Journal of Hydrology 624 (2023) 129948

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Journal of Hydrology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhydrol

Research papers

Effect of material particle size on the permeability characteristics and

sediment retention performance of cascade permeable dam
Longyang Pan a, Xingguo Yang a, b, Yeong-bin Yang a, c, Hongwei Zhou a, b, *, Junyi Cai a,
Niannian Li a, Jian Liu d, Mingyang Wang a
a
College of Water Resource and Hydropower, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
b
State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, College of Water Resource and Hydropower, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
c
School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China
d
College of Energy and Power Engineering, Xihua University, Chengdu 610039, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The permeable dam is a dam constructed with gravel or other material to control the sediment in rivers or
Cascade permeable dam channels. Experiments were conducted to study the effects of the flow rate, sediment concentration, and dam
Dam material size material size D on the sediment retention and permeability characteristics of the cascade permeable dams. The
Relative permeability coefficient
results show that when the water level H1t before the first dam reaches the specified failure height, the total
The first dam
Sediment retention
water volume for D = 1–2 mm is inversely proportional to the sediment concentration and basically increases as
the flow rate increases. The sediment mass retained by the first dam accounts for 44–56% (D = 1–2 mm) and
26–35% (D = 3–5 mm) of the total sediment mass retained by the cascade dams, and the former mainly realizes
the sediment retention through the retention of the first dam, while the latter through the material retention and
sediment deposition between two adjacent dams. The average permeability coefficient k of the first dam was
observed to decrease by 39–62% (D = 3–5 mm) and 46–64 (D = 1–2 mm) due to the sediment clogging. The
decrease rate of k (D = 1–2 mm) or decrease amplitude of k (D = 3–5 mm) are positively correlated with the
sediment concentration. Under all working conditions, H1t rises rapidly and then steadily, and the rising rate for
D = 1–2 mm is proportional to the sediment concentration, and increases first and then decreases as the flow rate
increases. The prediction formula of H1t is proposed based on the experimental data. The research results are of
reference value for the design and study of permeable dams in the future.

1. Introduction
Excessive delivery of sediment and sediment-bound nutrients into
the lakes caused by rainfall runoff and stream transportation will cause
deterioration of water quality and ecology (Malhotra et al., 2020; Ye
et al., 2019). Sediment deposition leads to the decrease of storage ca­
pacity and high flood level in the lakes (Kim et al., 2014; Yin et al.,
2012). In addition, sediment reduces water transparency and increases
turbidity, limiting the growth of plankton and vegetation (Cao et al.,
2017), and transports chemical substances and pollutants to cause water
eutrophication (Ji et al., 2022). Phewa Lake is estimated to lose 80% of
its storage capacity in the next 100–347 years based on the rate of area
decline and sediment influx (Watson et al., 2019), and Bakkal Lake is
expected to be filled with sediment in about 698 years (Ugur and Aytas,
2020). Therefore, it is urgent to take effective measures to control
excessive sediment and pollutants carried by sediment into the lakes,
which is important for protecting water bodies.
In recent years, a great deal of efforts has been made to control and
reduce the sediment in the streams. Check dam is considered as one of
the most effective measures to protect water and soil resource and trap
sediment (Pourghasemi et al., 2020; Nichols and Polyakov, 2019),
which has been applied earlier and can trap a large amount of sediment
even if it has been seriously silted up (Ran et al., 2021). Studies have
shown that the sediment-carrying capacity of the runoff is significantly
reduced mainly by reducing the flow velocity (Feng et al., 2021), thus
leading to a substantial reduction in sediment transport and the flood
reduction effect of a minor flood by the check dams is greater than that
of a major flood (Yuan et al., 2022). The check dam system has reduced
the sediment transport in the Loess Plateau (Yuan et al., 2019), and the
wooden check dams can play a similar sediment retention role, which is

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hw.Zhou@scu.edu.cn (H. Zhou).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2023.129948
Received 9 March 2023; Received in revised form 24 June 2023; Accepted 10 July 2023
Available online 19 July 2023
0022-1694/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
L. Pan et al.
largely dependent on rainfall intensity and channel slope (Borja et al.,
2018). The check dams located in valley bottoms with longer walls show
better sediment retention effect (Alfonso-Torreno et al., 2019), and the
check dams located in the downstream sections in the Droodzan basin
are more efficient at trapping fine sediment than those located in the
upstream sections (Hassanli et al., 2009). Based on various factors such
as topography, terrain, and hydrology, the methods for the site selection
of check dams were proposed using machine learning algorithms or GIS
tools through programming (Pourghasemi et al., 2020; Ettazarini,
2021). However, although field studies have shown that the combina­
tion of land use changes and check dams will significantly reduce the
regional sediment yield, adding more check dams does not always lead
to a proportional reduction of sediment yield (Quinnoero-Rubio et al.,
2016). The impermeable structures mentioned above gradually present
the disadvantage of blocking the ecological and physicochemical con­
nectivity between upstream and downstream area (Fathi-moghaddam
et al., 2018; Mohamed, 2010), and may cause environmental degrada­
tion (Khatibi et al., 2014). The further proposed permeable check dam
and combined device are effective for sediment retention (Schwindt
et al., 2018; Chan et al., 2019), which can temporarily store and then
release sediment during riverbed pulse flow (Piton and Recking, 2016).
Based on the existing sediment retention structures, Tian et al. (2006)
and Yu et al. (2018) proposed the construction of permeable dams at the
lake entrance or upstream channel considering the wetland technology
and rapid infiltration mechanism. Such dams mainly realize the removal
of sediment and pollutants through physical filtration or deposition (Su
et al., 2020), and the decomposition of additional plants and microor­
ganism (Xing et al., 2021). This kind of porous structure (e.g., porous
dam) makes use of the filtration and retention capacity of the dam
material, allows the longitudinal migration of aquatic organisms,
physical and chemical materials, and is more environmentally friendly
(Michioku et al., 2005; Fathi-moghaddam et al., 2018), which can be
used to alleviate and cope with floods (Shariq et al., 2020). The removal
rate of nitrogen and phosphorus by in-situ sand stone dam can reach
57.81% and 60.68%, respectively (Wang et al., 2018), and multilevel
permeable weirs can effectively improve the removal performance in
agricultural steams (Li et al, 2015). The rock dams built by Winston et al.
(2018) are effective filters of the sediment in runoff but are easy to be
clogged by debris and litter, causing damage to the surrounding lawns
upstream. Experiments show that the shape of the rock check dams is
important for controlling the hydrological process (Velazquez-Luna and
Ventura-Ramos, 2017). Moreover, the use of broken and angular rocks
instead of rounded rocks can improve the effectiveness of porous check
dams in sediment retention (Hassanli et al., 2009), and the downstream
morphology of such dams may change with sudden discharge changes
(Muraokan et al., 2009). The check dam composed of rocks and straw
can achieve energy dissipation for the pervious flow and the retention
efficiency will decrease after the capacity is full (Robichaud et al., 2019).
Researchers have conducted preliminary calculation and studies on the
water surface of such permeable structures (Mohamed, 2010; Shariq
et al., 2020). Based on the research and application of permeable dams,
Fig. 1. The cascade dams involved in the existing studies: (a) rock check dams from Winston et al. (2018); (b) check dam series from Piton and Recking (2016); (c)
sequences of grade-control check dams from Galia et al. (2021).
2
Journal of Hydrology 624 (2023) 129948
and considering the construction and operation conditions of lakes as
well as environmental and landscape requirements, the permeable dams
are faced with problems such as structural instability, difficulty in reuse
after clogging, etc. Moreover, there are few systematic studies on the
influence of inflow characteristics and dam particle size on the sediment
retention and filtration efficiency. It is necessary to study the structure
type, permeability coefficient, retention efficiency, and clogging process
of the permeable dams to promote the application in lakes.
As mentioned above, referring to the cascade dams involved in the
existing studies (Fig. 1), this paper proposed a cascade permeable dam to
make up for the deficiency of a single dam, making full use of the
sediment retention of dam materials and the deposition between two
adjacent dams. To provide reasonable guidance for the construction and
operation and maintenance of the permeable dams, physical experi­
ments were conducted to mainly study the sediment deposition and
retention in the dam material and the area between two adjacent dams.
The main purpose is to study the following: (1) the response of the
permeability characteristics and retention performance of the perme­
able dams to the adjustment of the flow rate and sediment concentra­
tion; (2) the influence of the material particle size on the permeability
and retention characteristics of the permeable dams; (3) derivation of
the prediction formula of the water level before the first dam under
changing conditions. The research results can serve the selection of
material particle size, which are of great significance for controlling
excessive sediment into the lakes and protecting water quality.
2. Experimental methods
2.1. Experimental facility and similarity rule
The experiments and analysis were carried out while respecting the
Froude similarity criterion. The same inertia and gravity relationships
apply in the prototype (subscript prot) and model (subscript mod). The
geometric parameters (L), kinematic parameters (Q, v, t, n) and sediment
parameters (d, γs) follow the relations in Formula (1).
Lprot 1 λ2 λ2
(1)
1 5
λL = = 10, λv,t,k = λ2L , λQ = λ2L , λn = λ6L , λd = v h 2
Lmod λγsγ− γ λL
As shown in Fig. 2, the generalized physical experiment device was
mainly composed of a main water flume, a water tank and a sampling
and measuring equipment. The water tank was 660 mm in length, 420
mm in width, and 385 mm in height. Quartz sand required by the
specified sediment concentration was added into the tank to model the
sediment in water. During the experiments, samples of 20 ml were taken
from the water tank regularly to measure the sediment concentration,
and then quartz sand was added to maintain the inflow concentration.
The mixed water in the water tank was pumped into the front of the
main flume through a pipe with an inner diameter of 15 mm, and a valve
was installed on the pipe to adjust the required flow rate. The main
water flume was a plexiglass rectangular flume that was 900 mm in
length, 150 mm in width, and 250 mm in height. The bottom was
L. Pan et al.
Fig. 2. Experimental installation: (a) side view of the flume; (b) top view of the flume; (c) the water tank; (d) the main flume with permeable dams (the unit of the
numbers in the figure is mm).
horizontal. Four permeable dams were placed in the flume, namely the
first, the second, the third, and the fourth dam along the flow direction.
The distance between two adjacent dams was 50 mm, and the front end
of the first dam was 80 mm from the flume inlet. The permeable dam
was 100 mm in length, 150 mm in width, and 200 mm in height, and was
made of sand filled in the perforated frame. The water flowing out of the
flume was collected by the water tank. In the pre-experiments, the time
required for the water level H1t before the first dam to rise 2 cm (D = 3–5
mm) and 3 cm (D = 1–2 mm) can reach up to 875 and 185 min,
respectively, at which time H1t has shown a steady and slow rise trend.
Each group of formal experiments can be ended when H1t rises 2 cm (D
= 3–5 mm) or 3 cm (D = 1–2 mm). The water level along the flume was
read at an interval of 5 min using the scale pasted on the side wall.
Samples with a volume of 50 ml were taken before the first dam, be­
tween two adjacent dams and at the flume outlet every 15 min, and the
concentration was measured. After the experiments, we cleaned and
collected the quartz sand in the dam interior, between two adjacent
dams, before the first dam and measured the drying mass separately.
2.2. Experimental conditions and parameter calculation
Due to the sediment retention and clogging, the resistance of the
dams to the flow changes and the water level before the dams will rise
obviously. As the first dam dealing with the sediment laden flow, once
H1t rises to the specified water level or overflows the dam, it will have an
importance influence on the overall performance of the cascade dams. In
order to provide preliminary qualitative guidance for the practical
application of the cascade permeable dam, while studying the sediment
retention in the dams and the areas between adjacent dams, we hope to
get the relationship between H1t and the sediment concentration, water
volume, and other parameters through extensive experiments. A func­
tional relationship with probable variables affecting H1t in our study
may be written as Formula (2).
( )
D
H1t = f d, D, , n0 , c0 , B, L, H10 , H20 , H10 − H20 , ρsand , ρ0 , v0 , TV
d totype velocity calculated is close to the flow velocity near the inlet of
Journal of Hydrology 624 (2023) 129948
H1t
(
D c0 B H10 H20 H10 − H20 ρsand Lg TV
)
=f , n0 , , , , , , , 2, 3 (3)
L d ρ0 L L L L ρ0 v0 L
Where t is the experimental time (min); H1t is the water levels before
the first dam (cm); d is the average particle size of the quartz sand used
(mm); n0 is the material porosity for t = 0 (non-dimensional); c0 is the
sediment concentration (g/L); B is the dam width (cm); L is the dam
length (cm); H10 and H20 are the water levels before and behind the first
dam when t = 0, respectively (cm); ρsand is the density of quartz sand (g/
L); ρ0 is the density of water (g/L); v0 is the average flow velocity before
the first dam when t = 0 (cm/s); TV is the total water volume (cm3).
Taking ρ0, v0, and L as the repeating variables, the functional relation­
ship for H1t in terms of non-dimensional parameters may be written as
Formula (3). Based on the above parameters, the following experimental
design was conducted.
According to the conditions of the channels near the inlet of Xinglong
Lake in Chengdu and the scale relationship described in Formula (1), the
experimental parameters and materials were selected and determined.
Field sampling and screening after drying show that the sediment of
0.025–0.15 mm accounts for a relatively high proportion in the surface
sediment of this area. Quartz sand with an average particle size d = 0.05
mm was calculated and selected, which is a commonly used material in
the study of suspended particles (Tao et al., 2023). Considering that the
permeability coefficient of small gravel easily obtained around the
construction site is about 0.03 ~ 3 cm/s, according to Formula (1),
coarse sand with a particle diameter D of 1–2 and 3–5 mm was selected
as the dam material as shown in Fig. 3. Sand of the same particle
diameter was used for the four permeable dams. Ramming and
compaction were carried out during the filling process. The drying mass
of the material used to fill each dam was recorded, ensuring that for the
dams with the same particle size, the mass of sand used and the initial
porosity were basically the same. According to the change of the water
level in the pre-experiments, the flow rates Q of 300, 500 and 700 L/H
were adopted. The corresponding average velocity is approximately
(2) 0.9–1.1 (D = 3–5 mm) and 0.6–0.9 (D = 1–2 mm) cm/s, and the pro­
3
L. Pan et al. Journal of Hydrology 624 (2023) 129948

Fig. 3. Sand in the experiments: (a) D = 1–2 mm; (b) D = 3–5 mm; (c) quartz sand; (d) side view of the dam in the flume.

the lakes receiving farmland runoff or water diversion and the recom­ Δldit is the variation amplitude (cm), and Δldiave is the variation
mended velocity in urban river network (Tian et al., 2019; Liu et al., amplitude caused by the unit volume of water (cm/L); Q is the flow rate
2019; Yang et al., 2021). The inflow concentration c0 was 1.0, 1.5, and (cm3/s); kit is the permeability coefficient (cm/s) and kire is the relative
2.0 g/L, respectively. The arrangement of the experimental conditions is permeability coefficient (non-dimensional); i is the dam number, which
shown in Table 1. can be 1–4; ηi is the sediment retention percentage (non-dimensional),
In this paper, the permeability characteristics basically refers to the and η1, ηR represent the mass percentage of sediment retained by the first
flow characteristics, mainly including the water level before the dams, dam and the residual dams. mi is the the sediment mass retained by the
water level difference ldit before and behind the dams, and the perme­ dam i including the sediment retained in and before the dam i, and M is
ability coefficient of the dams. The retained sediment occupies part of the total sediment mass retained inside the four dams and between
the pores in the dam material, which obviously affects the flow char­ adjacent dams (g) after the experiments. The meaning of other param­
acteristics. The relative water level before the dam and ldit are used to eters is consistent with those in Formula (2) and (3).
visually analyze the permeability variation, and the calculation methods
are shown in Formula (4) and (5). For the permeable dams with same 3. Experimental results
particle size, the flow characteristics are similar when clean water passes
through the dams for the same Q. However, for the sediment laden 3.1. Sediment particle transport and retention in the cascade dams
water, the sediment volume retained inside the dams and the pore
volume occupied are different, so the permeability coefficient will show Fig. 4 shows the time variation of the water surface profile in and
a different change, the decline of which is a direct manifestation of around the first dam based on the records and experimental pictures,
clogging caused by sediment retention in the dams. The method pro­ and the sediment retention profile. The deposition body behind the
posed by Tian et al. (2006) is adopted to calculate the permeability dams represents the sediment deposited between the adjacent dams.
coefficient of the permeable dams here, as shown in Formula (6). After Generally, the porous media mainly retain sediment particles through
the experiments, according to the measured mass, the percentage of the two mechanisms. For relatively large particles, straining will play
sediment mass retained in the dam interior and between two adjacent dominant roles in the sediment retention (Wang et al., 2018), and the
dams to the total sediment mass retained by the cascade dams is corresponding ratio of the particle and media diameters is higher than
calculated, and the role of each dam in the sediment retention is 0.5% (Bradford et al., 2004). For the particles smaller than the pore
compared, as shown in Formula (7). sizes, particles are retained through Brownian diffusion, retention, and
gravity sedimentation (Wang et al., 2022a). The particle size ratios in
Δhit = Hit − Hi0 (4)
the experiments are 0.05–0.025 (D = 1–2 mm) and 0.017–0.01 (D = 3–5
Δldit mm), respectively. The removal and retention of sediment in water
ldit = Hit − H(i+1)t , Δldit = ldit − ldi0 , Δldiave = (5) mainly depends on the filtration and retention of dam materials and the
TV
deposition between the adjacent dams. For D = 1–2 mm, it can be found
kit B ( 2 ) 2QL k from Fig. 4d that the retention mass in the front of the profile is slightly
Q= 2
Hit − H(i+1)t , kit = ( ), kire = it (6)
2L B Hit2 − H(i+1)t
2 k0 higher than that in the rear. The pore volume increases significantly for
D = 3–5 mm and the phenomenon are not obvious. Tang et al. (2020)
mi found that the clogging mainly occurs at the top part of the porous media
ηi = (7) and only about 5% of the fine particles are accumulated at the deeper
M
layers. Similarly, Wang et al., 2022b proposed that the most serious
Where Δhit is the relative water level before the dams (cm); Hit and clogging occurred in the first 3 cm of the column, which is obviously
H(i+1)t are the water levels before and behind the dam, respectively different from our experiments. The sediment clogging causes the
(cm); ldit is the water level difference before and behind the dam (cm), decrease of the porosity of the dams and Hit gradually rises. Once the safe
level is exceeded, the dam can be considered invalid. After the beginning
of the experiments, some sediment particles are deposited behind the
Table 1 first dam, and the deposition volume gradually increases with time.
Experimental conditions. Since smaller pore volume and larger specific surface area of dam ma­
Run Q (L/H) c0 (g/L) D (mm) Run Q (L/H) c0 (g/L) D (mm) terial will cause higher retention efficiency for D = 1–2 mm, the outflow
1 300 1.0 1–2 10 300 1.0 3–5 concentration behind the first dam is lower, so the deposition volume is
2 300 1.5 11 300 1.5 smaller and changes slightly with time. The distribution of the upper
3 300 2.0 12 300 2.0 boundary of the sediment profile in the dams basically coincides with
4 500 1.0 13 500 1.0
the water surface profile, and changes with the rise of the water level.
5 500 1.5 14 500 1.5
6 500 2.0 15 500 2.0 Influenced by the dam material isotropy, the water surface gradient in
7 700 1.0 16 700 1.0 the dam changes complicatedly.
8 700 1.5 17 700 1.5
9 700 2.0 18 700 2.0

4
L. Pan et al.
Fig. 4. Water surface profile in and around the first dam and sediment retention profile at the end of the experiments (Q = 500 L/H, c0 = 1.5 g/L): (a), (b) for D =
3–5 mm; (c), (d) for D = 1–2 mm.
3.2. Mass percentage of retention sediment
The mass percentage ηi of sediment retained by the first dam and the
residual dams for D = 1–2 and 3–5 mm is calculated and shown in Fig. 5.
ηi is important for analyzing the sediment retention mechanism of the
cascade permeable dam. Obviously, the increase of η1 indicates that the
role played by the first dam in the sediment retention is increasing. For
D = 3–5 mm, η1 and ηR are about 26–35% and 65–74%, respectively, and
the values for D = 1–2 mm are 44–56% and 44–57%, respectively. For D
= 3–5 mm, η1 gradually decreases from 32 to 33% to 30–26% as the
sediment concentration c0 increases from 1.0 to 2.0 g/L at low flow rates
Q, and the concentration effect is more obvious for Q = 300 L/H.
Moreover, η1 gradually increases as Q increases at high concentration.
The changing trend of ηR is exactly opposite to that of η1. In most cases, a
higher proportion of sediment load passes through the first dam and is
retained by the residual dams under a higher c0 or lower Q. The prob­
ability of the interaction between sediment particles and dam material
Fig. 5. Mass percentage of sediment retained by the first dam and the residual dams: (a) D = 3–5 mm; (b) D = 1–2 mm.
5
Journal of Hydrology 624 (2023) 129948
or sediment particles increases significantly at higher c0. For D = 1–2
mm, the pore volume is smaller and the straining effect is significantly
enhanced. η1 increases from 44 to 51% to 47–52% with increasing c0 at
high Q (500, 700 L/H) while decreases gradually at 300 L/H, and de­
creases with increasing Q. A higher Q or lower c0 can increase the pro­
portion of sediment passing through the first dam and retained by the
residual dams, which is exactly opposite to D = 3–5 mm. η1 for D = 1–2
mm under the same experimental conditions is much higher than that
for D = 3–5 mm, which initially reflects the different sediment retention
mechanism of the two particle sizes. The retention of the first dam is
particularly significant, even slightly exceeding the combined perfor­
mance of the residual dams (for D = 1–2 mm). In addition, considering
that the first dam will be the first to overflow or fail due to the water
level rise, therefore the following analysis will be mainly focused on the
first dam.
L. Pan et al.
3.3. Water level variation before the first dam
The difference between the instantaneous and initial water level
before the first dam is calculated, as shown in Fig. 6. Δh1t is an important
parameter to determine whether the dam will fail, which is closely
related to the dam porosity, the material particle size and the flow rates
(Michioku et al., 2005). Fig. 6 shows the experimental time for D = 3–5
and 1–2 mm is 355–875 and 40–185 (20–90 for Δh1t = 2 cm) minutes,
respectively. Under the same conditions, TV that can be treated for D =
1–2 mm to reach the same Δh1t is significantly less than D = 3–5 mm.
The water level rises rapidly first and then reaches a steady upward
trend, which can be seen from Fig. 6a-b or Fig. 6c-d. The intersection of
Δh1t curves indicates that different concentrations and flow rates may
have similar effects. For D = 3–5 mm, the curve slope of Δh1t at the later
stage of the experiment is approximately equal under the same Q, which
is the result of the sediment diffusion in the effective region for different
water levels caused by the different concentration. For Q = 500 L/H, the
rise rate of H1t gradually increases with increasing c0, and the time
required is shorter. The decrease of Q accelerates the rise of H1t for c0 =
1.5 g/L. Under other conditions, the time required for higher c0 may
even be longer, such as Q = 300 L/H. This indicates the current material
particle size has a limit ability to reduce sediment with higher c0. More
sediment passing through the first dam complicates the flocculation of
the rear, and the permeability of the residual dams affects H1t. For D =
1–2 mm, the rise slope of Δh1t is relatively large, and the change rate of
H1t at different c0 varies in the following order: 500 > 300 > 700 L/H. At
the same Q, the higher c0 obviously accelerates the rise of Δh1t, and the
incoming water can carry more sediment particles into the first dam,
promoting the clogging.
Fig. 6. Variation of the relative water level Δh1t before the first dam: (a) D = 3–5 mm; (b) D = 1–2 mm (The vertical lines in Fig. 6b point to the time for Δh1t = 2 cm).
Water level changes (c)-(f) with the progress of the experiments for Q = 500 L/H, c0 = 1.5 g/L, and D = 1–2 mm.
6
Journal of Hydrology 624 (2023) 129948
3.4. Water level difference before and behind the first dam
The variation in the water level difference ld1t before and behind the
first dam calculated is shown in Fig. 7. The upstream and downstream
water level and ld1t are the basic parameters for calculating the flow
discharge (Ma et al., 2021), and the distribution of pressure gradient will
have an impact on sediment transport. The change of ld1t at the same Q
can reflect the change of the dam porosity. At each Q (300, 500, 700 L/
H), ld1t increases to 1.85–2.30, 1.80–2.25, 2.00–2.45 (D = 3–5 mm) cm
and 3.75–4.10, 2.95–4.25, 2.25–3.60 (D = 1–2 mm) cm at the end of the
experiments. The variation amplitude of ld1t is larger for D = 1–2 mm,
which is related to smaller pore volume being more easily clogged. For
D = 3–5 mm, the higher Q is, the greater ld10 is. At higher Q (500, 700 L/
H), as shown in Table 2, the higher c0 is, the faster ld1t increases, and the
greater Δld1t and Δld1ave are, which is related to more sediment entering
the first dam in the unit time. For D = 1–2 mm, the variation rate of ld1t
and the final ld1t under each flow rates basically vary in the following
order: 2.0 > 1.0 > 1.5 g/L. The final Δld1t relative to the ld10 decreases
gradually as Q increases and decreases first and then increases with
increasing c0. The calculated Δld1ave decreases gradually as Q increases
from 300 to 700 L/H, which may be due to the larger area through which
the water diffuses for higher Q. Δld1ave for D = 1–2 mm is much higher
than D = 3–5 mm. Δld1ave calculated for Δh1t = 2 cm is basically posi­
tively correlated with c0, and the average value is higher than Δh1t = 3
cm.
3.5. Relative permeability coefficient of the first dam
The permeability coefficient of the dams is affected by compaction
degree, particle size distribution, mean particle size, porosity, etc. (Xu
et al., 2022). The material parameters of the built dams remain basically
unchanged during the experiments. The decrease of porosity caused by
L. Pan et al. Journal of Hydrology 624 (2023) 129948

Fig. 7. Variation in the water level difference ld1t before and behind the first dam: (a) D = 3–5 mm; (b) D = 1–2 mm (The vertical lines in Fig. 7b point to the time for
Δh1t = 2 cm).

and the variation amplitude decreases gradually. Basically, the higher

Table 2
the concentration is, the faster k1re decreases and the greater the final
Calculation results of the water level difference (the conditions are the same as
variation amplitude is. For D = 1–2 mm, the final k1re with increasing Q
those set in Table 1).
is about 36–37%, 43–54% and 49–53%, respectively. The higher c0 is,
Run Δld1t Δld1ave Δld1ave (Δh1t = Run Δld1t Δld1ave the faster k1re decreases. k1re for Δh1t = 2 cm is about 47–48%, 56–62%
(cm) (cm/L) 2) (cm/L) (cm) (cm/L)
and 58–64%, respectively.
1 2.3 0.0031 0.0039 10 1.1 0.00043
2 2.0 0.0040 0.0049 11 1.2 0.00049
4. Discussion
3 2.2 0.0059 0.0080 12 0.95 0.00025
4 1.8 0.0022 0.0029 13 0.5 0.000069
5 1.0 0.0017 0.0031 14 0.75 0.00016 In order to solve the problem of water quality deterioration caused
6 2.0 0.0060 0.0081 15 0.95 0.00032 by large amount of sediment entering the lakes, this paper proposes a
7 1.04 0.00048 0.0007 16 0.6 0.000082 cascade permeable dam. The influence of the sediment concentration c0,
8 0.83 0.00043 0.0007 17 0.7 0.000083
9 1.55 0.00156 0.0028 18 0.9 0.00014
the flow rate Q and the dam material particle size D on the permeability
characteristics and sediment retention performance of the permeable
dam were studied through physical experiments. The experimental re­
sediment retention leads to the decrease of the permeability coefficient. sults preliminarily show that the permeable dams are of practical value
The relative permeability coefficient k1re of dam material in the effective in sediment retention and controlling excessive sediment, especially for
area of the first dam is shown in Fig. 8. The increase of sediment load in D = 1–2 mm. Q and c0 have an obvious influence on the percentage
each experiment results in a trend of k1re decreasing rapidly at first and distribution of the retention mass along the flow direction. Under
then in a stable rate, and the significant decrease of the permeability at various conditions, the mass percentage retained by the first dam can
the initial stage is consistent with the research in relevant porous media reach 26–35% (D = 3–5 mm), and 44–56% (D = 1–2 mm), respectively,
(Tang et al., 2020). For D = 1–2 mm, the multi-particle bridge at the which plays a major role in reducing the sediment load.
pore throat is easier to form and the straining effect is more obvious, and The flow rate Q has a complex impact on the performance of the
the sediment load required to achieve a stable trend is smaller. For D = cascade permeable dams. On the one hand, the larger Q is, the larger the
3–5 mm, as Q increases from 300 to 700 L/H, k1t at the end of the effective area is, and the larger the pore volume that needs to be clogged
experiment was reduced by 58–62%, 40–51% and 39–44%, respectively, in the case of failure is. The higher flow velocity is not conducive to the

Fig. 8. Calculation results of the relative permeability coefficient of the first dam under various conditions: (a) D = 3–5 mm; (b) D = 1–2 mm.

7
L. Pan et al.
sediment retention. On the other hand, larger Q can carry more sediment
into the dams in the unit time. The influence of Q needs to be coupled
with the sediment concentration. For the preliminary analysis, the cloud
diagrams of the total time and total water volume are drawn in Fig. 9.
For D = 3–5 mm, Fig. 9a shows the change of TT with Q can mainly be
divided into three patterns: (1) TT first increases and then decreases; (2)
TT increases monotonically; (3) TT first decreases and then increases.
There is an obvious critical concentration, and the monotonic part cor­
responds to c0 = 1.4–1.6 g/L approximately. TV basically follows the
same change rule with TT. For D = 1–2 mm, TT decreases first and then
increases with increasing Q. TV shows a monotonic increase, but the
difference is small at 300 and 500 L/H. TV is an indicator to determine
whether the dam needs to be taken out for scouring. For D = 1–2 mm,
the larger Q, the easier it is for the sediment particles to be carried to the
rear half of the first dam, so the sediment mass required is higher, and TV
required is greater. However, for D = 3–5 mm, the higher velocity may
carry more sediment into the residual dams or the area between two
adjacent dams. The effluent concentration behind the first dam will
obviously affect the performance of the residual dams. Considering that
the water level along the dams has a jacking effect on the first dam, the
clogging process of the first dam presents different mechanism with the
change of Q.
In this study, the influence of c0 is significantly affected with the
changing Q for D = 3–5 mm. As shown in Fig. 9, when Q = 500 L/H, TT
and TV gradually decrease with the increase of c0. For Q = 300 and 700
L/H, TT and TV show a non-monotonic change with c0 and the change
trend is opposite. This is caused by the combined effects of the sediment
retention inside the dams, sediment deposition behind the dams, and the
Fig. 9. Cloud diagrams of the total time and total water volume under various working conditions: (a) Total time (TT); (b) Total volume (TV). (The left subpictures
for D = 3–5 mm and the right subpictures for D = 1–2 mm.).
8
Journal of Hydrology 624 (2023) 129948
permeability changes of the subsequent dams. Alem et al. (2015)
mentioned that for small c0 (0.25 g/L), the hydraulic conditions have
little influence on the sediment deposition, which can be used as a
reference for further study on the concentration effect. For D = 1–2 mm,
the higher c0 is, the smaller TV and TT under each flow rates are. This
indicates that a high concentration is conducive to sediment retention
and deposition in the first dam, thus accelerating the dam clogging and
the rise of the water level. It was mentioned by Alem et al. (2015) that a
higher concentration would result in a faster deposition and perme­
ability reduction, leading to the clogging of some flow channels and
lower flood volume, which was similar to the results in this paper.
According to the calculation methods of the collection efficiency of
the porous media mentioned by Sharma et al. (2008), the particle size
ratio will significantly affect the sediment retention and diffusion. With
decreasing dam material size, the permeability decreases significantly
(Tang et al., 2020), and the retention efficiency increases. By dividing
the retention mass in the first dam by the total water volume and the
mass of the coarse sand in the effective area, the average retention mass
after treating the sediment laden flow of the unit volume is obtained as
shown in Fig. 10a and b. This parameter takes into account the total
water volume, which can be preliminarily used to evaluate the purifi­
cation characteristics of dam material for the sediment laden flow. In
Fig. 10b, the retention mass of D = 1–2 mm is much higher than that of
D = 3–5 mm, indicating that the smaller porosity, pore volume and
larger specific surface area effectively improve the retention perfor­
mance of the dams. When D = 1–2 mm, the retention mass in Fig. 10b
gradually increases with increasing concentration, and decreases with
the increase of Q. For D = 3–5 mm, it is difficult for the sediment
L. Pan et al. Journal of Hydrology 624 (2023) 129948

Fig. 10. The retention mass in the first dam (a) and the retention sediment mass retained by the unit mass of sand caused by the unit volume of water (b). The photos
of sediment deposited between two adjacent dams for D = 3–5 mm (c) and D = 1–2 mm (d) at the end of the experiments.

particles to stay in the dams. The retention efficiency of the dam is low,
so it is not recommended to use this particle size ratio. Combined with
the retention performance of the porous media with smaller particle size
conducted by Tang et al. (2020) and the retention mass ratio of the first
dam to the residual dams in Fig. 5, the dam retention and deposition
between two adjacent dams play a major role together for D = 3–5 mm,
while the first dam plays the most important roles for D = 1–2 mm.
Fig. 10c and d show that the sediment volume deposited between two
adjacent dams for D = 3–5 mm is significantly greater than that for D =
1–2 mm, which also confirms this conclusion. Considering the smaller
TV for D = 1–2 mm and the weaker retention performance for D = 3–5
mm, the particle size ratio can be preliminarily recommended to be
40–60 in the experiments.
Based on Formula (2) and (3), considering the obvious retention
effect for D = 1–2 mm, we obtained a relationship formula between H1t
and TV for D = 1–2 mm using the experimental data.
( )
H1t H10 H20 H10 − H20 Lg TV
=f , , , 2, 3 (8)
L L L L v0 L
( )0.395
H1t H10 H10 − H20 c0 TV
= + 1.304 (9)
L L L ρ0 L3 Fig. 11. Comparison between observed and predicted values of H1t/L for
training and validation datasets.
The material parameters and structure dimensions of the built dams
will not change during operation, and the conditions at the initial
change H10 and H20 in Formula (9) accordingly. The relationship be­
moment are basically the same. Neglecting the influence of D/d, n0, B/L,
tween v0, H10, and H20 can be determined through the experiments with
and ρsand/ρ0, the functional relationship for H1t may be expressed as
clear water for already built in-situ permeable dams. When v0 is too large
Formula (8). Based on the parameters such as H1t and TV recorded, 75%
or too small, the filtration process significantly changes, and the equa­
of the data were used for non-linear regression analysis, and Formula (9)
tion will also change. According to the parameter design in Section 2.2,
was obtained. The validation was done using the remaining 25% of the
the experiments can preliminarily reflect the practical application of the
data. Fig. 11 shows that Formula (9) predicts H1t with a high correlation
permeable dams qualitatively. The calculated prototype flow velocity
coefficient (R = 0.9816 and 0.9806) and a low error (RMSE = 0.043 and
corresponding to 0.6–0.9 cm/s is close to the flow velocity in urban river
0.041) for training and validation, respectively. After a slight change in
network or near the inlet of the lakes receiving the water diversion or
the value of a certain point, there is a high probability that it will
farmland runoff. Therefore, Formula (9) can be preliminarily used to
approach another point within the error range. Within the range
guide the application of the permeable dams. Based on the obtained
involved in this experiment, the formula can be considered satisfactory
volume, sediment concentration, and flow rate of the sediment laden
basically. It should be noted that H1t changes with Q, and v0 is always
water that will flow through the dams according to the hydrological data
stable at 0.6–0.9 cm/s in the experiments, which will significantly

9
L. Pan et al.
or water diversion arrangement, Formula (9) can be used to predict the
response process and the final rise height of H1t, and determine whether
the dams are at risk of failure. In the future, the relationships can be
modified and optimized using the application data of actual
engineering.
In the experiments, the sediment laden water can flow through the
pores of the dam material, and part of the sediment will be trapped. Part
of the sediment flowing out of the dams will be deposited between the
adjacent dams due to gravity or the water blocking effect of the next
dams, and the other part will continue to flow into the next dams. The
removal and retention of sediment in water is achieved, and the reten­
tion efficiency in this paper refers to the performance and efficiency of
the permeable dams to retain and remove the sediment particles in
water through the above process. The retained sediment occupies part of
the pores in the dam material and results in partial clogging of the dam
material, which is common when the sand laden water flows through the
porous media. The process of sediment retention and clogging is related
to the flow rate, concentration, material particle size, and initial
porosity. In actual projects, the prefabricated frame with an inner gabion
can be directly used and filled with rubble, gravel, sand, etc. easily
available on the project sites to form a single permeable dam to reduce
the sediment or pollutant in water. The prefabricated dams will be lifted
to the base that has been built in the channels near the lake inlet or in the
urban river network, and fixed, which can initially achieve the dam
stability and foundation seepage prevention. The number of single dams
can be adjusted according to the application width and prevention re­
quirements. This kind of dam is simple in construction, reusable,
effective in sediment removal and easy to scour, which is of great
practical significance for sediment control. The experimental results are
of guiding significance for the selection of the dam material size and
evaluation of the total failure water volume. Considering that the dis­
tance between the adjacent dams will affect the sediment retention and
deposition, so further studies can be conducted focusing on the influence
of the distance. In addition, only one effluent condition was adopted in
this study, so it is meaningful to study the effects of free flow, submerged
flow and submerged depth.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, a cascade permeable dam is proposed, which can
effectively control and retain sediment in sediment laden flow. Physical
experiments were conducted to study the response law of the sediment
retention performance and the permeability characteristics of the dams
under different flow rate Q, sediment concentration c0, and dam mate­
rial size D. The relation formula between the water level H1t before the
first dam and these parameters is obtained. The following conclusions
are drawn:
(1) The decrease rate (D = 1–2 mm) or decrease amplitude (D = 3–5
mm) of the permeability coefficient due to the sediment clogging are
positively correlated with c0, respectively. The retained sediment mass
by the first dam accounts for 44–56% (D = 1–2 mm) and 26–35% (D =
3–5 mm) of the cascade dams. For D = 1–2 mm, the retention proportion
η1 of the first dam increases with increasing c0 at higher Q and increases
with decreasing Q, indicating that the importance of the first dam for the
cascade dams is increasing. However, η1 for D = 3–5 mm at lower Q
decreases with increasing c0. The permeable dam with D = 1–2 mm
mainly realizes the sediment removal through the retention of the first
dam, while that with D = 3–5 mm through the dam material retention
and sediment deposition between two adjacent dams. In practical ap­
plications, the corresponding areas need to be regularly cleaned.
(2) A large Q or c0 can carry more sediment into the dam groups per
unit time, while the larger Q also increases the effective area of the dams
and tends to carry the sediment particles to the rear of the dams. The
total failure water volume TV for D = 1–2 mm basically decreases as c0
increases or as Q decreases, while that for D = 3–5 mm shows a complex
change due to the coupling effect of the c0 and Q.
10
Journal of Hydrology 624 (2023) 129948
(3) In general, H1t rises rapidly first and then reaches a steady up­
ward trend. For D = 1–2 mm, the rising rate of H1t increases with
increasing c0, and increases first and then decreases as Q increases. The
rise of H1t is closely related to c0, TV and other parameters. The formula
derived describes the relationships among these parameters, and the
predicted values are in good agreement with the validation values. This
formula has preliminary guiding significance for predicting H1t after the
sediment laden water with a certain volume and concentration flows
through the dams.
(4) Due to the smaller pore volume and porosity, the dam material
with smaller size D = 1–2 mm will show better sediment retention ef­
ficiency. Considering the complex changes in the effective dam area and
the sediment retention characteristics during the experiments, the
calculated sediment mass retained by the unit mass of sand of the first
dam (D = 1–2 mm) caused by the unit volume of water is basically
proportional to c0 and negatively correlated with Q, and higher than that
of D = 3–5 mm.
6. Data availability
Data in this work are available from the corresponding author upon
reasonable request (hw.Zhou@scu.edu.cn (Hongwei Zhou)).
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Longyang Pan: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing – original
draft. Xingguo Yang: Writing – review & editing. Yeong-bin Yang:
Writing – review & editing. Hongwei Zhou: Conceptualization, Writing
– review & editing, Project administration. Junyi Cai: Conceptualiza­
tion, Investigation. Niannian Li: Investigation. Jian Liu: Investigation.
Mingyang Wang: Investigation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by Key R&D Program of Sichuan Provincial
Science and Technology Department (2022YFG0016). The authors
acknowledge the cooperation of all the participants in this study.
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