pavtaoe {Guido to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures, Sixth ition - Books24x7 15.1 INTRODUCTION Compression members are sometimes restrained laterally between their ends by intermittent elastic lateral supports Typical examples include (1) the unbraced compression flange of a girder whose tension flange is laterally restrained by a bridge-floor or building-roof system and (2) the top chord of a pony truss, for which vertical clearance requirements prohibit direct lateral bracing. The methods of design presented in this chapter can also be used for ‘guyed towers. In the case of the girder, the web prevents the top flange from buckling in the vertical plane, and intermittent elastic lateral restraints may be provided in the plane normal to the web by means of vertical stiffeners in combination with. the contiguous framing elements in the floor or roof system adjacent to the tension flange. In a truss supporting a floor or roof system in the plane of the tension chord members, the panel points provide vertical support and elastic restraint for the compression chords as a whole, Although not as widely used as in the past, the pony truss has served as the prototype through the years for the development of theory and design procedures that currently may find applications in other similar situations. The behavior during buckling of a member with intermittent elastic lateral supports lies between two limiting extremes. If the elastic restraints are very stiff, nodal points can be induced at each restraint location; if the restraints are very flexible, and buckling can be in the shape of a single half-wave over the full member length as long as the ends of the member are laterally restrained. The actual buckled shape consists of a number of half-waves not greater than the total number of spaces between supports. ‘The design of a compression member with intermittent elastic lateral supports may be based on the computed critical load; or because of initial crookedness and moments introduced by bending of the floor beams, it could be based on a rigorous second-order analysis of a structural system. The latter approach is a rational one and is only now beginning to appear as a practical design procedure. It should be noted that a critical-oad analysis gives only an upper bound to the actual strength of the member uniess a reduction for the initial out-of-straightness is included. Current design procedures require evaluation of the stiffness supplied by the compression chord lateral support system. This stiffness forms the basis for evaluating the integrity of the compression chord. The critical load of the chord with elastic lateral supports at the panel points is then determined, and the design load is found by dividing this critical load by a suitable factor of safety Using the pony truss as the prototype, a procedure of analysis is developed to determine the critical load of a member with discrete elastic lateral restraints. To a lesser extent the rigorous second-order elastic analysis (combined-stress) procedure is reviewed in this chapter. The design of pony-truss transverse frames (floor beams, truss verticals, and connecting knee braces) has a direct bearing on both procedures. Proper design of transverse frames is essential to the safety of the pony-truss bridge. Toward the end of the nineteenth century the failure of several pony-truss bridges focused attention on the top-chord buckling problem. Engesser (1895, 1892) was the first to present a simple, rational, and approximate formula for the required stiffness, C;eq, of elastic supports equally spaced between the ends of a hinge-ended column of constant section. An equivalent uniform elastic support was assumed in the Engesser analy: Early developments are reviewed by Bleich (1952). Using the energy method, Hu (1952) has studied the problem of elastically supported chords. He considered nonuniform axial forces, variable chord cross sections, and spring stiffness for both simple and continuous pony-truss bridges. Holt (1951, 1952, 1956, 1957), in work sponsored by the CRC, presented a method of analysis for determining the critical load of a pony-truss top chord that is essentially “exact” in that it includes most of the secondary effects that influence the behavior of the pony truss. In a similar ‘manner, Lee and Clough (1958) and Elgaaly and Khalifa (1970) studied the stability of pony-truss bridges. The effect of the floor-system deflections on the top-chord stresses was studied in another CRC-sponsored project by Bamoff and Mooney (1957). Tests on models of pony-truss bridges have been conducted by Holt (1957). Oliveto (1980) described a computer program and considered both elastic and inelastic buckling of columns partially restrained at intervals. Medland and Segedin (1979) evaluated brace forces for an initially crooked member. atari charsol=ut-8, %3Ch2442016%.90%%22-4-25422%:20elass 450 22sec eX 22% 20eyleKAD22margn-epSAKAO' Ze 36% 20margn-be.. 142esti2014 {Guido to Stabilty Design Criteria for Metal Structures, Sixth Eaton -Bo0ks24x7 15.2 BUCKLING OF THE COMPRESSION CHORD ‘The buckling problem of the compression chord of a pony truss can be reduced to that of a column braced at intervals by elastic springs whose spring constants corresponded to the stiffness of the truss transverse frames. ‘The top-chord axial compression and the top-chord stiffness will vary from panel to panel, and the stiffness of the transverse frames may also vary from panel point to panel point, thus complicating the theoretical problem. In addition, there are secondary factors: 1. The stiffening effect of the truss diagonals 2, The torsional stiffness of the chord and web members 3, The initial crookedness of the chord and the eccentricity of the axial load 4, The effect of chord curvature, for non-parallel-chord trusses, Engesser’s (1885, 1892) solution is based on the following simplifying assumptions: 1. The top chord, including the end posts, is straight and of uniform cross section. 2. Its ends are taken as pin connected and rigidly supported. 3. The equally spaced elastic supports have the same stiffness and can be replaced by a continuous elastic medium. 4, The axial compressive force is constant through the chord length. Engesser’s analysis can be applied with reasonable accuracy to the case where the lateral support is supplied by equally spaced springs provided that the half-wavelength of the buckled shape of the continuously supported member is at least 1.8 times the spring spacing; this will be true if the bar is stable as a two-hinged column canying the same axial load and having a length no less than 1.3 times the spring spacing. Engessers solution for the required stiffness of a pony-truss transverse frame is (15.1) pe Ci, = Fat eq 4ET ©) Get MathML. Where Creq is the elastic transverse frame stiffness at a panel point that is required to ensure that the overall chord having panel lengths / and flexural rigidity E/ will attain buckling load Pe,. If the proportional limit of the column material is exceeded, Eshould be replaced by the tangent modulus E;. ‘The Euler equation for critical stress with Ey replacing E can be written as follows for a column of length f: (15.2) KN? El= Por & D > Get Math ‘Taking / in this equation as the panel length of the pony-truss compression chord, the following required spring constant can be obtained by substituting Eq, 16.2 into Eq, 15.1: (15.3) 2p, v req 2 o> cet wasn X | This equation has been shown by Hu (1952, p. 275) to be adequate when the half-wavelength of the buckled chord is no less than 1.8); this limiting value comesponds to a K factor of 1.3. It is not applicable to short bridges with a small number of panels. ‘The load Pe, can be considered as both of the following: cota tenthtmcharset=t-8 49CR2%20claes 30 %226rt-eecon-HleX22%201d%30%22annctaonabel est 20eileXIO%22margntopAesask2o0em... 12ei112014 Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures, Sixth Edition - Books24x7 1. The buckling load of the entire compression chord laterally supported by the transverse frames and pinned at the ends 2. The buckling load of the portion of the compression chord between the transverse frames with end restraints producing effective-length factor K According to Engesser’s formulation, the maximum compression-chord buckling load and the corresponding required spring constant of each support can be determined as follows for a member of a given cross-sectional area A: 1. Determine the critical load P,, for the member between spring supports using the expression (54) P= Ao. =} Get MathML ‘Obtain o7 from an appropriate column strength curve, taking the equivalent column slenderness as Kilr, with K = 1.3 and restimated on the basis of probable shape and size of member. 2. Determine the spring constant Cyeq such that the buckling load of the chord member as a whole is. equal to Pg: (15.5) P. Cieq = 1.462 scam | It may be noted that Eq. 15.5 follows from Eq. 15.3, taking 2 2 F=—4_, = 146 4K? 4(13) => Get MathML ‘The Engesser simplifying assumption of taking the chord ends as pin connected may result in significantly unsafe em7ors in Creq, particularly in the case of short pony trusses. Holt (1952, 1956) provides an altemative design procedure that does not require this simplifying assumption. Holt's solution for the buckling load of the compression chord of a pony truss is based on the following assumptions (see Fig. 15.1): 1. The transverse frames at all pane! points have identical stiffness. 2, The radii of gyration r of all top-chord members and end posts are identical. 3. The top-chord members are all designed for the same allowable unit stress; hence, their areas and (from step 2) their moments of inertia are proportional to the compression forces. 4, The connecti 18 between the top chord and the end posts are assumed pinned. 5. The end posts act as cantilever springs supporting the ends of the top chords. 6. The bridge carries a uniformly distributed load. LN N VW TWN, tetyea nt Loayet 4 t—p-sie se pte se Figure 15.1: Pony truss and analogous top chord The results of Holt's studies are presented in Table 15-1, which gives the reciprocal of the effective-length factor K as a function of n (the numbers of panels) and Ci/P¢, (in which Cis the fumished stiffness at the top of the least-stiff transverse frame). Where applicable, Table 15-1 provides a rapid design aid in checking the stability of a Pony-truss compression chord. The procedure is as follows: 1. Design the floor beams and web members for their specified loads. Open table as spreadsheet a _ [id |[twte-Fisher 7 (1985, aK |[4 6 8 wo [i244 site Eg. (15.8) 7.000 [3.686 [3.616 [3.660 |[3.714 [3.754 _|[3.7e5_|[3.809_|| 4.000 0.980 3.284 |[2.044 |[2.806 [2.767 2771 |[2774 [3.730 0.960 3.000 [2.665 [2.542 |[24s6 2.454 |[2479 [3.478 0.950 2.595, 0.940 2.754 2.303 [2.262 |[2.254 [2.282 [3.244 0.920 2.643 2.446 [2.094 [2.101 [2.121 [3.026 0.900 [3.352 _|[2.503 [2.263 |[2.045 [1.951 [1.968 |[1.961_|[2.822 0.850 2.460 _|[2.013 |[1.794 [1.709 _|[1.681_|[1.694_|[2.372 0.800 [2.961 |[2.313 |[1.869 [1.629 |[1.480 [1.456 |[1.465 [1.903 0.750 2147 _|[1.750_|[1.501_|[1.344 [1.273 |[1.262 [1.673 0.700 |[2.448 |[7.955 [1.595 [1.369 [4.200 |[4.111_|[ 4.088 || 7.401 (0.650 7.739 _|[1.442_|[1.236 [7.087 [0.988 [0.940 _|[7.169 0.600 [2.035 [4.639 [1-338 [1.193 [0.985 [0.278 |[o.e08 |[0.970 0.550) 1.517 _|[4.211 |[4.007 [0.860 [0.768 [0.708 [0.798 0.500 [7.750 _|[7.362_|[7.047 [0.847 [0.750 [0.668 |[0.600_|[o.648 0.450 7.158 [0.829 [0.714 [0.624 [0.537 _|[0.500_|[0.519 0.400 [1.232 [0.886 [0.627 [0.555 [0.454 [0.4268 [0.363 _|[0.406, 0.350 0.530 [0.34 [0.352 [0.323 [0.202 |[0.280_|[0.309 0.300 [0.121 |[o.1e7 [0.249 [0.170 [0.203 [0.183 |[o.1e7_|[0.226 0.293 _|[0 0.258) 0 (0.250 ~_|[o135_[o.t07_l[oi03_jfo121_ [0.112 [0.187 0.200 ~|[0.045 [0.068 [0.055 [0.053 [0.070 _|[0.100 0.180 0 _| _ 0.150 0.017 [0.031 [0.029 [0.025 |/0.056 0.139) oO 0.114 o I'am TF IF TF 1 ann Ilnain anon 1 etatoxtim| charset=ut8, %3CN2%20cias% 90 % 2st section He22%2010%90%22anndlatolabel-rstZ2%20style%ID%20margropKAG2D0—M... 9perii2014 Guide to Siatilty Design Criteria for Metal Structures, Sixth Ediion - Books 24x7 een 1 LL iL fi yyw yjvwreypseaw , 0.097 0 0.085 0 0 0 Values of 4/K of less than 0.5 (j.e., K > 2) are only of academic interest, because usual bridge proportions and transverse-frame stiffnesses lead to values of 1/Kgreater than 0.5. Hu (1952) developed the curves shown in Fig. 15.2. These curves give the stiffness of the compression-chord transverse supports that is required to make each panel of the chord buckle as one half-wave. Hu’s results for a chord of constant section [(Elend/(EDmiddte = 1.0 in Fig. 15.2] can be compared with Holt's work for +/K = 4 (fist line of Table 15-1) for the cases n = 4.6, 8, which were considered by both investigators. Hu's results give stiffness requirements approximately 7% less than those of Holt for n = 4 and 5% greater for n= 6, 8. Thus the results are in reasonable agreement, even though the procedures are somewhat different, Hu (1952) also studied the effects ‘caused by parabolic variation of the length of the pony-truss verticals and the effect of parabolic variation of C. In both cases, the value of Creq will be less than that for the case where C has the same value at each transverse frame, Figure 15.2: Effect of variation in compression chord on transverse stiffness requirements Because of the uncertainties involved in the analysis of pony-truss top chords, it is reasonable to require a factor of safety for overall top-chord buckling somewhat greater than that used for designing hinged-end columns. The transverse-framespring constant C that is actually fumished can be determined for the frame loaded as shown in Fig. 15.3 by means of the following equation: (15.68) EB W(a/3I)+(b/2)) => Get MathML Figure 15.3: Frame loading for determining transverse-frame spring constant C The first term within the denominator brackets represents the contribution of the truss vertical, and the second term represents the contribution of the floor beam. Thus, the contributions of the top-chord torsional strength and the web- diagonal bending strength to the frame stiffness are neglected in this equation. It is evident that if the floor beam is very stiff in comparison with the truss vertical, the frame stiffness is approximately (15.60) atatenthtmcharset=ul-8 902% 20s 690 %2rst-section-8e5k2242014%50 %22arncatolabelfietk22%420siyleXIO%22margim3AN2O0em... 4Saart2014 Gude to Staility Design Criteria for Metal Stuctires, Sith Edtion - Books24x7 C= Ble A 3 > Get MathML When the two chords tend to move in the same direction, the floor beam will be in double curvature and the stiffness C will be greater than that given by Eq. 15.6a; therefore, C as found from Eq. 15.6a is always the lower bound, If the diagonals of the truss system are effectively fixed at their base, their contribution to C in Eq. 15.6a may be included by introducing the additional term into the denominator. The values Ly and Ig represent the length and ‘moment of inertia, respectively, of the diagonal members. In this case C becomes (15:60) EB hd Biot 31g /Lg) 1+ 0/2) > Get MathML atta charset=ut-8,543Ch2%420class 430 %Zairst-secion-ilo%22%204.30 %ZZarnctatorabelfrsth22%20styie%20%Z2mar gimp Ga%kZ00em... 5partv20% (Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Stuctures, Soh Edin - Books? 15.3 EFFECT OF SECONDARY FACTORS ON BUCKLING LOAD ‘The consideration of secondary factors involves procedures that require significantly more computation. Most of these procedures use the usual methods of indeterminate structural analysis to set up a system of simultaneous, linear, homogeneous equations. The stability criterion is that the determinant of the coefficients of this system of equations must vanish (j.e., the eigenvalue problem given by Eq. 16.4 is solved). Holt (1952) considered the following secondary factors: 1. Torsional stiffness of the chord and the web members 2. Lateral support given to the chord by the diagonals, 3. Effect of web member axial stresses on the restraint provided by them 4, Effect of non-parallel-chord trusses 5, Error introduced by considering the chord and end posts to be a single straight member Holt's analysis shows that the error in the critical load introduced by neglecting all of these factors is quite small and that satisfactory results in calculating the compression-chord buckling load can be obtained by assuming that the chord is a straight elasticity braced column with length equalling the total length of the chord and end posts. These conclusions are in agreement with those reached by Schibler (1946), who finds that the torsional stiffness of the top chord and the support furnished by the web diagonals increase the chord-buckling strength only slightly. naarv201 {Gul to Stality Design Critia for Metal Sructires, Soah Edtion- Books24x7 15.4 TOP-CHORD STRESSES DUE TO BENDING OF FLOOR BEAMS AND TO INITIAL CHORD ECCENTRICITIES ‘The compression chord of a pony truss is displaced laterally at some panel points as a result of live load on the bridge and because of initial crookedness and unintentional eccentricities of the chord. Such lateral deflections will, of course, reduce the maximum load capacity of the chord (and of the bridge), just as end eccentricity and initial curvature will reduce the compression strength of any column. Lutz and Fisher (1985) did consider out-of-straightness for elastically restrained members in the same manner that Winter (1960) did for fully braced members, namely by requiring the actual stiffness supplied to be twice the ideal required’stiffness. They followed the simplifying assumptions made by Engesser discussed earlier and rewrote Eq. 15.3 in the form OO Cyeq = 2.578 © Get MathML Kl and 77/4~2.5. They then extended the applicability to K-factors of less than 1.3 and as low as 1.0. Their empirical required stiffness expression is. (15.8) 25415 (zy fe =) Get MathML ‘At K = 1 each spring would provide full bracing to the compression chord, which requires a stiffness of 4P,yl, They proposed that due to initial out-of-straightness, the actual stiffness should be twice the required stiffness given above [see Winter (1960) and accompanying discussion by Green]. Design procedures that take account theoretically of such imperfections are not presently available, although the basic concepts for the direct analysis method for buildings (Section 16.5.1) could be an excellent starting point. It is difficult to take initial imperfections into account because of both the complexity of the necessary calculations and the lack of knowledge with regard to probable initial imperfections. In any case, the analysis would need to be three dimensional and include the top-chord stiffness in both bending and torsion. Holt (1957) has developed an empirical procedure for estimating bending moments in the top chord and end posts that is in agreement with his test results. He recommends that the end post be designed as a simple cantilever beam to carry the axial load combined with a transverse load of 0.5% of the axial load, applied at the upper end. Tentatively, a value of 1% should probably be used. etatenthimcharset=w-8 OCR220clase 630 %Z2rt-soton-ite%22%24% 30% 72annctatolabel-firs%22%,20style%SO%22marginop AAR Zon... Vtaeiio% Gude to Stability Design Criteria for Moll Stuctres, Sith Editon - Books26x7 15.5 DESIGN EXAMPLE Consider a pony truss that has 12 panels of 13 ft, 4 in. for a span of 160 ft. The transverse frame is shown in Fig. 45.4, The W27%84 floor beams are required by bridge deck loads. The top chord is a box section, 10 in. by 10 in. with wall thickness to be determined by design requirements for a maximum compressive force of 360 kips (Which includes unfactored dead load, live load, and impact). The verticals are W/10 rolled sections. mdi oo. ema wo} 3 Figure 15.4: Transverse frame in pony truss example ‘Assuming that the vertical truss members, floor beams, and their connections need to be proportioned to resist a lateral force of not less than 300 pounds per linear foot of span applied at the top-chord panel points of each truss, the lateral force to be resisted is 0.3 kip/ft x 13.33 f= 4 kips => Get MathML The maximum moment in the transverse frame will be at the joint of the web vertical and the floor beam anc ‘M =4 kips x 120 in. = 480 kip-in. > Get MathML Using this moment and assuming that the maximum tension in the web vertical due to the bridge load is 24 kips in the region where the compression chord is most highly stressed, a W10x33 vertical with | = 170 in.* is selected. ‘The / of the floor beam is 2850 in.4, and from Eq. 15.6a the transverse-frame spring constant is C= —___2® ____ _ 6.75 kips/in. 12 0°[120/(3x170)+360/(2x2850)} > Get MathML Assuming a factor of safety against buckling of 2.12 (previous editions of AASHTO specifications used a factor of safety of 2.12 for the allowable stress design of concentrically loaded columns), the compression chord must be designed for a buckling strength of P = 2.12 * 360 kips. Because a square built-up tubular section is considered for the compression chord, its properties can be approximated as Area: A= 4td Moment of inertia: J = ae 6 Radius of gyration: r= a > Get MathML If the distance between wall centerlines dis taken as 10 in., Using Holts procedure, Kiiris determined from Table 15-1. Using the actual supplied C and P,, = 763 kips, we obt Cl _ 6.75(160) _ Py, 7638 1.415 => Get MathML Entering Table 15-1 in the column for n = 12-panels and Cl/Pe, = 1.415, 1/Kfalls between 0.750 and 0.800. atari charse=ut-8,%SICH242Iclass SD ZZ Section AleK.22%20E%SD %ZZarnctat onlabel-frst 22K DDstle9.SD %Z2margintoph3a%zO0em.. V2aett/2014 Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures, Sixth Edition - Books24x7 Interpolation reveals 1/K = 0.776 or K = 1.288. Considering the built-up 10-in, tube yields Ki _ 1.288(160) __ 59) 5 r 4.08 F,= 16,930 —0.53 (50.5)? = 15,580 psi= 15.58 ksi © Get MathML, The required A = 360/15.58 = 23.1 in.2 and ¢ = 0.577 in. with d= 10 in. Had the number of panels been 8 instead of 12, the thickness ¢ required would have increased to 0.603 in. using Holt's procedure. Using the Lutz-Fisher expression gives [543 W/L.)°1P. Creg = 2C; = a “et mat, or with HL, = 1/K, Gt _f2541.5(4)]* (4) r= [25+15(z)] (x) => Get MathML which is included as the last column in Table 15-1. With Creq = 6.75, Ch _ (6.75/2V160) __ 9 79g Po, 7300¢~C*~C~*S > Get MathML From Table 15-1, 1/K = 0.52 or K = 1.923. Thus Kilr = 1.923(160)/4.08 = 75.4 for the 10-in. tube and F, = 16, 930 — 0.53(75.4)2 = 13, 916 psi. Required A = 360/13.92 = 25.86 in.? and t = 25.86/(4 x 10) = 0.646 in. Using the Holt procedure one could end up with a design with d= 9.5 in. using a -in. plate. With the Lutz-Fisher procedure, which considers out-of-straightness, ‘one would need a-in. plate with d= 10.26 in etext charset=ut-8 %ICHZZOclass 3D YZ2Ars- section INeN22%.2OEKAD KZPannctationlabel-rst22%D0styeFkSD%Z2margetopyssase200em... 22