HES 102 - Biomechanics

Linear Kinematics – part III

& Linear Kinetics
Monday January 30, 2023
 Outline / learning objectives
• Acceleration
– define and recognize the conditions when an object is
accelerating
– differentiate between direction of motion and direction
of acceleration (Figure 2.5)
– calculate average acceleration
– define and understand implications of uniform
acceleration
 Outline / learning objectives
• Projectile motion
– general equations of vertical motion
– equations of vertical motion for a dropped vs. launched
object
– equation of horizontal motion

• Revisit definition of kinetics (vs. kinematics)

• Newton’s First Law of Motion

– state the law
– understand the 4 interpretations of the law (p. 80 or 90)
 Acceleration
Defn – the rate of change of velocity
e.g., 2m/s2 north (SI units are m/s2)

for every second that passes, the velocity will

increase 2m/s north; i.e., an object with a velocity
of 10m/s N will have a velocity of 12m/s N after 1s,
14m/s N after 2s, etc.
 Acceleration
Defn – the rate of change of velocity
e.g., 2m/s2 north (SI units are m/s2)

• A vector quantity (magnitude and direction)

• Like force in that:
– it is represented with an arrow
– the resultant vector (or component vectors) can be
determined with trigonometry
 Acceleration
• When an object speeds up, slows down, starts,
stops, or changes direction, it is accelerating

• “Deceleration” is more accurately called

negative acceleration

• Direction of motion is not necessarily the same

as the direction of acceleration
 Direction of Acceleration (p.63 or 67)
speeding up use (+)
slowing down
regardless of
direction use (-)

right

left

Fig 2.5
© McGinnis, PM (2013) Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise,
Third Edition. Human Kinetics
 Average Acceleration
change in velocity Δv v2 – v 1
a= = =
change in time Δt t2 – t1

v2 & v1 are the same as vf & vi used in the textbook

 Sample problems 1 & 2
change in velocity Δv v2 – v 1
a= = =
change in time Δt t2 – t1

1. A baserunner’s velocity is 4m/s toward home

plate when she begins a 0.5s slide that stops her
over the plate. What is her acceleration?
= time

2. How long will it take a soccer ball to stop if the

initial velocity is 4m/s north and acceleration is
a constant −0.3m/s2 north?
 Instantaneous Acceleration
Defn – Acceleration of an object at a given instant
 Uniform Acceleration
Defn – Acceleration of an object is constant

• Occurs when net external force is constant

– e.g., acceleration due to the force of gravity does not
change (g = −9.81m/s2)

• Describes the motion of a projectile

 Projectile Motion
Defn – motion of an object which is propelled into
the air or dropped and has only the forces
of gravity and air resistance acting on it
(e.g., any ball in flight)

• Air resistance is often negligible and ignored so

a = g = −9.81m/s2

• Motion can be described by various equations

 Projectile Motion
Fig 2.9 (2nd ed.)

Parabolic path of a
ball is symmetrical
about the peak, so
vertical velocity has
the same value but
opposite sign at a
given height v2 = −v1
© McGinnis, PM (2005) Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise, Second Edition. Human Kinetics

At peak height
(apex), v = 0
 Vertical Motion of a Projectile
Vertical position (y) of a projectile:
1
y2 = y1 + v1Δt + g(Δt)2
2

Vertical velocity (v) of a projectile:

v2 = v1 + gΔt
v22 = v12 + 2gΔy
 Sample problem 3
A javelin thrown from 1.9m travels 72.28m in
3.91s before it returns to the release height. What
is the maximum height of the throw?
Vertical Motion of a Dropped Object
• Start position (y1) and start velocity (v1) are = 0
so the equations may be simplified:
1 1
y2 = y1 + v1Δt + g(Δt)2 y2 = g(Δt)2
2 2
v2 = v1 + gΔt v2 = gΔt

v22 = v12 + 2gΔy v22 = 2gΔy

Vertical Motion of a Launched Object
• At the highest point (apex), velocity (v2) = 0 so
the velocity equations may be simplified if
calculating max height or time to max height:

v2 = v1 + gΔt 0 = v1 + gΔt

v22 = v12 + 2gΔy 0 = v12 + 2gΔy

 Time to Peak vs. Flight Time
Time to peak (max height): 0 = v1 + gΔt
• to find flight time, you would need to multiply
time to peak by two
Fig 2.9
(2nd ed.)

© McGinnis, PM (2005) Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise, Second Edition. Human Kinetics
 Time to Peak vs. Flight Time
OR recall that the parabolic path followed by a ball
is symmetrical about the peak so v2 = −v1
Flight time: v2 = v1 + gΔt (without making v2 = 0)
Fig 2.9
(2nd ed.)

© McGinnis, PM (2005) Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise, Second Edition. Human Kinetics
 Choosing the Correct Equation

Table 2.4
© McGinnis, PM (2013) Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise, Third Edition. Human Kinetics
 Horizontal Motion of a Projectile
• Horizontal velocity of a projectile is constant
v = v2 = v1 = constant

• As velocity is constant, then horizontal

acceleration must equal zero
a=0
 Horizontal Motion of a Projectile
Horizontal position of a projectile:
x2 = x1 + vΔt

Generally, we make the start position (x1) = 0 so

the equation is often simplified to:
x = vΔt
 Sample problem 4
What is the initial horizontal velocity of a football
kicked off the ground if it travels 63m in 4.5s?
Branches of (Rigid-body) Mechanics
Mechanics

Statics Dynamics

Kinematics Kinetics

Defn – the description of motion

Branches of (Rigid-body) Mechanics
Mechanics

Statics Dynamics
(Ch. 3 in text)

Kinematics Kinetics

Defn – the forces that cause changes in motion

 Newton’s First Law of Motion
Law of Inertia
– an object stays in a state of rest, or constant
velocity in a straight line, unless acted on by an
external force
i.e., v = constant if ΣF = 0
OR
ΣF = 0 if v = constant

• Applies to the resultant motion (ΣF) but also to

the components of motion (ΣFx and ΣFy)
 Newton’s First Law of Motion
Interpretation of the law (p. 80 or 90):
1. If an object is at rest and ΣF = 0, the object must
remain at rest
2. If an object is in motion and ΣF = 0, the object must
continue moving at a constant velocity in a straight
line
3. If an object is at rest, the ΣF must = 0
4. If an object is moving at a constant velocity in a
straight line, the ΣF must = 0
 Newton’s First Law of Motion
• Provides the basis for static equilibrium and also
the principle of the conservation of momentum
 Textbook Problems – Chapter 2
2nd edition
• Problems 6-11 on pages 74 & 75
3rd edition
• Problems 6-15 on pages 82-84
4th edition
• Problems 6-15
 HES 102 - Biomechanics
Linear Kinetics – part II
Wednesday February 1, 2023

A tennis ball, basketball and bowling ball are dropped from the
roof of the Arts building at the same time. If air resistance isn’t a
factor, which ball will hit the ground first? Why?
 Outline / learning objectives
• Linear momentum
– define and calculate linear momentum
– understand the relationship between velocity and
momentum
– Conservation of Momentum Principle

• Collisions
– define and calculate coefficient of restitution
– differentiate between perfectly elastic and perfectly
inelastic collisions
– calculate object velocities post-collision
 Linear Momentum (L)
Defn – the product of an object’s mass (m) and its
instantaneous linear velocity (v)
×2 ×2
L = mv
• Vector quantity; SI units are kg·m/s
• The greater the mass of an object or the faster it
moves, the greater the momentum
• For our purposes, mass is constant so linear
momentum is proportional to linear velocity
∴ if ΣF = 0, both velocity and momentum are constant
Conservation of Momentum Principle
Defn – Total momentum of a system of objects is
constant if the ΣF = 0
Linitial = Σ(mv)i = (m1v1)i + (m2v2)i + (m3v3)i + …
Lfinal = Σ(mv)f = (m1v1)f + (m2v2)f + (m3v3)f + …
Linitial = Lfinal (m1v1)i + (m2v2)i = (m1v1)f + (m2v2)f

textbook uses v for final velocity

but u for initial velocity

• Used in the study of collisions between objects

 Sample Problem
A 60kg field hockey player is running right at
8m/s. What is the velocity of a 50kg player with
the same momentum? − +
 Types of Collisions
• Elasticity of collision determined by the
coefficient of restitution (e)

Defn – ratio of the relative velocity after vs. before

a collision

(v1 – v2)final where v1 and v2 represent

e = (v – v ) the velocities of objects 1
1 2 initial
and 2
 Coefficient of Restitution (e)
• Reported as an absolute value; i.e., the number
without reference to + or − sign

(v1 – v2)f
e = (v – v )
1 2 i
(6 – 4)f (4 – 6)f
e = (8 – 4) e = (8 – 4)
i i
2 2
e= 4 e= 4
e = 0.50 e = 0.50
 Coefficient of Restitution (e)
• Reported as an absolute value; i.e., the number
without reference to + or − sign

• Ranges in value between 0 (perfectly inelastic

collision) and 1 (perfectly elastic collision)

• Like any coefficient, it has no units

 Coefficient of Restitution (e)
• In ball sports, the bounciness of the ball (e) is
often regulated by the league

• To calculate ‘e’, the ball is dropped onto a

specific surface

e=
√ bounce height
drop height
 Sample ‘e’ Problem
A ball with a mass of 0.73 kg is dropped from a
height of 2.6m. What is the ‘e’ of the ball on the
floor if it bounces to a height of 0.67m?
Perfectly Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
Perfectly elastic (e = 1)
• objects collide, bounce off each other and their
combined momentum and kinetic energy are
conserved (e.g., curling rocks, pool table balls)

(m1v1)i + (m2v2)i = (m1v1)f + (m2v2)f

Perfectly Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
Perfectly inelastic (e = 0)
• objects collide, stay together and move with the
same velocity so that their combined momentum is
still conserved but kinetic energy is lost (e.g.,
football players colliding midair)

(m1v1)i + (m2v2)i = (m1v1)f + (m2v2)f

(v1)f = (v2)f = (v)f
(m1v1)i + (m2v2)i = (m1 + m2)vf
Perfectly Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
• So, in a closed system, momentum is conserved
in all collisions but kinetic energy is not
– more on kinetic energy in a few weeks

• Virtually all collisions in real life are neither

perfectly elastic nor perfectly inelastic (plain old
elastic)
– some kinetic energy is lost as heat, sound, etc.
 Sample Collision Problem
Justin has a mass of 66kg and is skating with a velocity of
5m/s E. He collides head-on with Chris who has a mass of
100kg and a velocity of 4m/s W. What is their resultant
velocity as they travel together after the collision?
 Collisions thus far
• Colliding objects were considered part of the
same system

• Net external force (ΣF) = 0

• When ΣF ≠ 0, Newton’s First Law no longer

holds
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Law of Acceleration
– the change of motion of an object is directly
proportional to the (net external) force impressed
and is made in the direction in which the force is
impressed
ΣF = ma
where: ΣF = net external force
m = mass of the object
a = instantaneous acceleration of the object
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Acceleration will be directly proportional to the
net external force and inversely proportional to its
mass
ΣF = ma

© McLester & St. Pierre (2008) Applied Biomechanics: Concepts and Connections,
Thomson Wadsworth
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
• Net external force is a vector and hence the
equation also applies to the component vectors

ΣFx = max
ΣFy = may
 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
• Represents a cause-and-effect relationship
– forces cause acceleration
– acceleration is the effect of forces

• Newton’s 1st Law is actually a special case of

the 2nd Law where ΣF = 0, so a = 0
 Textbook Problems – Chapter 3
2nd edition
• Problems 1-4 on page 98
3rd edition
• Problems 1-5, 12, 13 on pages 109-111
4th edition
• Problems 1-5, 12, 13
 HES 102 - Biomechanics
Linear Kinetics – part III
Monday February 6, 2023

Without looking at the notes from last day, try to answer:

Q1. In a closed system, in what types of collisions is
momentum conserved?
Q2. In simple language, state Newton’s 2nd Law of motion.
 Outline / learning objectives
• Newton’s Second Law of Motion
– calculate vertical acceleration with ≥2 forces
– calculate horizontal acceleration with ≥2 forces

• Impulse and momentum

– average vs. instantaneous net force and acceleration
– define impulse
– understand relationship between impulse and velocity
– describe how to control impulse to ↑ or ↓ momentum
 Outline / learning objectives
• Newton’s Third Law of Motion
– state the law
– understand why equal and opposite forces have
different effects on the involved objects
 Calculating Vertical Acceleration
ΣFy = may

• Recall for co-linear forces that ΣF = F1 + F2 + ∙∙∙

ΣFx = F1x + F2x + ∙∙∙

ΣFy = F1y + F2y + ∙∙∙

© Bobcatnorth
http://www.flickr.com/photos/bobcatnorth/3029026016/
 Calculating Vertical Acceleration
ΣFy = may

• Recall for co-linear forces that ΣF = F1 + F2 + ∙∙∙

• If gravity & reaction force are the only forces…

ΣFy = ground reaction force + object weight

ΣFy = R + (−W) negative

Thus, ΣFy can be written as: R + (−W) = may

 Calculating Vertical Acceleration
• If there is another vertical force (or forces),
ΣFy ≠ 0 and a ≠ 0
What force is
ΣFy = R + (−W) +/− Y being applied
here?
R + (−W) +/− Y = may

© McLester & St. Pierre (2008) Applied Biomechanics: Concepts and Connections,
Thomson Wadsworth
Calculating Horizontal Acceleration
ΣFx = max

• If a push or pull & friction are the only forces…

ΣFx = push or pull force + friction force

ΣFx = Px + (−Ff) negative

Thus, ΣFx can be written as: Px + (−Ff) = max

Calculating Horizontal Acceleration
• If there is another horizontal force (or forces),
ΣFx ≠ 0 and a ≠ 0

ΣFx = Px + (−Ff) +/− X

Px + (−Ff) +/− X = max

 Newton’s Second Law of Motion
• To accelerate (move) an object upward, you
need to exceed the force of gravity (W)

• To accelerate (move) an object sideways, you

need to exceed the force of friction (Ff)

• To accelerate an object, Fx < Fy because Ff < W

 Impulse and Momentum
• Newton’s Second Law (ΣF = ma) gives the net
external force or acceleration at an instant in time

• In sports/human movement, we are more

interested in the final outcome of external forces
acting over some period of time
– i.e., average acceleration caused by an average net
force
ΣF = ma
 Impulse and Momentum
• Average acceleration is the change in velocity
over time
Δv
a=
Δt

Δv
ΣF = ma ΣF = m Δt ΣFΔt = mΔv
OR
ΣFΔt = m(v2 − v1)
 Impulse and Momentum
ΣFΔt = m(v2 − v1)

• This equation describes the impulse-momentum

relationship

• Momentum (L) = mass × velocity

• Impulse = applied force × time that force acts

(the change in momentum)
 Impulse and Momentum
ΣFΔt = m(v2 − v1)

• A more useful expression of Newton’s Second

Law because an impulse will cause a change in
an object’s momentum (i.e., velocity because
mass is constant)
 Impulse to Increase Momentum
ΣFΔt = m(v2 − v1)
• To maximize velocity in sports (e.g., throwing
or jumping), we try to increase the average net
force and/or the time it is applied
– technique (Δt; duration of force application) is most
important with light objects
– strength (ΣF; force that can be applied) is more
important with heavy objects
 Impulse to Decrease Momentum
ΣFΔt = m(v2 − v1)
Two possible ways to minimize impulse:
ΣFΔt = m(v2 − v1) OR ΣF Δt = m(v2 − v1)
If it were your body, which way would you prefer?
• To safely decrease velocity of an object in sports
(e.g., landing or catching), we try to minimize
the average net force by maximizing the impact
time
 Newton’s Third Law of Motion
Law of Action-Reaction
– to every action there is always opposed an equal
reaction
– i.e., forces exist in pairs

• BUT, the effects of these forces are rarely the

same because the objects are usually different
– i.e., have different masses (measures of inertia) so
have different frictional forces (FS = μS × R)
 Newton’s Third Law of Motion
• When you push or pull on an object, the force
you feel is the equal but opposite reaction force
that is pushing or pulling on you
 Newton’s Third Law of Motion

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8bTdMmNZm2M
 Textbook Problems – Chapter 3
2nd edition
• Problems 5-7, 10 on pages 98 & 99
3rd edition
• Problems 6-10, 15 on pages 110-112
4th edition
• Problems 6-10, 15