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LESSON 1: TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN RESEARCH
RESEARCH
- Is an art of scientific investigation or inquiry through
facts in any branch of knowledge
- Is a careful and detailed study into a specific
problem, concern, or issue using scientific method
- is regarded as systematic efforts to gain knowledge
- Is a process of systematic inquiry that entails:
● collection of data
● documentation of critical information
● analysis and interpretation of that
data/information,
▶ in accordance with suitable methodologies set by
specific professional fields and academic disciplines.
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Research is an ORGANIZED and SYSTEMATIC way
of FINDING ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.
O - because it has a definite set of procedures and steps to
follow to get the most accurate results
S - because it is planned and not spontaneous, is limited to
a specific scope
FA - because it provides enlightenment to a hypothesis or
research questions
Q - because it needs to have focus, drive, or purpose
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TECHNICAL TERMS IN RESEARCH
1. ABSTRACT – is the summary of your completed
research (not detailed)
2. INTRODUCTION
- comes next after the abstract
- leads the reader from a general subject
area to a particular topic of inquiry
3. LITERATURE REVIEW – provides an overview of
sources you have explored such as books,
scholarly articles, other studies, etc.
4. HYPOTHESIS
- A tentative explanation based on theory
to predict a causal relationship between
variables.
- supports the prediction that will be tested
by research
- is known as the researcher’s educated or
result of the study
➔ e.g. Quality of sleep affects
academic performance.
5. METHODOLOGY
- partially answers the research problem
through data gathering using various
techniques
- provides an interpretation of the gathered
data to arrive at the conclusion
▶ Aim of methodology: ensures valid and reliable results
that address the research objectives
▶ Things to decide for:
a. what data to collect and to ignore
b. who to collect it from (sampling design)
c. how to collect it (data collection method)
6. POPULATION
- refers to the entire group that you want to
draw conclusions about
- The target group is under investigation. The
population is the entire set under
consideration. Samples are drawn from
populations.
7. SAMPLE
- refers to a smaller part/subgroup of the
population
- (the ones who will participate in the study
through surveys or interviews)
▶ Reasons for sampling:
a. Necessity (possibility)
b. Practicality (easiness and efficiency)
c. Cost-effectiveness (fewer participants, laboratory
equipment, and researcher costs involved)
d. Manageability (smaller datasets for reliability)
▶ Under sampling:
a. Respondents
- are used in quantitative research
- respond to questionnaires
b. Participants
- are used in qualitative research
- participate in interviews or answers survey
in a detailed way
 - Individuals whose physiological and/or
behavioral characteristics and responses
are the object of study in a research
project.
8. VARIABLE
- is any factor, trait, or condition that can be
manipulated, controlled for, or measured in an
experiment
- Any characteristic or trait that can vary from one
person to another (face, gender, academic major)
or for one person over time (age, political beliefs).
▶ Common types of variables:
a. Independent (can be changed or manipulated and
assumed to have direct effect on the dependent
variable)
b. Dependent (responds to the changes and is being
tested and measured)
9. INSTRUMENTS
- Is any tool that a researcher may use to collect,
obtain, measure, and analyze data
➔ e.g. questionnaires, surveys, interviews,
checklists, simple tests, etc.
▶ What makes a good research instrument?
a. has been validated and has proven reliable
b. assists in answering the research questions and
objectives (either to prove or disprove the
hypothesis of the study)
c. has no any bias in the way that data is correct
▶ Under research instrument
a. Questionnaire
- main instrument for collecting data (has
items that follow a fixed scheme in order to
collect individual data)
- Structured sets of questions on specified
subjects that are used to gather
informations, attitudes, or opinions.
- It is a written document containing prompts
or questions that are used to obtain an
individual's perceptions or beliefs.
b. Data
- any information that has been collected,
observed, generated or created to validate
original research findings
- Factual information (as measurements or
statistics) used as a basis for reasoning,
discussion, or calculation.
10. RESULTS
- are also known as findings
- provide the data collected during the research
11. DISCUSSION
- interprets and describes the significance of your
findings in light of what was already known about
the research problem investigated
- explains any new understanding that emerged as a
result of your study or the problem
▶ Purpose of the discussion
a. to reiterate the research problem and to state the
major findings
b. relate the findings to similar studies
c. to consider alternative explanations of the findings
d. to acknowledge the study’s limitations
e. to make suggestions for further research
12. CONCLUSION
- helps the readers understand why the research
should matter to them
- is NOT merely a summary or a restatement of your
research problem but a synthesis of key points
▶Several key goals
a. restate the research problem addressed in the
paper
b. summarize the overall arguments or findings
c. suggest the key takeaways from the paper
13. REFERENCE
- is the last page of a research paper that lists all the
sources used in the study
- gives credit to authors you have consulted for their
ideas
- APA citation

14. APPENDIX
- serves as a space for materials that help clarify the
research, but do not belong to the main text
- contains an attached copy of research instruments
such as interview transcripts, surveys, or
questionnaires
THEORY - A general explanation
about a specific behavior or
set of events that is based
on known principles and
serves to organize related
events in a meaningful
way. A theory is not as
specific as a hypothesis.
RELIABILITY - The degree to which a
measure yields consistent
results. If the measuring
instruments (eg. survey) is
reliable, then administering
it to similar groups would
yield similar results.
Reliability is prerequisite for
validity. An unreliable
indicator cannot produce
trustworthy results.
MODELS - Representations of
objects, principles,
processes, or ideas often
used for imitation or
emulation.
MEASUREMENT - Process of obtaining a
numerical description of the
extent to which persons,
organizations, or things
possess specified
characteristics.
CONSTRUCT - It refers to any of the
following:
● something that
exists theoretically
but is not directly
observable
● a concept
developed for
describing relations
among phenomena
or for other
research purposes
● theoretical
definition in which
concepts are
defined in terms of
other concepts.
TRIANGULATION - A multimethod or
pluralistic approach, using
different methods in order
to focus on the research
topic from different
viewpoints and to produce
a multifaceted set of data.
Also used to check the
validity of findings from any
one method.
UNIT OF ANALYSIS - The basic observable
entity or phenomenon
being analyzed by a study
and for which data are
collected in the form of
variables.
VALIDITY - The degree to which a
study accurately reflects or
assesses the specific
concept that the researcher
is attempting to measure. A
method can be reliable,
consistently measuring the
same thing, but not valid.
LESSON 2: TECHNICAL &OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
DEFINITION OF TERMS
- enable us to have a common understanding of a
word or subject; they allow us to all be on the same
page when discussing or reading about an issue
- is a list of important terms, acronyms, or jargons
used in a study
- has two types: technical and operational
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TECHNICAL DEFINITION
- is the universal or standard meaning of a term
- comes from different references or materials
including dictionaries, encyclopedias, books,
journals, websites, etc.
SOME GUIDELINES IN WRITING TECHNICAL
DEFINITIONS
● Be Accurate (Use precise terms)
● Be Objective (Use facts)
● Use the right level of detail
● Grade your language
● Avoid Circular Definitions
3 VARIOUS TYPES OF TECHNICAL DEFINITIONS
 PARTS OF AN EXPANDED DEFINITION
PARENTHETICL SENTENCE EXPANDED
DEFINITIONS DEFINITIONS DEFINITIONS 1. Definiendum = Name
- It is the subject, word, or concept that is to
be defined.
More Multiple terms are Terms are defined 2. Genus = Class
straightforward, defined in a series very specifically,
simple term is used. of sentences. wherein its - It is the category that a definiendum is a
A description placed corresponding part of.
inparenthesis NAME - CLASS - explanation 3. Differentia
follows the term. DEFINING accompanies visual
CHARACTERISTIC examples. - It is the distinguishing mark of a
S definiendum that sets it apart and distinct
from the rest of the genus
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: Mercury EXAMPLE:
The viscosity is a metal that is A guitar is a
(thickness)of the liquid at room musical instrument
syrup made it temperature. belonging to the
difficult to pour. string family;
LESSON 3: SELECTING A RESEARCH TOPIC
George Washington
knows how to play a RESEARCH TOPIC
song using his guitar.
- is the main focus of the paper
- is a well-defined subject to be explored
------------------- - is a subject or issue that a researcher is interested
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION in when conducting research.
- refers to how the term is applied or used in the
study GUIDELINES IN CHOOSING A RESEARCH TOPIC
- also refers to a specific definition of a concept in a
research 1. Interest in the subject matter
- is formulated by the researcher which is objectively 2. Availability of information
anchored on the technical definition 3. Timeliness and relevance of the topic
4. Limitations on the subject
GUIDELINES IN DEFINING TERMS 5. Personal Resources
1. Only terms/phrases that have special or unique
meanings in the study are defined. RESEARCH TOPICS TO BE AVOIDED
2. Know what to define by including:
a. important words in the title (variables) and 1. Too broad subjects
b. words for treatments and measurement 2. Too narrow subjects
(data analysis terms, etc.). 3. Vague subjects
3. Define terms technically, operationally, or both, and 4. Controversial topics
these should be short and clear/unambiguous. 5. Highly technical subjects
4. If the terms are from dictionaries, books, other 6. Hard-to-investigate subjects
publications, etc. (technical definitions),
acknowledge the source.
PROCESS IN SELECTING A TOPIC
5. If there are uncommon acronyms, spell them out
1. Discuss the subjects of interest.
and give the meanings.
2. Ask yourselves about the research questions your
------------------- group wants to address.
EXPANDED DEFINITION 3. Look for the background information of the topics
- Writing an expanded definition is dependent on the (references, sources, etc.).
concept that the word wishes to represent, and not 4. Seek for local and foreign relevant studies, articles,
merely the meaning of a word or literature and a standardized test.
- It starts with sentence definition 5. Use alternative search phrases in researching.
- Uses other way of defining such as: 6. Keep all of the gathered sources, materials, articles,
➔ Word history & etymology relevant studies, standardized tests, etc. for future
➔ Examples purposes.
➔ Negation
➔ Division into parts
➔ Similarities & differences
➔ Analogy
➔ Graphics
LESSON 4: WRITING THE BACKGROUND OF THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY
▶refers to the list of all beneficiaries of the study
STUDY and STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
It must contain the following:
a. contribution to the accumulation of knowledge or to
RESEARCH REPORT filling in a knowledge gap
- refers to a document that systematically, b. contribution to building, validating, or refining
coherently, and methodologically presents the theories
research work in written form c. contribution to improve education, income, health,
- is written clearly and concisely about your research inter-relations, and the like
topic so that readers can easily understand its
purpose and results
LESSON 5&6: METHODOLOGY, DATA ANALYSIS,
I INTRODUCTION RESULTS, and DISCUSSION
M METHODS
PRE-SURVEY
R RESULTS - It is administered prior to a specific treatment or
intervention especially if it is needed.
A and

D DISCUSSION MEAN
- It is a statistical tool that describes, summarizes,
and characterizes samples being studied.
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STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM METHODS
- a problem which arose from a situation of need or - tells the readers how the researchers conducted the
of unresolved difficulties study
- has two categories: - includes information about the method, instrument,
➔ major problem (a broad statement and has population, sampling, etc.
abstract and immeasurable concepts) - refers to the practical “how” of any given piece of
➔ specific problem (a detailed statement of research.
purpose and has attainable and - It is about how a researcher systematically designs
measurable concepts) a study to ensure valid and reliable results that
address the research aims and objectives.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOP ➔ Research Design
SOP must be: ➔ Research Locale
a. stated precisely, accurately, and clearly; ➔ Research Respondents
b. written either in declarative or interrogative form; ➔ Research Instruments
c. formulated with one main statement/question, a ➔ Sampling Method
series of questions, or a combination of these ➔ Statistical Treatment
forms; and ➔ Data Gathering Procedure
d. defined in terms of data that can be obtained.
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SCOPE AND DELIMITATION
Scope
- coverage or the parameters
- inclusions in the study
Limitation
- shortcomings, conditions, or influences that cannot
be controlled by the researcher's
Delimitation
- choices made by the researchers which should be
mentioned (boundaries)
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES - Types of data in research:
- refers to how researchers may reduce the ➔ QUALITATIVE DATA
population due to restrictions or limitations. - When the data presented has
words and descriptions, then we
Sample call it qualitative data.
- represents the characteristics or traits of the whole ➔ QUANTITATIVE DATA
population - Any data expressed in numbers of
- 2 Types: numerical figures are called
➔ Probability Sampling quantitative data.
- giving every member of the ➔ CATEGORICAL DATA
population a chance of being - It is data presented in groups.
selected However, an item included in the
- involves randomization or chance categorical data cannot belong to
more than one group.
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RESULTS
➔ Non-Probability Sampling - reports the research findings
- not every member of the population - should directly answer the research questions
has the equal chance in the (SOP) which are imposed in the introduction
selection - must consider the APA 7th Edition format in
- can rely on the subjective judgment creating tables, graphs, etc.
of the researcher
DISCUSSION
▶Convenience Sampling - includes Conclusion and Recommendation
- selecting a sample based on the availability of the - summarizes the main findings with interpretation
member and/or proximity to the researcher - explains how findings fit with other studies (RRL)
- also known as accidental or grab sampling - shows the implications of the study (why it matters)
▶Purposive Sampling
- selecting samples based on the goals of the study CONCLUSION
- is based on knowledge - This is a section in the research paper that focuses
- has traits or passes conditions needed on providing a comprehensive summary of the
findings and points out what were learned from the
▶Quota Sampling – considers the proportion of the groups study.
in the population
▶Snowball Sampling – asks participants to recruit other
members for the study
LESSON 7: RESEARCH RECOMMENDATION
RESEARCH DESIGN
- Quantitative or Qualitative RECOMMENDATION
- descriptive, correlational, experimental, or review - are the added suggestions that you want people to
- It is the backbone of research follow when performing future studies.
procedure/methodology. - These are based off of what you have found or
what you might be interested in doing at some point
STATISTICAL TREATMENT in the future.
- application of the statistical method to a data set - Must be precise
- transforming data set from a group of meaningless
numbers into a meaningful output APA
- descriptive statistics - Refers to a quotation of reference from a book,
- getting the mean, median, mode, percentage, etc. paper, or author, especially in a scholarly work.

DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE

- a process used by researchers for reducing data to
a story and interpreting it to derive insights.
- it helps in reducing a large chunk of data into
smaller fragments, which makes sense.

- GLUCK! 🤞🏻