‘THEME 68: THE MASS MEDIA IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE (2): RADIO. AND TELEVISION. ADVERTISING IN THE — ENGLISH-SPEAKING WORLD: LINGUISTIC AND SEMTOLOGIC ASPECTS. 1 INTRODUCTION: BROADCASTING AS A MASS MEDIA 2. RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING IN GREAT BRITAIN 8). Introduction »). The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) ©). The Independent Television Commission (ITC) 4), Television Programmes ©). Cable and Satellite Television 3 RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING IN THE UNITED STATES a). Radio b). Television 4. ADVERTISING IN THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING WORLD. 2). Introduction b). —Semiotogy c). The Advertising Campaign @). Types of Advertisements ©). The Advertising Message f). The Elements of Printed Advertisements 2). Types of Broadcast Advertisements b). The Main Linguistic Features of Advertisements1, INTRODUCTION: BROADCASTING AS A MASS MEDIA. ‘The chief forms of mass communication are radio and television broadcasting, the press, the cinema and some forms of advertising. In this unit, we will concern ourselves with radio and television in Great Britain and the United States, as well as examining the world of advertising. ‘The most important feature of radio and television broadcasting is the fact that it is directed towards people in the privacy of their homes, as opposed to the cinema or theatre. For this reason, it is necessary for those in charge of radio and television programming to take notice of the wishes of its audience, Broadcasters are heavily influenced by audience ratings and any programme without audience appeal will soon be discontinued or altered. Advertising revenue also depends, in many ceases, on the audience figures for a particular programme; advertisers have to pay more to screen their ‘spots’ during a popular TV show. Programmes on radio and television, as in all countries, are extremely varied, although certain channels or stations do tend to specialise in certain areas, especially with the advent of satellite television. They range from news programmes (interviews, documentaries, ‘chat’ shows, in-depth reports and analyses) and drama (films, serials or ‘soap ‘operas’, series) to light entertainment (comedy programmes, quiz shows, musi 2, RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING IN GREAT BRITAIN a). _ Introduction: ‘The first experimental radio transmissions in Britain were made at the end of the nineteenth century, and the systems were further developed in the early twentieth century. After a period of limited public availability of radio services, national radio broadcasting was established in 1922 when the British Broadcasting Company was formed under the direction of John Reith. In 1926 Reith became the first Director-General of the new British Broadcasting Corporation (the present BBC) , and was to set the tone and style for the BBC's future development. Since the BBC had the monopoly in broadcasting , it tended to have a paternalistic image, which still exists today to some extent. Reith was concerned that the BBC should be independent of government and commercial interests; that it should strive for quality; and that it should be a public broadcasting service, with a duty to inform, educate and entertain. Since these early days, the BBC has built up a considerable reputation for impartial news reporting and quality programmes, both in its domestic services and through its world-wide radio broadcasting on the external services. ‘The BBC continued its monopoly on broadcasting into the 1950s, in both radio and television (which hhad started in 1936 for a very limited audience). But there was an increasing pressure from ‘commercial and political interests to widen the scope of broadcasting. The result of this pressure wasthat commercial (or independent) broadcasting was created in 1954 with the passing of an Act to establish an independent television authority. The first programmes to carry advertising material on the independent television service were broadcast in 1955. Two organisations then covered British broadcasting: the BBC and the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) . This structure resulted in a duopoly, in which brondcasting was largely shared between the public service of the BBC and the commercial service of the IBA. But this division has now been expanded as cable, satellite and other broadcasting services have developed in recent years In 1988 the Conservative government announced that it would make wide-ranging changes to British broadcasting, most of which became operative in the 1990s, The plans were intended to provide greater deregulation and competition among broadcasters and to give greater choice to the consumer. The number of television and radio channels was to be increased, and the [BA was to be replaced. The BBC, while keeping its licence-fee system , has been encouraged to develop alternative forms of funding, such as subscription and pay services. This new broadcasting regime is controversial and has been widely criticised for its alleged emphasis on competition and commercialism, rather than quality. b). The BBC: ‘The BBC is based at Broadcasting House in London, but has studios and local facilities throughout the country, which provide regional and national networks. It was created by Royal Charter and has ‘a board of govemors who, under a chairman, are responsible for supervising its programme structures and suitability. The governors are appointed by the Crown on the advice of government ‘ministers, and are supposed to constitute an independent element in the organisation of the BBC. The daily operation of the corporation is controlled by the Director-General, who is chosen by the board ‘of govemors in consultation with the Prime Minister. ‘The BBC is financed by a grant from Parliament, which comes largely from the revenue received from the sale of television licences. These are payable by anyone who owns a television set, and are relatively low by intemational standards (at present around a hundred pounds for a colour set). The BBC also generates considerable income from selling its programmes abroad, and for the sale of a programme guide (The Radio Times), books, magazines and videos. The BBC's extemal services, which consist of radio broadcasts in English (the World Service) and some thirty-seven other languages abroad, were founded in 1932 and receive direct financing from the goverment, mainly through the Foreign Office. “The BBC is not a state service, in the sense that it is controlled by the govemment. But it is not as independent of political pressures as many in Britain and overseas assume. Its charter has to be renewed by Parliament, and by its terms the Home Secretary can, and does, intervene in the showing.of programmes which are alleged to be controversial or against the public interest. The BBC governors, although supposedly independent, are in fact government appointees. Governments can also exert pressure upon the BBC when the licence fee comes up for renewal by Parliament. The BBC today is struggling to maint by the licence fee. It does try to be neutral in political matters, to such an extent that all political n its position as a traditional public-service broadcaster , Funded parties have periodically complained that the BBC is prejudiced against them, The major parties have ‘equal rights to broadeast on the BBC and independent television The BBC has two main television channels: BBC| and BBC2. BBC! programmes consist of news, plays and drama series, comedy, quiz shows, variety performances, sport and documentaries. BBC2 tends to show more serious itemis stich as news analysis and. discussion, documentaries, adaptations of novels into plays and series, operas, concerts and some sport. It can be something of a minority channel, and is watched on average by about 10 per cent of all viewers. But it is a crucial element in the provision of Open University courses, Other BBC channels include BBC Choice, BBC Knowledge and BBC News 24, all available on satellite, BBC Four has just started broadcasting ‘The BBC has five national radio channels, and some thirty-two local radio stations in many districts, which compete for listeners with independent stations. The national channels specialise in different tastes, Radio | caters for pop music; Radio 2 has light music, news and comedy; Radio 3 provides classical and modems series, talks, discussions and plays; Radio 4 tends to concentrate on news reports and analysis, talks and plays; Radio 5 Live provides youth, sport and educational programmes. ©). The Independent Television Commission: Independent television and radio are at present in a state of change, and much will depend on how recent government legislation is implemented. The following information attempts to present the current situation. The ITC (Independent Television Commission) has replaced the IBA; it controls the activities of the independent television companies and consists of a govemment-appointed chairman and other board members. The ITC does not produce or make programmes itself, but issues licences to, and regulates, the transmitting companies who are responsible for making the actual programmes shown on three television channels. There are fifteen production companies at present, such as Granada (north-west England), Central (the midland counties of England), and Anglia (East Anglia) London has two companies holding one licence, with one providing programmes during the week (Carlton), the other at weekends (London Weekend). These companies makes programmes for the fourteen regions into which Britain at present is divided for independent television purposes. ‘The ITC is funded mainly by the rental fees that the programme companies pay for the use of ‘common transmitting facilities, and also by subscription and advertising charges. The licencesgranted to the companies are at present renewable every six years. when they have to apply for renewal together with any other interested applicants. Although open to competitive tendering, itis by no means certain that a further licence will be granted to an existing company, o a new one to a new company which offers the highest price Much will depend on past performance, financial standing and commitment to provide quality and regional programmes The programme companies receive nothing from the national television licence fee, which is applicable only to the BBC. The companies are consequently dependent upon the finance they receive from advertising and the sales of programmes, videos, books, records and other publications The ITC regulates three independent television channels, all of which carry advertising: ITV, Channel 4 the recently introduced Channel 5. ITV is the oldest, and once seemed only to provide popular programmes of a light-entertanment and sometimes trivial type, But it has improved in a high standard of news reports, drama productions and documentaries. Under the government's new legislation, ITV must provide quality, largely’ because of competition from the BBC, and now hi programmes made in and about the region represented by the production company. Channel 4 was established in 1982 in order to create an independent altemative to BBC2. It is funded at present by subscriptions from the fifteen independent television companies which, in return, receive advertising ‘space on Channel 4. It was intended to offer something different and challenging in an appeal to ‘minority tastes, and also provides programmes in Welsh in Wales. Channel 4 initially had serious problems with advertising and the quality of its programmes, but has now developed a considerable reputation and is a success. Channel 5 became operative in 1997 and is still trying to establish a foothold. In 1972 the Sound Broadcasting Act ended the BBC’s monopoly on radio broadcasting. A new Radio Authority now controls over sixty local and regional independent radio stations, which are supported by advertising and provide mainly pop music, news flashes and programmes of local interest. These stations operate on a purely commercial basis, but some of them have difficulty attracting enough advertising revenue. It had often been argued that the old IBA did not always keep a close watch on independent broadcasting developments; that it lacked sufficient regulatory powers and consistent policies; and sometimes acted arbitrarily in the granting of licences. There was also consi quarters at the rapid expansion and dubious quality of independent broadcasting as a whole, It remains to be seen whether the new ITC and commercial Radio Authority improve this situation. rable concer in some d). Television Programmes: Television is a very influential and dominant force in modem Britain, It is also a very popular leisure activity. It is estimated that over 98 per cent of the population have television sets in their homes,nd over 50 per cent of homes have two sets or more. Some people prefer to rent their sets instead of owning them, partly because rented sets are repaired and maintained free of charge A large number of the programmes shown on television are made in Britain, although there is a considerable number of imported American series on view. A few more programmes come from tries, stich as Australia, New Zealand and Canada. But there are ceaher English-speaking co relatively few foreign-language productions on British television “The range of progranimes shown is very considerable, but they also vary widely in quality. Although British television has a high reputation abroad, it does attract substantial criticism in Britain, either because of the standard of the programmes or because they are frequently repeated. News reports, documentaries and current-affairs analyses are generally of a very high standard, as are dramatic, educational, sporting, natural history and cultural productions, But there is also a wide selection of series, films, quizzes and variety shows which are sometimes of doubtful quality. . ‘The competition between the BBC and independent television is strong, and the battle of the ratings indicates the popularity (or otherwise) of individual programmes. But this competition can mean that similar programmes are shown at the same time on the major channels, in order to appeal to specific markets and to attract the biggest shares of the audience. It is also argued that competition has reduced the quality of programmes overall, and has resulted in an appeal to the lowest common denominator in taste. There are fears that standards will decrease further if the BBC is forced to lessen its commitment to public-service broadcasting ‘Voices have occasionally been raised about the alleged levels of violence on British television. Some private individuals have attempted by their protests to reform and influence the kind of programmes that are shown. There is, however, little conclusive research evidence that the public are being morally harmed by watching television for an average viewing time of twenty-seven hours each week. But the government considers that violence, sex and obscenity on television do affect viewers, some more than others It is concemed with ‘cleaning up” television, and has set up a Broadcasting Standards Council and a Broadcasting Commission which monitor programmes, examine complaints and establish codes of ‘conduct for the broadcasting organisations. The government has already banned the sale and rent of so-called ‘video nasties” - videos which portray extreme forms of violence and brutality. ¢). Cable and Satellite Television: Television and other associated technological development have become very attractive in Britain, and a rich source of entertainment profits. At one stage, it was considered that cable television wouldconsiderably expand these possibilities But cable in Britain, although growing slowly, has been challenged first by video equipment sales and secondly by satellite programmes, Some 55 per cent of hhomes now own or rent video-cassette recorders Since Febniary 1980 direct television broadcasting by satellite has been available m Britain from privately financed satellites like Astra or Eutelsat British Sky Broadcasting (a merger of Sky Television and British Satellite Broadcasting) broadcast various channels through domestic receiving dishes, Most of these channels are now coded as part of the Sky ‘Multi-Channel’ Package and viewers have to subscribe and buy or rent a decoder to unscramble the signals Other satellites broadcast English programmes ‘in the clear’ (uncoded), although they cannot compete with Sky, which now has over 7 million subscribers in The United Kingdom and Ireland (3 million of whom now receive the digital service), ‘The advantage that satellite channels have over terrestrial television is that they can dedicate themselves exclusively to one particular type of programme, Thus, sports are covered on Sky Sports, and Eurosport: films are available on Sky Movies, The Movie Channel, Sky Cinema, TNT and ‘others, music can be seen on MTV Europe, VH-1, Country Music Television, Viva 1 and 2. Other satellite channels concentrate on news, travel, documentaries, cartoons, children's programmes, classic films and TV. series from the past, shopping, light entertainment and so on British Sky Broadcasting made its first profit in 1993 and sales of satellite receivers have far surpassed initial expectations. Over half the population of the British Isles now has access to satellite television. In many areas, these channels are available via cable television. ‘One point that should be made here is that all these coded channels cannot be received legally outside the British Isles, although many British citizens resident in other countries have managed (illegally) to ‘obtain decoders and to subscribe to the Sky “Multi-Channel Package’. With the advent of digital technology, the number of channels available has increased enormously British Sky Broadcasting has well over 200 dedicated channels available to its subscribers and many digital channels are also available terrestrially. Digital TV opens the way to the so-called “pay-per-view” system. If subscribers wish to watch a particular sporting event or film, they have to key in the appropriate number on their remote controls and viewing of the event will be authorised; the amount charged for that event will then be added to the customer's bill3. RADIO AND TI ISION BROADCASTING IN THE UNITED STATES a). Radio: Most of the brondeasting organisations in the United States are commercial firms. In fact , extensive radio brondcasting began as a means of promoting newspapers, other products and services. The first three companies were AT&T ( American Telephone and Telegraph), Westinghouse and GE (General Electric): these funded the RCA (Radio Corporation of America), a network which was eventually taken over by the present NBC (National Broadcasting Company), ABC (American Broadcasting Company) and CBS (Columbia Broadcasting System), In the 1930s radio managed to free itself from the power that newspapers and magazines exerted over it During the Second World War live broadcasts and analysis were an important propaganda weapon which the government exploited to the full The lure of television meant that, from the 1950s onwards, radio has been considered the third mass ‘media in entertainment and news. However, the number of radio stations has expanded enormously since the late 1970s, especially in FM stations, as AM stations were already overcrowded. Present-day radio is mostly independent of commercial companies and the government. It is funded bby advertising revenue, subscriptions and donations. Most radio stations tend to specialise in a single ‘ype of programme: news, classical music, traffic information, ‘phone-in programmes, etc. b). Television: Television in the United States is a powerful medium, through which the American way of life is resented to other cultures, ‘The ‘big three’ commercial networks are ABC (American Broadcasting Company), NBC (National Broadcasting Company) and CBS (Columbia Broadcasting System). To these, we must now add CNN (Cable News Network), and possibly MTV (Music Television), which has had such an important influence on society over the last decade or so. American Television avoids government controls as much as possible; only the Federal Communications Commission gives some guidance as to programme content. Both public and commercial television stations broadcast a diet of light entertainment, sports, news and chat shows. ‘Audience ratings are the predominant factor when it comes to programme scheduling; competition ‘between the big three stations is intense and shows will be dropped if the ‘other side’ have a higher share of the audience.Many sports events are broadcast using the ‘pay-per-view’ system. Anyone who wants to watch a Match simply contacts the company concerned (ESPN ot others) and receives the uncaded pictures for a small charge during the time stipulated. World Championship Boxit 4 ADVERTISING IN THE EN KING WORLD SPF, a). Introdnetion: Advertising is a phenomenon which was initiated in the twentieth century and which introduces a great variety of consumer goods to the public in order to support the free market economy. In today’s modem world, the influence of advertising is vast, sometimes creating false needs and even encouraging consumers to buy products as the only way to success or happiness. The two main clements prevent in advertising, therefore, are information and persuasion. bd). Semiology: Advertising uses semiology, a science that studies the signs within society, to transform our concept of a given product, which is presented not only as a useful object in itself but also possessing qualities of non-material value. A diamond is forever links the product (jewels) to love, happiness and faithfulness, making the consumer unconsciously identify the object with those concepts. Camel. The taste of adventure links the product (a brand of cigarettes) to concepts such as freedom, adventure and masculinity. These ideas are frequently present in advertisements for cars, connecting the product to men’s desires and presenting the object as the vehicle for the fulfilment of such ambitions. ‘Advertisements use connotative language, which stir our inner feelings with the aid of cultural associations, We can see this in the use of French when advertising perfume or alcohol, to give the idea of sophistication, glamour and good taste: Cognac: L ‘art de Martell. Lou Lou, C'est moi. ©. The Advertising Campaign: Most companies recognise the need for advertising and the benefits can be lucrative, but they pay a high price for it. Careful research has to be carried out in advance for a successful campaign; in the world of advertising there is no place for mistakes. For this reason, the publicist has to take the following considerations and devices in.Jo account before embarking on the advertising campaign:= Language: the advertisement writer has to master the language of persuasion and connotation, as these are his most powerful resources, = The Product: the advertising copy writer must be familiar with all the characteristics of the commodity to be advertised, in order to enhance the likelihood of a successful campaign. = Purpose of the advertisement: the advertiser may have decided to launch the campaign for a variety ‘of reasons: to improve product sales, to change the attitude of the public towards the product, to restore or reinforce its reputation, ete, ~ The Audience: it must be kept in mind that the advertisement should be addressed to the intended buyer rather than the intended user, for they may not always be the same person (women have traditionally undertaken the task of buying men’s underwear for the male members of the family) ‘The linguistic and visual messages must be designed with the intended buyer in mind. = The Medium: depending on the audience, one or other of the media will be best suited for the particular product. The message of the advertisement will have to be adapted appropriately. > Competition: research on similar products available in the market will be orientative in order to evise a message that points out the distinctive qualities of the commodity. @). Types of Advertisements: ‘There are various types of advertising which we must consider: ~ Commercial consumer advertising: the most pervasive and visible kind, addressed to the general Public through local or national mass media, and also the variety of advertising that commands the highest amount of expenditure. The aim is to sell goods to make the buyer favourably disposed towards the product. It may introduce a new product, maintain market position or announce an improvement. Probably the best lager in the world. BERG To the host it's half empty. To the guest it’s half full. :GAL SCOTCH W- Prestige, business and financial advertising: also called institutional advertising, its purpose is not to sell a product, but to promote public confidence and create goodwill, improving the reputation of the company Madrid is priceless. We invite you to a free stop-over with IBERIA Medicines must be effective. Our responsibility is to minimise the side-effects BAYER. = Trade and technical advertisements : they may be either of the previous kinds, but the media chosen 1s vehicles for diffusion are normally specialist periodicals and magazines, because they are intended for a very specific professional target audience. We oan go further. MATRA,, creative high technology. Communication problems? ALCATEL. ~ Government and charity advertising: the distinguishing feature in this variety is the purpose; advertisements designed for such non-profit making institutions aim at spreading information of general interest or modifying social attitudes in favour of the poor and destitute. Better safe than sorry. DUREX CONDOMS. ~ Classified advertisements (small ads.): these short notices stand out in their own right on the grounds of several distinctive characteristics - they are ‘person-to-person’); they are placed, normally, in local newspapers, according to the theme (for example, sale items), target audience (e.g. unemployed people) or other criteria; and they offer several advantages, such as low cost, flexibility and selectivity. Come to Northwood _D. 1.. ¥. Store for all your household needs. ©). The Advertising Message: Three outstanding purposes can be identified as common to every kind of advertising message, whether in print or broadcast: - to attract the audience's attention. ~ to supply the public with relevant information about the product.- to persuade the customer to buy the product. In order to reach such targets, a wide range of techniques has been developed, and they are often grouped under one of the following headings: - Hard selling: where the message is overtly addressed to the buyer (Buy!, Call ete.) «= Soft selling: which refers to those advertisements that try to sell the product indirectly by maki appear attractive through its association with pleasant concepts ( beauty, success, etc.). ‘The latter form of advertising seems to be the trend nowadays. 9. The Elements of Printed Advertisements: In printed advertisements, the linguistic element is often given greater importance than the visual aspect and in radio advertisements it is obviously essential. ‘The type of language is determined by various elements: ~ The Headline: a few carefully chosen words will determine whether or not the reader's interest has been aroused enough to read the rest. It may be presented in the form of a promise, a challenge assumption, a claim about the product or the reputation of the advertiser, or even a statement that will provoke a certain mood on the receiver. The message is in the bottle. HEINEKEN ~ The Subhead: it is an optional element that will expand on the headline statement, usually longer and written in smaller type. Headline: BALANCE OF PASSION AND CONTROL Subhead: The new sign of creativity in automotive engineering. TOYOTA.. - Body Copy: the reader should fee! rewarded for having decided to read the whole message; it must correspond to the expectations aroused in the headline and answer any explicit or implicit questions. This isthe part where the information content will be found. ‘Headline: THE GREAT FIESTA: SEVILLE EXPO 92 Body: One spectacular show after another. A fiesta... call us.= Closing: another optional element that is used in order to make a strong final point, summarise, give a command or make a suggestion, Headline: DISCOVER INNER BEAUTY. Body Finally, beauty is emerging Closing: NIKON. WE TAKE THE WORLD "EST PICTURES, ~ The Slogan or Logo: These elements are generally placed on the ‘signature line’. The slogan must be a short catchy phrase immediately identified with the product. Logos are designs that represent the company, adding distinctiveness to their products. Slogan: UNITED COLOURS Logo: MERCEDES NIKE ~ The Signature: the name and sometimes address of the advertiser is useful in certain types of advertisements. ). Types of Broadcast Advertisements: Advertisements on television and radio have many similarities with those for the press. They are broadcast between or during programmes and are often repeated many times. ‘There are three main formats for broadcast advertisements: - Musical: with a well-known song, often as the background for an attractive presentation, as for example with ‘ Return to Innocence’ by the group Enigma, to advertise the Peugeot 306. ~ Dramatic: advertisements can often take the form of small dramas. An example of this could be the current Barclaycard advertisements being shown in the United Kingdom, where an accident-prone secret service agent (played by Rowan Atkinson) has his problems solved by his assistant, who uses a credit card. = Announcers: the viewer's attention is focused on the product, whilst the announcer, who can be anonymous or a well-known star, talks about it». ‘The Main Linguistic Featnres of Advertisements: ‘The language used in advertisements is designed to attract the consumer and persuade him/her to buy the product Syntax: The characteristics of the standard English advert are: imple, easy language, especially in headlines: = Readability, given by Romantic Mysterious, Italian’ (AMARETTO LIQUEUR = Nominal groups are predominant, using many premodifiers that describe the product in a concise style: ‘The world's most sought after premium gin’ (BEEFEATER) - Verbal groups are rather simple, and sometimes they are omitted. The most frequent tenses are imperatives (action demanding sentences), present simple (statement or general truths) and future forms (promises): * Just do it? (NIKE) “Nothing else sounds remotely as good as a SHARP’ (VCR with remote control) “We'll arrange a holiday for you' (OLYMPIC AIRWAYS) - Adjectives and adverbs not found in the dictionary: ‘most-sought-after" - Creation of new adjectives and other invented words: ‘the orangemostest drink’ ~ Wrong spelling and alliteration: “The long good buy’ ‘Beanz meanz Heinz’ - Descriptive vocabulary, favouring emotive words and assertive uses (words like ‘perhaps’ are avoided): (WELLA SHAMPOO) fine, flyaway, thin, lifeless hair’ are opposed to ‘strength ‘and volume, thicker, shinier, easier to style’Style: Accents: ‘rural’ for freshness and nature, ‘French’ for sophistication. Persuasive: The advertiser wishes to get the receiver's spontaneous consent with the use of attitudinal adverbs, parenthesis or rhetorical questions: You want heautiful hair? ( You want to clip the coupon) (environment-friendly shampoo offering a discount voucher) < Appreciatory: ‘There is an intention to influence the receiver in favour of the product with the use of emotive words with pleasant connotations = Hyperbolic: The writer expresses unusual excitement or surprise at the qualities of the product, with lexical and/ or syntactic choices for exaggeration: ‘Let's build the world to come’ (FRANCE TELECOM) - Evocative: There is sometimes a wish to cause emotional reactions through the use of connotations meaningful to a particular audience, according to their age, background ete.: ‘Greens from the forest. Browns from the moors. Colours from nature’ (MARKS nd SPENCER) - Informal: This is a very common feature, with the choice of simple syntactic elements and informal vocabulary: ‘Everything's fine with 99! For a refreshing, relaxing cuppa, you can aways rely on(...) Co-op 99 tea, no problem’ = Metaphorical: Advertising language often involves breaking the rules or conventions of ‘normal” language. Figurative language can be found, for example, in the form of metaphors (‘eat a bow! of sunshine’: advert for cereals) or metonimy (‘wash the big city out of your hair’ advert for shampoo). - The absence of any language tries to make the product speak for itself, giving the impression of transparent meaning.