MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 2

WHAT IS CHEMICAL BONDING?

Chemical bonding refers to the process by which atoms or ions are held together
in compounds through attractive forces, leading to the formation of molecules or
extended structures.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND INTERATOMIC BONDING

1. Atomic Structure – Arrangement of atom's parts.
2. Interatomic Bonding – Atoms sticking together, sharing electrons or attracting charges.

WHY STUDY ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND INTERATOMIC BONDING?

An important reason to have an understanding of interatomic bonding in solids is
that in some instances, the type of bond allows us to explain a material’s properties. For
example, consider carbon, which may exist as both graphite and diamond. Whereas
graphite is relatively soft and has a “greasy” feel to it, diamond is the hardest known
material. In addition, the electrical properties of diamond and graphite are dissimilar:
diamond is a poor conductor of electricity, but graphite is a reasonably good conductor.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
1. Fundamental concepts
• Nucleus - The core of an atom
• Proton - "+" charge carrier
• Electron - "-" charge carrier
• Atom - An atom is the smallest unit of an element.
• Atomic Number (Z) - The atomic number of an element is the number of
protons in its nucleus. It uniquely identifies each element on the periodic
table.
• The atomic mass (A) of a specific atom may be expressed as the sum of
the masses of protons and neutrons within the nucleus.
• The atomic weight of an element - corresponds to the weighted average of
the atomic masses of the atom’s naturally occurring isotopes.
• Isotopes - Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number
of protons but different numbers of neutrons

2. Electrons in Atoms
 • Atomic Models
1. Bohr Atomic Model - This model explained the line spectra of
hydrogen and other atoms but had limitations in explaining more
complex atoms.
2. Wave-Mechanical Model (Quantum Mechanics) - It treats
electrons as both particles and waves, describing their probable
locations around the nucleus using probability distributions.
• Quantum Numbers - are used to describe the properties and characteristics
of electrons in an atom within the framework of quantum mechanics.
• Electron Configurations - The arrangement of electrons in the energy
levels and sublevels around the nucleus is known as the electron
configuration. It follows specific rules based on energy levels and
sublevels.

INTERATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS

The behavior of materials is greatly influenced by the way atoms are bonded together
within them. The nature of these bonds dictates the mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties
of solids. There are several types of bonding forces that hold atoms together in solids, and they
can be broadly categorized into primary and secondary bonds.

1. Bonding Forces and Energies

The interactions between atoms, known as bonding forces, are responsible for the
formation of molecules and the properties of materials. These forces, governed by energy
considerations, encompass a range of bonds including covalent, ionic, and metallic, as
well as intermolecular forces like van der Waals and hydrogen bonding.

 Bonding energy- Bonding energy, also known as bond energy or bond

dissociation energy, refers to the amount of energy required to break a
chemical bond and separate the atoms involved.
 Bonding forces- Bonding forces are attractive interactions between atoms
that keep them together in molecules or materials, determining their
stability and properties.

2. Primary Interatomic Bonds

 Primary interatomic bonds are the fundamental forces that hold atoms together
within a molecule or a solid material.

 Ionic - Ionic bonding is perhaps the easiest to describe and visualize. It is

always found in compounds that are composed of both metallic and
nonmetallic elements, elements that are situated at the horizontal
extremities of the periodic table.

 Covalent - In covalent bonding, stable electron configurations are assumed

by the sharing of electrons between adjacent atoms. Two atoms that are
covalently bonded will each contribute at least one electron to the bond,
and the shared electrons may be considered to belong to both atoms.

 Metallic - Metallic bonding, the final primary bonding type, is found in

metals and their alloys.

3. Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding

- Secondary bonding, also known as van der Waals bonding, refers to the relatively weak forces
of attraction between molecules or atoms due to temporary fluctuations in electron distribution.

 Fluctuating induce dipole bonds - Fluctuating induced dipole bonds, also known
as London dispersion forces, are weak attractions between atoms or molecules
caused by temporary fluctuations in their electron distribution. These fluctuations
create temporary dipoles, inducing similar dipoles in neighboring atoms or
molecules. Despite being weak, these forces are present in all substances and
contribute to their physical properties, such as boiling and melting points,
especially in non-polar molecules.

 Polar molecule induced dipole bonds - Polar molecule induced dipole bonds refer
to weak attractions between a polar molecule and a non-polar molecule caused by
the polar molecule's electric field inducing a temporary dipole in the non-polar
molecule. These forces play a role in interactions between molecules with
different levels of electron density, influencing properties like solubility and
interactions in mixed substances.

 Permanent dipole bonds - Permanent dipole bonds, also known as dipole-dipole

interactions, are relatively stronger attractions between polar molecules due to the
electrostatic interaction between their permanent partial charges. These forces
 contribute to the properties of polar compounds and determine their behavior in
various substances and reactions.

4. Mixed Bonding - Mixed bonding refers to a situation where a substance exhibits a

combination of different types of chemical bonding forces, such as covalent, ionic, and
metallic, within its structure. This blend of bonding types contributes to the substance's
unique properties and behavior.

SUMMARY
Chemical bonding is the process by which atoms or ions are held together through
attractive forces, resulting in the formation of molecules or extended structures. Understanding
atomic structure and interatomic bonding is crucial because it helps explain the properties of
materials. The way atoms are bonded together within a substance influences its mechanical,
electrical, and thermal characteristics.

Atomic Structure:
1. Fundamental Concepts: Atoms consist of a nucleus, which contains protons and
neutrons, and electrons that orbit the nucleus. The atomic number (Z) represents the
number of protons, and the atomic mass (A) is the sum of protons and neutrons. Atomic
weight is the weighted average of naturally occurring isotopes' atomic masses.

2. Electrons in Atoms:
Atomic models like the Bohr model and wave-mechanical (quantum mechanical) model
describe electrons as both particles and waves. Quantum numbers are used to characterize
electrons, and electron configurations define the arrangement of electrons in energy
levels and sublevels.

Interatomic Bonding in Solids:

The behavior of materials is influenced by the bonding forces that hold atoms together within
them. These forces dictate mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties of solids.

1. Bonding Forces and Energies: Bonding forces are responsible for molecular formation
and material properties. Different bonding forces include covalent, ionic, metallic, van
der Waals, and hydrogen bonding. Bonding energy is the energy required to break a
chemical bond.

2. Primary Interatomic Bonds:

 - Ionic Bonding:*Occurs between metallic and nonmetallic elements, involving
the transfer of electrons from one atom to another, creating ions with opposite
charges.
- Covalent Bonding: Involves electron sharing between adjacent atoms,
resulting in a stable electron configuration.
- Metallic Bonding: Found in metals, where atoms share a "sea" of electrons that
move freely throughout the structure.

3. Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding:

- Fluctuating Induce Dipole Bonds (London Dispersion Forces): Weak attractions due
to temporary fluctuations in electron distribution, creating temporary dipoles.
- Polar Molecule Induced Dipole Bonds: Weak attractions between polar and nonpolar
molecules caused by the polar molecule's electric field inducing a temporary dipole in the
nonpolar molecule.
- Permanent Dipole Bonds (Dipole-Dipole Interactions): Relatively stronger attractions
between polar molecules due to their permanent partial charges.

4. Mixed Bonding: Some substances exhibit a combination of different types of chemical

bonding, leading to unique properties.

In summary, atomic structure and interatomic bonding play a vital role in understanding the
behavior and properties of materials. Different types of bonding forces determine how atoms
come together to form compounds, impacting a substance's characteristics and interactions.