its corrupting influence and ultimately sacrificing his own well-
being to destroy it, showing integrity, selflessness, and a commitment to the greater good.

These are just a few examples of moral exemplars that align with Kohlberg's stages of moral
development. Their actions and characteristics inspire and challenge individuals to aspire to higher
levels of moral reasoning and ethical behavior.

-------------------

Lesson 4

Experience

As a college student, I once faced an ethical dilemma when my groupmates plagiarized a portion of our
research paper. I felt conflicted because I wanted to uphold academic integrity while avoiding creating
tension within the group. I solved the problem by confronting my group members about their actions
and suggesting revising the paper and adequately citing our sources. I made decisions based on my
principles of honesty and justice. The resolution satisfied me because we could rectify the situation and
submit an ethically sound paper. Looking back, I believe what I did was appropriate, and my views on
academic integrity have only grown stronger with time.

Assess

Philippine accountants encounter tax evasion as an ethical concern. Clients may ask accountants to alter
financial records to avoid taxes.

a. As an accountant, I must keep financial records accurate and truthful.

b. The client's request to alter financial records and their effects are required facts.

c. The customer, accountant, government, and public are stakeholders.

d. The client's request can be refused, fulfilled, or reported to the authorities. Refusing the client's
request might cost you the client and legal trouble. Complying with the client's request is unethical and
might result in a legal risk for the accountant and client. Reporting the client to the authorities might
cost the accountant business and endanger the client.
e. The ethical question is whether to cooperate with the customer's request, commit tax evasion,
disclose the client, and risk negative repercussions.

In this case, the accountant must prioritize ethics before profit and assess the repercussions for all
parties. The accountant should decline the customer's request, report the client to the authorities, and
promote financial reporting openness.

Challenge

In a moral dilemma, selecting the "lesser of two evils" may be permissible, but it is hard to defend
picking an evil intellectually. Lying to protect someone is an ethical challenge since it contradicts
honesty. To make the most ethical choice, one must consider the repercussions and follow morality.

Harness

In a real-life example, an accountant named Jane faces an ethical dilemma when she discovers
fraudulent activities within her company. Applying ethical principles and professional standards, Jane
chooses to become a whistleblower and report the fraud to relevant authorities, prioritizing integrity
and the best interests of stakeholders over personal risks. Ethical training helps individuals like Jane
navigate such situations by providing guidance on upholding professional standards and making
principled decisions.

------------

Lesson 5

Experience

As a student, you may encounter moral dilemmas, such as choosing between academic success and
mental health. Ethical frameworks such as utilitarianism and virtue ethics can be beneficial in making
such decisions, but ultimately, one must consider their values and the potential consequences of their
actions.
Assess

Level of human interaction: With herself

Problem: College student feels guilty for taking time off for mental health

Ethical theory: Virtue Ethics

Resolution proposed: Prioritize mental health as a virtue, develop courage to prioritize well-being

Level of human interaction: With society

Problem: CEO decides to lay off employees or risk company's financial stability

Ethical theory: Utilitarianism

Resolution proposed: Choose the option that maximizes overall happiness or well-being for the greatest
number of people, consider well-being of employees and stakeholders

Level of human interaction: With natural world

Problem: Company considers dumping waste into a nearby river

Ethical theory: Environmental Ethics

Resolution proposed: Prioritize well-being of natural world and its preservation, consider potential harm
to ecosystem and impact on future generations.

Challenge

While increasing awareness of cultural diversity and the rise of globalization may challenge the
traditional assumption that reason is what unites humans, it is still essential to recognize that universal
human experiences and values influence human reasoning in addition to cultural influences.

Harness

Silakbo PH is an organization in the Philippines that advocates for and provides support for mental
health. Through my education and research, I have learned about the challenges encountered by mental
health support systems in the Philippines, such as limited resources and cultural barriers. Classes in
ethics have helped me comprehend the significance of accessible and culturally sensitive support in
mental health care, as well as the ethical principles of beneficence and justice.