Kenda Khodor

SBI4U1

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

HOMEOSTASIS

- Your body contains trillions of cells (about

ten thousand trillion)
- During embryonic development, cells are
specialized into one of around 100 different
types
- Cells of the same kind work together in
tissues
- Different kinds of tissues are organized
into organs, and organs are organized into
organ systems

-------> these systems work in tandem towards common biological purposes, to keep you
healthy, alive, strong, sated (satisfied), and reproducing

- This results in the internal environment of the body to be kept relatively constant (for
example, your body temperature is around 37 degrees celsius, and your blood maintains
a constant PH, blood-glucose and blood-oxygen concentration
- Homeostasis: the tendency of the body to maintain a constant internal environment
- For any given variable, the value will tend to rise and fall around a set point, but even
with this amount of variation, balance can still be maintained
- Levels spike at meals
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS:
- Even with the balance being maintained, homeostasis is constantly being disturbed
- The body monitors these disturbances and maintains homeostasis by feedback systems
which monitor, assess, and adjust the variables being regulated

The three components that make up the feedback system:

1. Sensor: detects changes in the internal environment

2. Control centre: sets the range of values within which a variable should be maintained to
achieve homeostasis
3. Effector: makes adjustments to the distured variable and balances it back to normal

- When homeostasis is disturbed, the changes are detected by the sensor that sends
signals to the control centre
- Having processed the signal, the control centre sends signals to the effector, that works
to bring the variables back within their original range of values

There are two basic types of feedback systems:

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK:
- In negative feedback, the feedback system works to reverse the changes being made to
a variable in order to bring it back to the functional range (allows the body to regulate
itself)

For example, body temperature is a variable governed by a negative feedback system so what
happens when the temperature is too low or too high?

When body temperature is too HIGH:

- The vascular and endocrine systems respond in a manner to cool down the body
- Blood vessels dilate (the walls stretch wider, thinning out their membranes, which is why
people look red when they are hot)
- The endocrine system signals the activation of sweat glands
----> These combined efforts increase the amount of heat being radiated/given off from the
surface of our body to cool it down

When body temperature is too LOW :

- The response is made in a similar way, but in the opposite direction
- The vascular response is to constrict blood vessels, thickening their walls
- The endocrine system promotes the general increase in metabolism, which creates heat
(burns more calories)
- Shivering is an activation of muscles: the quick flexing/relaxing action of shivering
requires energy, which also creates heat
POSITIVE FEEDBACK:
- Positive feedback systems act to strengthen change in a certain variable
- One example occurs during childbirth, as the mother experiences contractions there are
signals that are sent to the brain
- These signals reach the pituitary gland ad promotes the release of a hormone called
oxytocin, which promotes contractions to increase in strength and frequency
- As the labour continues, contractions and oxytocin release both continue to increase,
reaching the max in childbirth

Positive feedback is less common than negative feedback systems:

- This is especially for any system working to maintain homeostasis

- This process is best used in situations that have a definitive cut off point (in this example,
the birth of the baby end the cycle of increasing signals)
- However, these systems are still detrimental (cause harm) to our general health and well
being

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

*****In order to maintain homeostasis, cells must be able to communicate with each other******

This is done by mostly two body systems:

1. Nervous system (for later)

2. Endocrine system: it’s a system of glands which release a type of hormone directly into
the bloodstream to maintain homeostasis
- Hormones: they’re chemical messengers that are released into the bloodstream in large
amounts and affect distant cells
- Hormones are very similar to neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers used
by the nervous system
----> The major difference between hormones and neurotransmitters is the difference in the
distance travelled by the molecule. However, some molecules are both
(e.g. epinephrine which is also known as adrenaline)
(they’re released from different places but are the same chemical)
- Glands: they are organs that produce and release hormones
HORMONES:
Hormones can be broadly classified into one of these categories:

1. Steroid hormones:
- They are made from lipids
- Because they are hydrophobic, they easily dissolve across the cell membrane and can
take action inside cells
- For example, estrogen (sex hormone) can trigger cell growth by activating genes
(Estrogens control several genes and proteins that induce the cells to enter the cell cycle)

2. Peptide hormones:
- They are water soluble (polar) and typically bind to membrane receptors on their target
cells, triggering other reactions inside the cell

SECOND MESSENGERS:
- Even though it seems simple enough that a hormone binding to a membrane receptor
simulates the intended charges inside the cell, it is normally more complicated than that
- In many cases, a second messenger is used, these are molecules that are produced as
a direct result of the binding of the first messenger (the hormone)

Earl Sutherland:

- He discovered these second messenger systems in researching how epinephrine

stimulates the hydrolysis of glycogen inside cells
- He figured out that epinephrine activates the enzyme that hydrolyzes glycogen
- However, when he mixed epinephrine with the enzyme in the test tube, there was no
activation, which led him to conclude that there must be another messenger transmitting
the signal from hormone to enzyme

----> He found that the binding of epinephrine to

receptor proteins increased the concentration of
cyclic amp (cAMP),
Another membrane protein that (which is
associated with the epinephrine receptor)
converts
----> ATP to cAMP, which stimulates the enzyme
that hydrolyzes glycogen to work
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

THE PANCREAS AND BLOOD SUGAR

- Insulin is the most well-known hormone and this is due to the fact that insulin deficiency
is common which leads to diabetes
- Insulin is a peptide hormone that is produced in the islet cell of the pancreas
- There are several types of pancreatic islet cells, however only ꞵ-cells (“beta cells”)
synthesize and secrete insulin

1. These cells first create an inactive form of the

molecule, called proinsulin
2. Enzymes then remove a portion of the polypeptide
chain and activate the hormone

Another hormone works in opposition to insulin:

- Glucagon is a peptide hormone that is made in pancreatic islet ɑ-cells (“alpha cells”)

Insulin reduces blood sugar in a number of ways:

- By promoting the uptake of glucose from the blood by most cells

- By promoting the formation of and storage of glycogen in the liver
- By stimulating the formation of proteins and the storage of fats (protein and fats help to
slow down the digestion of carbs and delay their absorption into the blood. This helps to
prevent spikes in glucose levels after eating)

On the flip side, glucagon increases blood sugar:

- By promoting the conversion from glycogen into glucose in the liver so it can enter the
bloodstream and raise blood sugar
- By stimulating the breakdown of fats and proteins

The release of each hormone is controlled by blood sugar concentration:

- When glucose levels are low, glucagon is released to increase the amount of glucose
(and energy in general) available to the organism
 - When glucose concentration is high (such as after a meal), insulin is released, and as
this happens glucose is taken into cells and blood-glucose levels decrease, causing a
decrease in insulin release

DIABETES:
- People with diabetes have high blood sugar either because the body does not produce
enough insulin (type 1 diabetes), or because their bodies do not respond to the insulin
that is being produced (type 2 diabetes)
- As a result, the blood-glucose concentration is so high that glucose is excreted in the
urine
- More water is excreted as glucose concentration increases in the urine, causing
dehydration
- Also, the patient is weak from the lack of glucose available in the cells and to make
matters worse the cells then metabolize fats and proteins for energy
- Left untreated, it is fatal

Solution:
- Insulin is widely available, as are medications that can successfully manage type 2
diabetes
- The most successful treatment is accompanied by change to diet and physical activity

Gestational diabetes:
- Develops during pregnancy and can sometimes become permanent after giving birth

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

STRESS

- When presented with a significant amount of stress or a source of danger, the human
body can cause the “fight-or-flight” response
- This response prepares the organism physically and biologically to either fight for their
life or flee from the scene
- The adrenal gland controls the “flight or fight” response and it consists of two main parts:

~ the adrenal cortex is the outer portion of the gland

~ the adrenal medulla is the core

THE ADRENAL MEDULLA:

- It controls the immediate effects of the “fight or flight” response by using two hormones:
epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine
The release of epinephrine in response to stress causes a variety of different effects in different
parts of the body:

- Blood glucose is increased

- Fatty acids are released for use as an energy source
- Muscle contractions increase
- Heart rate, stroke volume and blood pressure increase
- Some blood vessels constrict while others dilate in such a way that blood flow is
increased to the brain, heart, and muscles, while blood flow is decreased to the skin, gut,
and kidneys

How does stress lead to the glandular response?

- The adrenal medulla is controlled directly by nerve cells of the sympathetic nervous
system
- When a significant stress is perceived, the gland is activated almost immediately
- This explains why the “flight or fight” response happens so quickly after stress is
presented

THE ADRENAL CORTEX:

- The cortex is controlled by the endocrine system
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is released from the pituitary gland in the brain
and is received by the adrenal cortex, which stimulates the release of a family of steroid
hormones called corticosteroids
- There are two types of corticosteroids: glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids
- In another example of negative feedback loop, the increase in corticosteroids in the
bloodstream causes the pituitary gland to release less ACTH

We’ll focus on two corticosteroids:

1. Cortisol (a glucocorticoid)
- Often called the stress hormone, cortisol is common in the bloodstream when a person
is experiencing stress
- Its basic function is to increase glucose production in the body, but it also is the most
central chemical component of the sensation of stress

2. Aldosterone (a mineralocorticoid)
- While the glucocorticoids affect glucose available to the organism, the mineralocorticoids
affect the osmolarity (how watery your blood is) of the blood
- Aldosterone promotes the reabsorption of sodium, which in turn promotes water
retention (fluid buildup in tissues) and increases blood pressure
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

KIDNEYS
- Organisms use excretory tubules to
filter out water, access nutrients, and
minerals from the body

- In some invertebrates, these tubules

are scattered throughout the body

- In vertebrates, the excretory tubules

(called nephrons) are organized
together into compact symmetrical
organs known as the kidneys

- Despite their small size, kidneys

receive 20% of the blood from every
heartbeat

- Blood enters the kidneys via the

renal artery

- Urine is created by the kidneys and

exists via the ureter, where it is
stored in the urinary bladder

- Lastly, it is excreted from the body via the ureter in the process of micturition (urination)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

NEPHRON STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

- Although kidneys are not large organs, they contain about a million nephrons

- Different part of the nephron are specialized to perform different functions, with the
overall goal of conserving needed nutrients and water while excreting excess materials
and waste products in the urine
Nephrons regulate the chemical
composition of the blood by three
processes:

1. Filtration
2. Reabsorption
3. Secretion

1. Filtration:
- Blood pressure forces fluid from the blood into the renal tubule
- In the blood vessels of the glomerulus, a variety of compounds are forced into the
surrounding Bowman’s capsule, such as water, salt, minerals, amino acids, glucose,
bicarbonate, and waste products (e.g. urea, creatinine)
- The lining of Bowman’s capsule is permeable to water and small solutes but not to blood
or large molecules
- At this point, the filtrate (fluid) in the tubules has the same chemical composition as the
blood plasma

2. Reabsorption:
- Since filtration is nonselective, it is important that most of the small molecules in the
filtrate be reabsorbed to the blood, which happens in this step
- This is accomplished in a number of places
- Most of the filtrate is reabsorbed by the blood quickly in the proximal convoluted tubule,
including most water, salts, amino acids, glucose, and bicarbonate
- Waste products are not reabsorbed as the filtrate moves into the descending loop of
henle (permeable to water) but more water is reabsorbed by the blood via osmosis
 - Next, the ascending loop of Henle is permeable to salt but not water
- Salt is reabsorbed there, which then causes more water to be reabsorbed by the blood
via osmosis when the filtrate reaches the distal convoluted tubule
- Once these processes are done, the filtrate passing through the collecting duct (which is
now considered urine) is about four times as concentrated with waste products as the
blood plasma

3. Secretion:
- As the filtrate travels through the renal tubules, it’s joined by other substances that are
secreted from the interstitial fluid
- This happens in the proximal and distal convoluted tubules
- Unlike filtration, this is a very selective process that involves both active and passive
transport
- For example, the controlled secretion of hydrogen ions from the interstitial fluid is crucial
to maintaining pH homeostasis in bodily fluids and some substances are removed from
the blood by secretion only (not filtration), such as uric acid
HORMONES AFFECTING KIDNEY FUNCTION:
- There are two hormones that have important impact on the kidneys and osmoregulation:

1. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) (also known as vasopressin):

- A negative feedback loop exists between the kidneys and the brain
- In the lateral hypothalamus, there are special receptors that monitor the osmolarity of the
blood (these are called osmoreceptors)
- Osmolarity is the concentration of solutes in a solution

When there is an increase of osmolarity in our blood what happens?

- Our bodies need more water, which excites the osmoreceptors which stimulates the
release of ADH
- Adh is received by the kidneys, where it thins the lining of tissues where the water is
reabsorbed
- In particular, it works in collecting ducts and the distal convoluted tubule and in this way,
ADH causes the body to reabsorb more water instead of excreting it

What happens when osmolarity decreases?

- As it decreases, the activity of the osmoreceptors in the lateral hypothalamus also
decreases and therefore less ADH is released
- In this way, osmolarity is kept in homeostasis by a feedback loop between the lateral
hypothalamus and kidneys

2. Aldosterone:
- Recall that aldosterone affects reabsorption of sodium in the kidneys
- When aldosterone works upon the kidneys, more sodium is reabsorbed from the distal
convoluted tubules and the collecting ducts into the blood which results in more water
being reabsorbed from the tubules into the blood via osmosis

Are there other hormones that impact reabsorption?

- There are several other hormones released by the adrenal gland that affect the process
of reabsorption of the kidneys
- In this way, your stress levels can affect the chemistry of your blood in a way that
disregards the biological needs of your body and general trend towards homeostasis
- This is one of the many reasons why stress is a risk factor many health problems
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

NERVOUS SYSTEM
- The nervous and endocrine system work together to coordinate the different cells,
tissues, and organs. However, there is three important differences between them:

1. Speed: nervous signals can travel as fast as 100 m/s, whereas endocrine responses can take
minutes to take effect

2. Control: while glands dump hormones into the bloodstream, nerve cells signal directly to
individual target cells

3. Complexity: the structure, organization and function of the nervous system is complex

- Just one cubic millimeter of brain tissue will have several million brain cells, each
interconnected with millions more

CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM:

1. Supporting cells: these cells are the most numerous, but are not involved in signaling.
Instead, they protect, insulate, and assist the work of neurons

2. Neurons: the specialized cells of the nervous system that communicate with other neurons
and lead signals to muscles via electrical and chemicals transmissions

- Neurons have large cell body with similar contents to other cells
- More notable are the fibre-like extensions:
~ Axon: which conveys signals away from the cell body
~ Dendrites: which conveys signals towards the cell body
 - So, signal transmission in every neuron goes in the same direction, starting in the
dendrites, and continuing through the cell body through the axon and eventually out of
the axon terminal
- Dendrites tend to be short, numerous, and very branched dramatically to increase
surface area, which increases its ability to receive signals (greek word dendron)
- Axons tend to be long (neurons of the sciatic nerve have axons that stretch from your
waist to your toes)
- A fatty tissue called myelin sheath surrounds most of the axon
- The sheath is made of Schwann cells that are wrapped around the axon (they are
considered to be supporting cells)
- These cells provide insulation and protection of the axon, as well as helping speed the
transmission of the electrical signal
- The axon terminal has a number of vesicles containing neurotransmitters, the chemical
component of nervous system signaling
- Neurons are organized based on polarity:

~unipolar: dendrites and axons emerge from

the same process (extension)
~bipolar: axon and a single dendrite tree
emerge from opposite ends of the cell body
~multipolar: more than two dendrites trees
emerge from the cell body (most common
type)

- Another way to group neurons is based on function:

1. Sensory neurons: communicate information about the external and internal environment
from receptor cells to the central nervous system

2. Interneurons: integrate (combine) signals from sensory and motor neurons

3. Motor neurons: covey (communicate) signals to affect cells

TRANSMITTING SIGNALS WITH NEURONS:
- Neurons communicate by using electrical and chemical signals
- We will examine the process of creating an electrical signal
- All cells have a membrane potential of some kind, and most cells are slightly negative
relative to the charge outside the cell
- The membrane potential of a neuron that is not in the process of sending a signal (also
known as the resting potential is -70 millivolts (mv)

~ this is due to the permeability of the membrane in general and specifically the presence of a
large number of sodium-potassium pumps
~ due to the activity of these pumps, there are also a large number of sodium ions in the fluid
that surrounds the neuron, and a large number of potassium ions inside the neuron
~ considering the large numbers of these active transport pumps, you can start to understand
how our brains use 20% of the body’s available energy

- As the dendrites of a neuron are stimulated, the membrane can become slightly
depolarized, meaning that the overall membrane potential is closer to zero, which
happens by increasing membrane permeability in some way

----> these changes are called graded

potentials (getting it closer to 0 but not
fully) because they are proportional to
(correspond to) the strength of the
stimulation
----> if the graded potentials depolarize
(reduce polarization) the neuron past a
certain threshold (usually around -50 mv),
the neuron will create an action potential
past -50 mv

ACTION POTENTIAL:
- It’s a fast and reversible change in membrane potential in a neuron
- Within the span of 1-2 milliseconds, the membrane potential can increase by more than
100 mv and return to resting potential
THE FUNCTION OF VOLTAGE GATED CHANNELS:
- When the graded potentials bring the overall membrane potential above the threshold,
voltage-gated sodium channels open to allow sodium ions to rush in from the exterior of
the neuron and making the interior of the neuron much more positive

- Then, when the membrane

potential reaches another
threshold, the sodium channels
close and potassium channels
open, allowing potassium ions to
rush out of the neuron and
making the interior of the neuron
much more negative

- Once the action potential is

complete, there is a short
refractory period (time in between
things happen) during which the
neuron is NOT capable of
producing another action potential

- Unlike graded potentials, an

action potential is an all or none
event (neurons either have one or
they do not- there is never a
partial action potential)

- When the threshold is reached at

the entrance of the axon, the
action potential is generated
down the length of the axon,
where it is speeded by the nodes
of ranvier in the myelin sheath

- The action potential is able to

jump from one node to the next
rather than travelling along the
entire length of the axon
membrane
THE SYNAPSE:
- The synapse is the space between the terminal end of the axon and the dendrites of the
next neuron in the circuit
~ presynaptic: the cell transmitting the signal
~ postsynaptic: the cell receiving the signal

CHEMICAL SYNAPSES:
- These are the most common type synapse by far
- In a chemical synapse, the two spaces between the cells is too large for an action
potential to effectively signal the postsynaptic cell
- When the action potential reaches the axon terminal, it stimulates the many
neurotransmitter- containing vesicles in the terminal to release their contents into the
synapse
- The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse where they are received by receptors
on the postsynaptic cell
- These receptors are on the dendrites of the postsynaptic cell
 - Depending on the neurotransmitter, it can create:

~Inhibitory graded potential: in the postsynaptic cell (making more negative and therefore less
likely to create an action potential)

~Excitatory graded potential: (making less negative and therefore more likely to create an action
potential)

- If an excitatory neurotransmitter causes a graded potential that reaches the threshold in

the postsynaptic cell, it also will create an action potential and the signal will continue
throughout the circuit
- Many neurotransmitters have been discovered, but while most axons only contain one
type of neurotransmitter, dendrites may have receptors for many dendrites

ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES:
- In rare cases, the action potential of the presynaptic cell is transmitted directly into the
postsynaptic cell
- This depends on very large neurons and small amount of synaptic space and they occur
more frequently in fish and crustaceans
- While at first glance, this would seem to be a more efficient way of transmitting signals,
there are drawbacks, but perhaps the most important of these is that it is possible to
generate an action potential that travels in the wrong (from the postsynaptic cell to
presynaptic cell)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

NEURON STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

- Supporting cells outnumber neurons: for every neuron, there are between 10 and 50
supporting cells
- Supporting cells are called glial cells, and there are a few types:

1. Astrocytes:
- These cells line the capillaries of the brain and help form the blood–brain barrier
- This barrier restricts the passage of most substances from the blood into the brain,
thereby protecting and maintaining the brain’s chemical environment

2. Oligodendrocytes:
- These cells form myelin sheaths in the central nervous system (Schwann cells are found
in the peripheral nervous system)
3. Ependymal cells:
- Makes up the walls of the cerebral ventricles in the brain
- These cells create, secrete and help circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

4. Microglia:
- They are the main form of immune defense in the central nervous system
- They constitute 20% of all glial cells in the brain

NERVES:
- A nerve is a bundle of axons in the peripheral nervous system
- The structure is often enclosed in a way that is similar to an electrical cable
- The same structure in the central nervous system is called a tract

There are three categories of nerves:

Afferent nerves: conduct signals from sensory neurons to the central nervous system
Efferent nerves: conduct signals from the central nervous system to the body
Mixed nerves: contain both afferent and efferent axons

Nerves can also be categorized into two groups based on where they connect to the central
nervous system:

Spinal nerves: connect through to the spinal cord

Cranial nerves: connect directly to the brain through the skull

REFLEX ARCS:
- A reflex involves an involuntary and nearly instantaneous physical movement in
response to a stimulus
- Most sensory neurons connect to the spinal cord
- This allows reflex actions to occur relatively quickly by activating motor neurons in the
spine without sending signals to the brain
- The pathway of neurons that are responsible for a particular reflex is called a reflex arc

~ Monosynaptic reflex arcs:

- Consist of only two neurons (one sensory neuron and one motor neuron)
~ Polysynaptic reflex arcs:
- Connect one or more interneurons. Most reflexes are governed by polysynaptic reflex
arcs
- These have the advantage of allowing some processing by neurons of the spine
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

NERVOUS SYSTEM
- This system consists of two general parts:

~ the central nervous system (CNS): consists of the brain and spinal cord
~ the peripheral nervous system (PNS): consists of all the nervous tissue and their supporting
cells outside the central nervous system

THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:

- There two types of neurons in the PNS:

~ sensory neurons: that are afferent (carry information from sensory receptors found all over
the body towards the central nervous system) to the CNS
~ motor neurons: that are efferent (carry motor information away from the central nervous
system to the muscles and glands of the body in order to initiate an action) from the CNS

- There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves that innervate (supply)
the entire body
- The somatic nervous system senses the external environment and controls the skeletal
muscles that govern voluntary movements
- A neuromuscular junction: where a neuron synapses with a muscle cell
- The autonomic nervous system acts as a control system for the internal environment,
affecting heart rate, digestion, respiration, salivation, perspiration, pupil dilation,
micturation, and sexual arousal
- Its function are involuntary, though some ……..
- It is divided into two subsystems: the post-sympathetic nervous system (PSNS) and
sympathetic nervous system (SNS)

THE SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:

- The SNS promotes the fight or flight response, leading to arousal and energy generation
while inhibiting digestion
~ diverts blood flow away from the digestive system and skin
~ enhances blood flow to the skeletal muscles and the lungs
~ enhances oxygen exchange in the lungs
~ increases blood pressure and heart rate
~ enhances vision
~ contracts all the intestinal sphincters and the urinary sphincter
~ inhibits peristalsis
~ stimulates orgasm
THE PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:
- The PSNS promotes the “rest and digest” response, calming nerves, enhancing
digestion, and causing a return to regular function

~ enhance digestion by stimulating the salivary gland, accelerating peristalsis and increasing
blood flow to the digestive system
~ reducing oxygen exchange in the lung to normal levels
~ restore heart rate to resting slate
~ affect eye function to enhance closer vision
~ stimulates sexual arousal

THE BRAIN:

- All the main parts represented in both,

even if they are not same in size
- Three trends are notable in the
evolution of the brain

1. Function becomes compartmentalized

(increases the efficiency of many subcellular
processes by concentrating the required
components to a confined space within the
cell) in vertebrate brains

2. Size increases in certain vertebrate

lineages: mammals and birds evolved larger
brains than fish and lizards

3. Complexity and sophistication

HINDBRAIN:
- It consists of the medulla, the pons, and the
cerebellum
~ The medulla and pons
- regulate a number of homeostatic functions,
like breathing, cardiovascular activity,
swallowing, digesting, and vomiting
- relays signals to higher areas of the brain
making the hindbrain critical to survival

~ The cerebellum
- coordinates smooth muscular movement
- If one part of the body is moved, the
cerebellum can coordinate the movement of
other body parts to ensure smooth movement,
maintenance of balance and equilibrium
- Hand eye coordination is controlled there

THE MIDBRAIN:
- The upper portion of the brainstem is the midbrain
- It seems oddly names since it is nowhere near the middle of the human brain, but for
most animals it is close to the middle
- Most significant areas: superior colliculus, and inferior colliculus (plural: colliculi)
~ which are part of the visual (seeing) and auditory (hearing) pathways
- Another important part is the reticular formation
~ it is important in sleep and wakefulness

THE FOREBRAIN:
- It is where the most complex neural processing occurs
- These areas integrate signals from a wide variety of places and allow for pattern and
image formation, memory, learning, and emotions
- Two major divisions: diencephalon and telencephalon

THE FOREBRAIN (diencephalon):

- This area consists of the thalamus and hypothalamus
- The thalamus is the major relay centre in the brain and it connects higher functioning
areas of the cortex with more basic functioning areas of the brainstem and the spine
- The hypothalamus is the most important centre for maintaining homeostasis, and it
essentially controls the pituitary gland and also regulates hunger, thirst, sex drive,
pleasure, and fight or flight
THE FOREBRAIN (telencephalon):
- The cerebral cortex is the largest and most complex part of the human brain
- The cortex is divided into four lobes, each of which governs a number of different
functions
- Just below the level of the cortex is the limbic system, which includes several distinct
regions and supports a variety of functions including emotions, behaviour, long term
memory, and olfaction (scent)
- The right and left hemispheres of the brain are connected by the corpus callosum
- The entire central nervous system is surrounded by a rubbery tissue called meninges
(thin plastic membrane)
 QUIZ TIME!!!!!!
1. Which of the following organs secrete a pair of hormones that have opposite
effects?

2. Which of the following structures, if any, could be considered part of both the
peripheral and central nervous systems?

3. What does the limbic system control?

4. What is the inactive form of insulin called?

5. Label:

6. What is a synapse?

7. What triggers our fight or flight response?

8. List the different types of neurons…….

9. How fast do signals travel from the nervous system?

10. What gland secretes aldosterone?

11. How is a corticosteroid produced?

12. Describe how the nervous system and the endocrine system work together in the
fight-flight response.