LESSON TITLE: THE HUMAN ORGANISM
ligaments, joints.
Anatomy – the study of the structures of the
body.
Physiology – the study of the processes and
functions of the body.
6 Levels of Organization for Human Body
1. Chemical – involves how atoms
interact and combine into molecules.
2. Cell – basic structural and functional
units of organisms.
3. Tissue – a group of similar cells and
the material surrounding them.
4. Organ – composed of two or more
tissue types that together perform
one or more common functions.
5. Organ System – a group of organs
classified as a unit because of a
common function or set of functions.
6. Organism – a complex of organ
systems that are mutually dependent
upon one another.
11 Organ Systems of Human Body
1. Integumentary
Function: Provides protection, regulates
temperature, prevents water loss, helps
produce vitamin D.
Some Organs: skin, hair, nails, sebaceous
glands, sweat glands.
2. Skeletal
Function: Provides protection and support,
allows body movements, produces blood
cells, stores mineral and adipose tissue.
Some Organs: bones, associated cartilages,
3. Muscular
Function: Produces body movements,
maintains posture, produces body heat.
Some Organs: muscles attached to the
skeleton by tendons.
4. Nervous
Function: Major regulatory system that
detects sensations and controls movements,
physiological processes, intellectual
functions.
Some Organs: brain, spinal cord, nerves,
sensory receptors.
5. Endocrine
Function: Major regulatory system that
influences metabolism, growth,
reproduction.
Some Organs: endocrine glands, such as
pituitary, that secrete hormones.
6. Cardiovascular
Function: Transports nutrients, waste
products, gases, and hormones throughout
the body, plays a role in the immune
response and regulation of body
temperature.
Some Organs: heart, blood vessels, and
blood.
7. Lymphatic
Function: Removes foreign substances from
the blood and lymph, combats disease,
maintains tissue fluid balance, absorbs
dietary fats from digestive tract .
Some Organs: lymphatic vessels, lymph
nodes, and other lymphatic organs.
8. Respiratory
Function: Exchanges oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the blood and air, regulates
blood pH.
Some Organs: lungs and respiratory
passages.

9. Digestive
Function: Performs the mechanical and
chemical processes of digestion, absorption
of nutrients, elimination of wastes.
Some Organs: mouth, esophagus, stomach,
intestines, and accessory organs.
10. Urinary
Function: Removes waste products from the
blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance,
water balance.
Some Organs: kidneys, urinary bladder,
ureters
11. Reproductive
Function: Produces oocytes for females and
sperm cells for males for reproduction and
hormones that influence sexual functions
and behaviors.
Some Organs: female (ovaries, uterus,
vagina) male (testes, ducts, penis).
6 Essential Characteristics of Life
Organization – refers to a specific
relationship of the many individual parts of
an organism.
Metabolism – the ability to use energy to
perform vital functions, such as growth,
movement, and reproduction.
Responsiveness – the ability of an organism
to sense changes in the environment and
make the adjustments that help maintain its
life.
Growth – refers to an increase in size of all or
part of the organism
Development – includes the changes an
organism undergoes through time
Reproduction – the formation of new cells or
new organisms.
Homeostasis – the condition in which body
functions, body fluids, and other factors of
the internal environment are maintained
within a range of values suitable to support
life.
●Negative Feedback Mechanism – regulates
most systems of the body; occurs when any
deviation from the set point is made smaller
or is resisted.
●Positive Feedback Mechanism – occurs
when the initial stimulus further stimulates
the response.
Anatomical Position – refers to a person
standing upright with the face directed
forward, the upper limbs hanging to the
sides, and the palms of the hands facing
forward.
Directional terms always refer to the
anatomical position, regardless of the body’s
actual position.
Planes:
▪ Sagittal Plane – runs vertically through the
body and separates it into right and left parts
▪ Median Plane – a sagittal plane that passes
through the midline of body, dividing it into
equal right & left halves
▪ Transverse / Horizontal Plane – runs
parallel to the surface of ground, dividing the
body into superior and inferior parts
▪ Frontal / Coronal Plane – runs vertically
from right to left & divides the body into
anterior and posterior parts
Sections:
▪ Longitudinal – a cut along the length of the
organ
▪ Transverse / Cross Section – cuts
completely through an organ, similar to
cutting a hot dog into round pieces
▪ Oblique – a cut is made diagonally across
the long axis
Trunk Cavities:
▪ Thoracic Cavity – surrounded by rib cage &
is separated from the abdominal cavity by
the muscular diaphragm
▪ Abdominal Cavity – bounded primarily by
abdominal muscles; contains stomach,
intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas & kidneys
▪ Pelvic Cavity – a small space enclosed by
the bones of the pelvis; contains the urinary
bladder, part of the large intestine, and the
internal reproductive organs.
Serous Membranes:
▪ Visceral – membranes that are in contact
with the organ/s
▪ Parietal – membranes that are in contact
with the walls of the cavity
LESSON TITLE: CELL STRUCTURES AND
THEIR FUNCTIONS
Cells – the basic living unit of all organisms;
each cell is a highly organized unit.
Organelles – specialized structures in cells
that perform specific functions.
Cytoplasm – jelly-like substance that holds
organelles and is enclosed by cell membrane
(aka plasma membrane).
Functions of the Cell:
1. Cell metabolism and energy use
2. Synthesis of molecules
3. Communication
4. Reproduction and inheritance
Cell Membrane / Plasma Membrane
▪ It is the outermost component of the cell
that forms a selective barrier between
intracellular (materials inside the cell) and
extracellular substances (materials outside
the cells).
Molecular Structure:
Major Molecules
- Phospholipids
Definition/Function(s): Form a double layer
that contains 2 regions:
1. Polar Region – “heads”, exposed to H2O
(hydrophilic)
2. Nonpolar Region – “tails”, away from H2O
(hydrophobic)
- Protein
Definition/Function(s):
▪ Float among the phospholipid molecules
and in some, extend from inner to the outer
surface of cell membrane
▪ Function as membrane channels, carrier
molecules, receptor molecules, enzymes, or
structural supports in membrane
Other Components
- Cholesterol
Definition/Function(s):
▪ Provide added strength & stability by
limiting the amount of movement of
phospholipids.
- Carbohydrates
Definition/Function(s):
▪ May be bound to some CHON molecules,
modifying their functions.
Organelles and Their Functions:
Nucleus - contains genetic material of cell
(DNA) and nucleoli.
- Site of RNA synthesis & ribosomal subunit
assembly.
Ribosomes - site of protein synthesis.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - has may
ribosomes attached.
- Site of protein synthesis
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - site of lipid
synthesis.
- Participates in detoxification
Golgi Apparatus - modifies CHON structure &
packages CHON in secretory vesicles.
Secretory Vesicle - contains materials
produced in cell.
- Formed by the Golgi Apparatus
- Secreted by exocytosis
Lysosome - contains enzymes that digest
material taken into the cell.
Peroxisome - breaks down fatty acids, amino
acids, and hydrogen peroxide.
Mitochondria - site of aerobic respiration
and the major site of ATP synthesis.
Microtubule - supports cytoplasm
- Assists in cell division and forms
components of cilia & flagella.
Centrioles - facilitate the movement of
chromosomes during cell division.
Cilia - Located on cell surface that move
substances over surfaces of certain cells.
Flagella - proper sperm cells.
Microvilli - increase surface area of certain
cells.
Movement through the cell membrane may
be passive or active.
▪ Passive Membrane Transport – does
not require the cell to expend energy. This
includes
diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
▪ Active Membrane Transport – does
require the cell to expend energy, usually in
the form of ATP. This includes active
transport, secondary active transport,
endocytosis, and exocytosis.
Diffusion is the movement of a solute from
an area of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration within a solvent. At
equilibrium, the distribution of molecules is
uniform.
Concentration gradient is the concentration
of a solute at one point in a solvent minus
the concentration of that solute at another
point in the solvent divided by the distance
between the points.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a
selectively permeable membrane. Osmotic
pressure is the force required to prevent
movement of water across a selectively
permeable membrane.
Facilitated Diffusion – this moves substances
from a higher to lower concentration and
does not require energy in the form of ATP.
Carrier-Mediated Transport – the movement
of a substance across a membrane by means
of a carrier molecule. The substances
transported tend to be large, water-soluble
molecules or ions.
Active Transport – moves substances from a
lower to a higher concentration and requires
ATP.
Secondary Active Transport – uses the
energy of one substance moving down its
concentration gradient to move another
substance across the cell membrane. In co-
transport, both substances move in the same
direction; in counter-transport, they move in
opposite directions.
Endocytosis – movement of materials into
cells by the formation of a vesicle.
▪ Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis – involves
cell receptors attaching to molecules.
▪ Phagocytosis – movement of solid material
into cells (cell-eating).
▪ Pinocytosis – the materials ingested is
much smaller and is in solution (cell-
drinking).
Exocytosis – the secretion of materials from
cells by vesicle formation.
Cytoskeleton is a cell’s framework. This is
vital for providing support, holding organelles
in place and enabling the cell to change
shape.
Types of Cytoskeleton:
1. Microtubules – largest diameter; provide
structural support, assist in cell division,
forming essential components of certain
organelles (cilia and flagella).
2. Intermediate Filaments – medium
diameter; maintain cell shape.
3. Microfilaments – smallest diameter;
determine cell shape and involved in cell
movement.
Whole-Cell Activity
A cell’s characteristics are ultimately
determined by the type of proteins
produced, which are determined by the
genetic information in the nucleus.
Information in DNA provides the cell with a
code for its cellular processes.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) – a double
helix nucleus, composed of nucleotides, and
contains five carbon sugars (deoxyribose),
nitrogen base, & phosphate.
▪ Cytosine Guanine
Nucleotide Pairs
▪ Thymine Adenine
Cell Cycle: This consists of a series of events
that produce new cells for growth & tissue
repair. This has two phases:
1. Interphase – the non-dividing phase in
which the DNA replicates.
2. Cell Division – the formation of two
daughter cells from a single parent cell. Each
cell contains 46 chromosomes (diploid),
except sperm & egg cells which contain
23 chromosomes.
This process occurs through mitosis, which is
divided into four stages: (PMAT)
a. Prophase: Each chromosome consists of
two chromatids joined at the centromere.
b. Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the
center of the cell.
c. Anaphase: Chromatids separate at the
centromere and migrate to opposite poles.
d. Telophase: The two nuclei assume their
normal structure, and cell division is
completed, producing two new daughter
cells.

Gene Expression: A process in which the

information in DNA directs protein synthesis.
This has two stages:

1. Transcription – process by which DNA is

“read”
The sequence of nucleotides in DNA
determines the sequence of nucleotides in
mRNA; the mRNA moves through the nuclear
pores to ribosomes.
ex: thymine of DNA to adenine of RNA

2. Translation – process by mRNA is

converted into amino acids (polypeptides)
The sequence of codons in mRNA is used at
ribosomes to produce proteins. Anticodons
of tRNA bind to the codons of mRNA, and the
amino acids carried by tRNA are joined to
form protein.
ex: UUU codon of mRNA binds to AAA
anticodon of tRNA.
Differentiation – the process by which cells
develop specialized structures and functions,
results from the selective activation and
inactivation of DNA sections. Ex: the
functioning of bone cells is different from the
muscle cells.
Apoptosis – also known as programmed cell
death, is a normal process by which cell
numbers within various tissues are adjusted
and controlled.
Cellular Aspects of Aging: It is estimated that
at least 35% of the factors affecting aging are
genetic.
1. Cellular clock
2. Death genes
3. DNA damage
4. Free radicals
Mitochondrial damage
LESSON TITLE: TISSUES
Tissue – a group of cells with similar
structure and function, along with
extracellular substances located between
cells. Changes in tissues can result in
development, growth, aging, trauma, or
disease.
Histology – the microscopic study of tissue
structure.
Four Basic Types of Tissues:
1. Epithelium – covers and protects surfaces,
both outside and inside the body.
2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue type
that makes up part of every organ in the
body.
3. Muscle – makes movement possible by
contracting or shortening.
4. Nervous – responsible for coordinating
and controlling many body activities.
General Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue:
1. Mostly composed of cells with very little
extracellular matrix between them.
2. Covers body surfaces that include the
exterior surface, lining of digestive, urinary,
reproductive, & respiratory tracts, heart &
blood vessels, and linings of body cavities.
3. Distinct cell surfaces.
▪ Free / Apical Surface – exposed & not
attached to other cells
▪ Lateral Surface – cells attached to other
epithelial cells
▪ Basal Surface – attached to a basement
membrane (a specialized type of extracellular
material that helps attach the epithelial cells
to the underlying tissues, and plays an
important role in supporting & guiding cell
migration during tissue repair.)
4. Cell and matrix connections.
5. Nonvascular. All gases & nutrients carried
in the blood reach the epithelium by diffusing
from blood vessels across the basement
membrane.
6. Capable of regeneration.
Major Functions of Epithelia:
1. Protecting underlying structures
2. Acting as a barrier
3. Permitting the passage of substances
4. Secreting substances
5. Absorbing substances
Classification of Epithelium:
Simple – single layer of cells.
Shapes of cells: Squamous, Cuboidal and
Columnar.
Stratified – more than one layer of cells.
Shapes of cells:
Squamous:
Nonkeratinized (moist)
Keratinized
Cuboidal and Columnar.
Pseudostratified – special type of simple
epithelium; appears to be stratified but is
not.
Shapes of cells: Columnar.
Transitional – modification of stratified
epithelium that can be greatly stretched.
Shapes of cells: Roughly cuboidal to
columnar when not stretched and squamous-
like when stretched.
Types of Epithelium (based on idealized
shapes of epithelial cells):
1. Squamous cells are flat or scale-like.
2. Cuboidal cells are cube-shaped – about as
wide as they are tall.
3. Columnar cells tend to be taller than they
are wide.

TYPE STRUCTURE FUNCTION LOCATION

Simple 1 layer of flat, tile-like blood vessels, heart, lymphatic
Squamous cells, often hexagonal diffusion & filtration vessels, alveoli, kidney tubules,
cells serous membranes
1 layer of square-shaped kidney tubules, glands, choroid
Simple Cuboidal cells secretion & absorption plexuses, terminal bronchioles,
ovaries
Simple 1 layer of tall, narrow secrete mucus & bronchioles, auditory tubes,
Columnar cells absorption uterus, fallopian tubes, stomach,
intestines, gallbladder, bile ducts,
TYPE STRUCTURE FUNCTION LOCATION
ventricles of brain
many layers of flat, tile-like
Pseudostratified 1 layer of tall, narrow secrete mucus & nasal cavity, nasal sinuses,
Columnar cells stratified protect
cells, appears propel&debris out of auditory
acts as a barrier tubes, pharynx, trachea,
Stratified Nonkeratinized – moist,
but isn’t, almost always against
respiratory tract
infection; reduces mouth, throat, larynx,
bronchi
Squamous the surfaceciliated
cells retain a loss of water from the body esophagus, anus, vagina,
nucleus & cytoplasm inferior urethra, corneas
Keratinized – cytoplasm of
cells at the surface is outer layer of the skin
replaced by a protein
called keratin, and the
cells are dead
Stratified many layers, cube-shaped; absorption, secretion, & sweat glands, ovarian
Cuboidal relatively rare protection follicular cells, salivary glands
many layers, but only the
Stratified surface cells are columnar; secretion, protection, & mammary gland ducts,
Columnar deeper layers are irregular some absorption larynx, portion of male
or cuboidal in shape; urethra
relatively rare
special type that changes hold fluids & protects urinary bladder, ureters,
Transitional shape against the caustic effects superior urethra
stretched: squamous of urine
not stretched: cuboidal
Types of Simple Epithelium:

Types of Stratified Epithelium:

Structural and Functional Relationships:

1. Simple epithelium is involved with
diffusion, secretion, or absorption. Stratified
epithelium serves a protective role.
Squamous cells function in diffusion or
filtration. Cuboidal or columnar cells, which
contain more organelles, secrete or absorb.
2. A smooth, free surface reduces friction.
▪ Microvilli – increase cell’s surface area (ex:
small intestines)
▪ Cilia – move materials across cell’s surface
(ex: trachea)
▪ Goblet Cells – produce mucus (ex: stomach)
3. Cell connections are vital to hold one cell
to one another or to the basement
membrane. These structures are:
▪ Tight Junctions – bind adjacent cell
together
▪ Desmosomes – mechanical links that bind
cells
▪ Hemidesmosomes – bind cells to basement
membrane
▪ Gap Junctions – most common; small
channels that allow molecules to pass
between cells & allow cells to communicate
Glands – structures that secrete substances
onto a surface, into a cavity, or into blood;
primarily composed of epithelium, with a
supporting network of connective tissue.
Two Types of Glands:
1. Exocrine – with ducts (ex: sweat & oil
glands)
a. Classification according to Structure of
Ducts
Simple single, non-branched duct (ex:
Glands glands in stomach & colon)
Compound multiple, branched ducts (ex:
Glands mucous glands of duodenum)
b. Classification according to Shape of
Secretory Regions
Tubular shaped as tubules (small
tubes); can be straight or
coiled
Acinar / Alveolar sac-like structure
Tubuloacinar / glands with combination
Tubuloalveolar of the tubular and acinar /
alveolar
c. Classification according to Type of
Secretion
Merocrine most common; involves the
Secretion release of secretory products by
exocytosis
ex: water-producing sweat
glands, pancreas
Apocrine release of secretory products as
Secretion pinched-off fragments of gland
cells
ex: milk-producing mammary
glands (combination with
merocrine)
Holocrine involves the shedding of entire
Secretion cells
ex: sebaceous glands of skin
2. Endocrine – no ducts (directly into
bloodstream); cellular products are called
hormones (ex:
pituitary glands)
Connective Tissue – distinguished by its
extracellular matrix which results from the
activity of specialized connective tissue cells,
which are:
▪ blast cells: form the matrix (osteoblasts
form bone, chondroblasts form cartilage)
▪ clast cells: break down the matrix
(osteoclasts break down bone)
▪ cyte cells: maintain the matrix (osteocytes
maintain the bone)
Major Components of Extracellular Matrix:
1. Protein Fibers
a. Collagen Fibers – very flexible but resist
stretching
b. Reticular Fibers – very fine, short collagen
fibers that branch to form a supporting
network
c. Elastic Fibers – have the ability to return to
their original shape after being stretched
2. Ground Substance – consists of non-
fibrous molecules and has the following
major components:
a. Hyaluronic Acid – makes fluid slippery
b. Proteoglycan Aggregates – trap water
which gives tissues the capacity to recoil
when deformed
c. Adhesive Molecules – hold proteoglycans
together & to plasma membrane
3. Fluid – the matrix is liquid that enables
blood to flow rapidly through the body
Functions of Connective Tissue:
1. Enclosing & separating other tissues (ex:
sheets around organs and muscles)
2. Connecting tissues to one another (ex:
tendons: bone to muscle, ligaments: bone to
bone)
3. Supporting & moving parts of body (ex:
bones)
4. Storing compound (ex: bones store
calcium & phosphate)
5. Cushioning & insulating (ex: adipose tissue
protects organs & helps conserve heat)
6. Transporting (ex: blood transports gases,
nutrients, enzymes, & hormones)
7. Protecting (ex: immune cells)
▪ Areolar
Structure: Fine network of fibers (mostly
collagen with a few elastic fibers) with spaces
in between;
Function: loose packing, support, &
nourishment
Location: packing between glands, muscles,
& nerves; attaches the skin to underlying
tissues
▪ Adipose
Structure: Little extracellular matrix;
adipocytes are full of lipid
Function: packing material, thermal
insulator, energy storage, & protect organs
against injury from being jarred
Location: subcutaneous areas, mesenteries,
renal pelvis, around kidney, surface of colon,
mammary glands
▪ Reticular
Structure: Fine network of reticular fibers
irregularly arranged
Function: provides a superstructure for
lymphatic & hematopoietic tissues
Location: within lymph nodes, spleen, bone
marrow

Classification of Connective Tissues:

1. Connective Tissue Proper
a. Loose Connective Tissue – consists of
relatively few protein fibers that form a lacy
network, with numerous spaces filled with
ground substance & fluid.
 vessels; therefore, heals slowly after an
injury.
b. Dense Connective Tissue – has relatively
large number of protein fibers that form
thick bundles & fill nearly all of the
Structure Function Location
Regular Collagen fibers running in withstand great pulling forces tendons,
Collagenous same direction exerted in direction of fiber ligaments
Collagen fibers run in orientation due to great tensile dermis of skin,
Irregular several directions strength & stretch resistance organ capsules,
Collagenous outer layer of
blood vessels
Matrix composed of capable of stretching and elastic ligaments
collagen fibers & elastin recoiling like a rubber band with between
Regular Elastic fibers running the same strength in direction of fiber vertebrae & along
direction in elastic orientation dorsal aspect of
ligaments neck, vocal cords
Matrix composed of
Irregular Elastic collagen fibers & elastin capable of stretching and walls of blood
fibers oriented in many recoiling in many different vessels
different directions directions
extracellular space.

2. Supporting Connective Tissue

a. Cartilage – is composed of chondrocytes
(cartilage cells); resilient, relatively rigid &
enables to spring back after being
compressed; not penetrated by blood
Structure Function Location
Collagen fibers are allows growth, provides rigidity growing long bones,
Hyaline small & evenly with some flexibility, forms cartilage rings of
dispersed making it strong, smooth, yet somewhat respiratory system,
transparent flexible articulating surfaces, costal cartilage of ribs,
forms the embryonic skeleton nasal cartilages,
articulating surfaces of
bones
Fibers are more somewhat flexible & capable of intervertebral disks,
Fibrocartilage numerous than in withstanding considerable pubic symphysis,
others; arranged in pressure; connects structures articular disks (knees,
thick bundles subjected to great pressure temporomandibular
joints)
Similar to hyaline, provides rigidity with even more external ears, epiglottis,
Elastic but matrix contains flexibility; recoil after being auditory tubes
elastic fibers stretched
b. Bone – hard connective tissue that
consists of living cells & mineralized matrix;
composed
of osteocytes (bone cells) which are located
within lacunae; the matrix is organized into
layers called lamellae.
▪ Compact Bone – more solid, with almost no
space between thin layers of mineralized
matrix
▪ Spongy Bone – has spaces between
trabeculae of bone
Function: Provides great strength & support;
protects internal organs, provides
attachment of muscles & ligaments; allow
movements.

3. Fluid Connective Tissue

a. Blood – composed of formed elements & a
fluid matrix
Function: Transport gases, hormones,
nutrients, waste products; protect body from
infections; temperature regulation
Location: Erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets

b. Hemopoietic Tissue – composed of red

and yellow marrow
Muscle Tissue – main function is to contract,

Type Structure Function Location Image

cells are large, long,

cylindrical
attached to bone or
Nucleus: many, located other connective
Skeletal movement of body Refer to Table
peripherally tissue
Muscle under voluntary 4.10a, page 85
Striated: YES control

cells are cylindrical; branched

& connected to one another
by intercalated disks (contain
Cardiac gap pumps blood under Refer to Table
Muscle involuntary control 4.10b, page 85
junctions) heart
Nucleus: one, located
centrally

Striated: YES

cells are tapered at each end

Nucleus: one, located regulates size of

centrally organs, forces fluids
in hollow organs
through tubes,
Striated: NO such as stomach &
Smooth controls the amount Refer to Table
intestines; skin &
Muscle of light entering the 4.10c, page 86
eyes
eye, produces
“goose bumps” in
skin; under
involuntary control

or shorten, making movement possible;

length is greater than its diameter.

Nervous Tissue – specialized to conduct
action potentials (electrical signals); located
in the brain, spinal cord & ganglia
▪ Neurons (nerve cell) – transmit information
in form of action potentials, store
information, & integrate & evaluate data
Three Major Parts:
1. Cell Body – site of general cell functions;
contains nucleus
2. Dendrites – receive stimuli leading to
electrical changes
3. Axon – send action potential to another
neuron
▪ Glia (support cells) – surround the neurons;
function to protect, nourish & form
specialized sheaths around axons
Tissue Membrane – a thin sheet or layer of
tissue that covers a structure or lines a
cavity. The body is composed of four
membranes, one external and 3 internal.
▪ Cutaneous Membrane / Skin – external
tissue membrane; compose of stratified
squamous epithelium & dense connective
tissue.
Major Categories of Internal Tissue
Membranes:
1. Mucous
Structure: consist of epithelial cells, their
basement membrane, & a thick layer of loose
connective tissue; some contain a layer of
smooth muscle cells; many contain goblet
cells to secrete mucus
Function & Location:
✔ line cavities to outside of body (digestive,
respiratory, & reproductive tracts) protection
(oral cavity)
✔ protection (oral cavity)
✔ absorption & secretion (intestine)
2. Serous
Structure: consist of three components: a
layer of simple squamous epithelium, its
basement membrane, & a delicate layer of
loose connective tissue; do not contain
glands but secrete serous fluid
Function & Location:
✔ line cavities that don’t open to exterior of
body (pericardial, pleural, & peritoneal)
lubricate & protect internal organs from
friction
✔ help hold organs in place
✔ act as selectively permeable barrier
3. Synovial
Structure: made up of only connective tissue
& consist of modified connective tissue cells;
either continuous with dense connective
tissue of joint capsule or separated from
capsule by areolar or adipose tissue
Function & Location:
✔ line cavities of freely movable joints
✔ synovial fluid to make joints slippery,
thereby reducing friction & allow smooth
movement
Inflammation
☐ occurs when tissues are damaged
☐ can result from the immediate & painful
events that follow trauma
☐ mobilizes the body’s defenses & isolates
and destroys microorganisms, foreign
materials, and damaged cells.
Chronic Inflammation – results when the
agent responsible for an injury is not
removed or something else interferes with
the healing process.
Inflammatory Response is an unpleasant but
beneficial occurrence in the human body
when tissues are damaged.
Classic Signs of Inflammation:
1. Redness / Rubor
2. Heat / Calor
3. Swelling / Tumor
4. Pain / Dolor
5. Disturbance of function
Chemical Mediators – are substances that
are released or activated in the injured
tissues and adjacent blood vessels.
▪ Histamine – released from the mast cells
and causes vasodilation
▪ Prostaglandin – sensitizes the pain
receptors and enhances the effects of
histamine.
Neutrophil – a type of phagocytic white
blood cell that enters the tissues and fights
infections by ingesting bacteria. It dies after
ingesting a small number of bacteria; the
mixture of dead neutrophils, other cells, &
fluid that can accumulate is called pus.
Process of Inflammatory Response:
Tissue Repair is the substitution of viable
cells for dead cells. The type of tissue repair
is determined by:
✔ tissues involved
✔ severity of wound
Two Types of Tissue Repair:
1. Regeneration – the new cells are the same
type as those that were destroyed, and
normal function is usually restored; no scar
formation.
▪ Stem Cells – primarily used in this type;
self-renewing, undifferentiated cells that
continue to divide throughout life. (ex: liver,
pancreas)
2. Fibrosis / Replacement – a new type of
tissue develops that eventually causes scar
production and the loss of some tissue
function. (ex: brain, heart, skeletal muscles)
Tissue Repair Process:
In the process that repairs tissue damage, a
clot is first formed. Next, new epithelial cells
grow into the wound, followed by the
formation of granulation tissue. Finally,
granulation tissue is replaced with new
connective tissue.
Definition of Terms:
▪ Clot – contains the threadlike protein fibrin,
which binds the edges of the wound together
and stops the bleeding.
▪ Scab – dried clot; seals the wound and
helps prevent infection.
▪ Macrophage – a second type of phagocytic
cells that removes the dead neutrophils,
cellular debris, & the decomposing clot.
▪ Fibroblast – produces collagen and other
extracellular matrix components.
▪ Granulation Tissue – a delicate, granular-
appearing connective tissue that consists of
fibroblasts, collagen, and capillaries.
Wound Contracture – a result of contraction
of fibroblasts in granulation tissue; pulls the
edges of wound closer together.
▪ Advantage: reduces the size of the wound
and speeds healing
▪ Disadvantage: may lead to disfiguring and
debilitating scars
Effects of Aging in Tissues:
1. Cells divide more slowly as people age.
Injuries heal more slowly.
2. Extracellular matrix containing collagen
and elastic fibers become less flexible and
less elastic. Consequently, skin wrinkles,
elasticity in arteries is reduced, and bones
break more easily.
LESSON TITLE: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Integumentary System – consists of the skin
and its accessory structures (hair, nails, and
glands); one of the more familiar systems of
the body because it covers the outside of the
body and is easily observed Integument –
this means covering.
Major Functions of Integumentary System:
1. Protection: These are the protective
functions of the integumentary system:
- The intact skin plays an important role in
reducing water loss and acts as a barrier from
the microorganisms and foreign substances
entering the body.
- The stratified squamous epithelium of the
skin protects underlying structures against
abrasion.
- Melanin absorbs UV light and protects
underlying structures from its damaging
effects.
- Hair on the head acts as a heat insulator.
Eyebrows keep sweat out of the eyes.
Eyelashes protect the eyes from foreign
objects. Hair in the nose and ears prevents
the entry of dust and other materials.
- The nails protect the ends of the fingers and
toes from damage and can be used in
defense.
2. Sensation: The skin contains sensory
receptors for pain, heat, cold, and pressure.
Sensory receptors around the hair follicle can
detect the movement of a hair.
3. Vitamin D Production
UV light causes skin to produce a precursor
molecule of vitamin D (7-
Dehydrocholesterol)
▼ excretion of waste products.
Precursor is carried by blood to be modified
in the liver (Vitamin D3)
▼ epidermis and dermis.
Carried by blood to the kidney for further
modification
▼ - Skin is usually referred to as “thin skin”.
Formation of active Vitamin D
Facts about Vitamin D:
1. Exposure to enough UV light can produce
all the vitamin D needed by humans.
However, people need to ingest vitamin D as
well.
2. Adequate levels of vitamin D are necessary
because active vitamin D stimulates the small
intestine to absorb calcium and phosphate.
(essentials for bone growth and muscle
function)
3. Fatty fish (and fish oils) and vitamin D-
fortified milk are the best sources of vitamin
D.
4. Temperature Regulation
Body temperature normally is maintained at
about 37°C (98.6°F). The rate of chemical
reactions
(metabolism) is altered by the changes in
temperature.
▪ Too heat body: Blood vessels constrict to
reduce blood flow to skin and heat is
retained.
▪ To cool the body: Blood vessels in dermis
dilate and heat is transferred from deep in
tissues to skin and sweat is produced.
Types of Heat Loss:
1. Radiation – heat is lost through infrared
energy.
2. Convection – through air movement.
3. Conduction – through direct contact with
an object.
5. Excretion
Skin glands can remove large amounts of
sweat, but only a small amount of waste
products (urea, uric acid, and ammonia).
They do not play a significant role in the
Skin – made up of two major tissue layers:
- This is used to determine the body fat.
- Skin weighs approximately 9 lbs.
“Thick skin” is found only on the palms of the
hands and soles of feet.
Epidermis – the most superficial layer of the
skin; made up of stratified squamous
epithelium.
Function: prevents water loss and resists
abrasions.
Strata – distinct layers of epidermis.
Five Epidermal Strata:
1. Stratum Basale / Stratum Germinativum –
deepest layer; consists of cuboidal or
columnar cells that
undergo mitotic divisions about every 19
days. This stratum is a single layer of cells
and firmly attached to dermis.
2. Stratum Spinosum –spiny in appearance
due to the protruding cell processing that
join the cells; composed of 8 to 10 layers of
keratinocytes (cells that manufacture & store
the protein keratin)
3. Stratum Granulosum – has grainy
appearance due to further changes to the
keratinocytes as they are pushed from the
spinosum; generate large amounts of keratin,
which is fibrous
4. Stratum Lucidum – a smooth, seemingly
translucent layer that is found only on thick
skin of palms, soles, & digits
5. Stratum Corneum - outermost layer of
epidermis; 20 to 30 layers of dead squamous
cells filled with keratin & accounts for 75% of
epidermal thickness; joined by desmosomes.
This layer is also coated and surrounded by
lipid, which acts as waterproofing material.
Common Conditions associated
with Stratum Corneum:
▪ Dandruff – excessive sloughing of corneum
from the surface of the scalp.
▪ Callus – hard skin; forms when the skin has
been exposed to frequent friction resulting in
increased layers of corneum and thickened
area.
▪ Corn – occurs when the corneum thickens
to form a cone-shaped structure over a bony
prominence.
Keratinization – a process in which new cells
(with keratin) is pushing old cells to the
surface. It takes 40 to 56 days for the new
cells to reach the surface.
New cells form and push older cells to the
surface
▼
Cells slough, or flake off
▼
Epithelial cells eventually die
▼
Formation of outer layer of dead, rigid cells
(resist abrasion and acts as permeability
barrier)
Dermis – the 2nd major skin region;
composed of dense collagenous connective
tissue containing fibroblasts, adipocytes,
macrophages, nerves, hair follicles, smooth
muscles, glands, and lymphatic vessels.
Structure: made up of collagen and elastic
fibers; collagen fibers are oriented in many
different directions Function: supplies
nutrients & removes waste products to the
overlying epidermis; helps regulate body
temperature
Cleavage Lines / Tension Lines – these are
areas where skin is most resistant to
stretching; caused by orientation of collagen
fibers; vital in scarring.
Stretch Marks – visible lines through the
epidermis that result from overstretched
skin, for any reason, damaging the dermis;
usually common when a person increases in
size quite rapidly.
Layers of Dermis:
1. Papillary Layer - thin connective tissue
layer that contains blood vessels.
▪ Dermal Papillae
projections that extend up into epidermis
blood flow through these vessels supplies the
overlying epidermis arranged in parallel,
curving ridges that shape into fingerprints,
footprints, & palm lines; these ridges
increase friction and improve the grip of
hands & feet
the pattern is genetically determined
2. Reticular Layer - deepest layer of dermis;
accounts for 80% of dermis.
Factors affecting Skin Color:
▪ Pigments in skin
▪ Blood circulating through the skin
▪ Thickness of stratum corneum
▪ Genetics
Melanocytes – irregularly shaped cells with
many long processes that extend between
the epithelial cells of the deep part of
epidermis; responsible for production of
melanin.
▪ Melanocytes of darker skinned people
produce more and darker melanin than fairer
skinned people.
▪ All races have the same number of
melanocytes.
Melanosomes – these are melanin-
containing vesicles which move into the cell
processes of melanocytes.
Melanin – the group of pigments primarily
responsible for skin, hair, and eye color.
▪ Pigments of most molecules are brown to
black, some are yellowish or reddish.
▪ Racial variations in skin color are
determined by the amount, kind, &
distribution of melanin.
▪ Function: Provides protection against
ultraviolet light from sunlight.
Determinants of Melanin Production:
1. Genetic factors: responsible for the
amounts of melanin produced
in different races.
▪ Albinism – a recessive genetic trait that
causes a deficiency or an absence of melanin
(have fair skin, white hair, and unpigmented
irises in eyes)
2. Exposure to UV light: stimulates
melanocytes to increase melanin production
to help protect the skin resulting in a suntan.
▪ UV light causes elastic fibers to clump and
become leathery.
▪ UV light can alter DNA in cells causing them
to mutate (skin cancer).
▪ A sunburn is the skin reacting to UV
exposure.
3. Hormones: certain hormones, such as
estrogen & melanocyte-stimulating hormone
(MSH), increase the melanin production
during pregnancy.
Areas with More Areas with Less
Melanin Melanin
✔ Freckles ✔ Lips
✔ Moles ✔ Palms of hands
✔ Darkened areas in ✔ Soles of feet
genitalia
✔ Areola & nipples
Subcutaneous Tissue / Hypodermis
► attaches the skin to underlying bone and
muscle; below the dermis
► supplies the area with blood vessels and
nerves
► not part of the skin; made up of loose
connective tissue, including adipose tissue;
contains about ½ of the body’s stored lipids
► the amount and location of adipose tissue
vary with age, sex, and diet.
► Functions:
1. Serves as padding and insulator
2. Responsible for some of the differences in
appearance between men and women total
body fat)
3. Used to estimate total body fat (the
thicker the fold, the greater the amount of
► acceptable body fat varies from 21%-30%
for females and from 13%-25% for males
Accessory Skin Structures: these include the
hair, glands, and nails.
Hair – is found everywhere on the skin,
except on the palms, the soles, lips, nipples,
parts of genitalia, and the distal segments of
fingers and toes.
Hair Components: ✔ Scalp hair grows for 3 years and rests for 1
▪ Hair Shaft – flexible strands of keratinized year
cells; protrudes above the surface of the skin. ✔ Eyelashes grow for 30 days and rest for
▪ Hair Root – protrudes below the surface. 105 days
▪ Hair Bulb – base of hair root; where the ✔ Normally, we lose about 90 scalp hairs per
hair is produced. day.
▪ Hair Follicle – an invagination of the
✔ Hair color is determined by varying
epidermis that extends deep into the dermis;
amounts and types of melanin. Grey hair is
a group of cells that surround the root and
the loss or fading of melanin.
bulb and responsible for giving different
✔ Male pattern baldness is from the loss of
shapes to the hair.
the hair follicle.
▪ Hair Cortex – a hard covering of hair that is
surrounded by the cuticle, a single layer of
Glands: there are two major glands of the
overlapping cells that holds the hair in the
skin, the sebaceous and sweat glands.
hair follicle.
▪ Hair Medulla – the softer center that is
1. Sebaceous Glands – are simple, branched
surrounded by the cortex.
acinar glands; most are connected by a duct
▪ Hair Papilla – an extension of the dermis
to the hair follicle.
that protrudes into the hair bulb; the blood
– secrete sebum, released by holocrine
vessels
secretion, an oily substance rich in lipids that
within supply the hair bulb with the
lubricates hair and skin to prevent drying.
nourishment needed to produce hair.
▪ Arrector Pili – made up of smooth muscle
2. Sweat Glands have two types:
that surrounds each hair follicle; its
a. Eccrine Sweat Glands – release sweat by
contraction causes the hair to become more
merocrine secretion that is made mostly of
perpendicular to the skin’s surface called
water with a few salts; located in almost
“goose bumps”.
every part of the skin but most numerous in
palms and soles; open into the sweat pores
Cycle of Hair Production:
b. Apocrine Sweat Glands – produce a thick
Old hair falls out; formation of new hair
secretion rich in organic substances by
▼
merocrine secretion, though some glands
Hair is formed by epithelial cells within the
demonstrate holocrine secretion; located
hair bulb (Growth Stage)
only in armpits and genitalia; open into the
▼
These cells divide and undergo keratinization hair follicles and become active during
▼ puberty, causing body odor.
Hair grows longer as cells are added to the
base of the hair within the hair bulb Nail – a thin plate with layers of dead
▼ stratum corneum cells with a very hard type
Hair root & shaft consist of columns of dead of keratin.
keratinized epithelial cells
▼ Nail Structure:
Growth stops & hair is held in the hair follicle ▪ Nail Body – the visible part of the nail.
until it falls out (Resting Stage) ▪ Nail Root – the covered part by the skin.
▪ Cuticle / Eponychium – a stratum corneum
Facts about the Hair: that extends onto the nail body.
✔ Testosterone and good nutrition promote ▪ Nail Matrix – made up of epithelial cells
hair growth with a stratum basale that gives rises to most
of the nail; continuation of nail roots and is
thicker than nail bed.
▪ Nail Bed – located distally to the nail matrix
& attaches to nail; made up of epithelial cells
with a stratum basale
▪ Lunula – a small part of the nail matrix that
can be seen through the nail body as a
whitish, crescent-shaped area at the base of
the nail.
Process of Nail Growth: Production of
epithelial cells within the nail matrix causes
the nail to grow. Unlike hair, the nail grows
continuously and does not have a resting
stage.
Integumentary System as a Diagnostic Aid:
▪ Sandpaper texture (skin) – associated with
vitamin A deficiency in which the skin
produces excess keratin.
▪ Spoon-Shaped (nails) – associated with
iron-deficiency anemia in which the nails lose
their normal contour and become flat or
concave.
Variations in Skin Color:
▪ Redness / Blushing – caused by increased
blood flowing through the skin.
* Associated with fever, hypertension,
inflammation, and allergies
* Scarlet Fever – bacterial infection that
causes reddish rash on the skin.
▪ Pallor / Paleness – caused by decreased
blood flow.
* Associated with anemia, low blood
pressure, shock
▪ Cyanosis – a bluish color of skin caused by a
decrease in the blood oxygen content.
* Associated with impaired circulation or
respiratory functions.
▪ Jaundice – a yellowish discoloration of the
skin.
* Associated with liver disorder, too much
consumption of carotene
* Carotene – a yellow pigment found in
plants (squash & carrots); normally used as a
source of vitamin A and accumulates in lipids
of stratum corneum & in the adipocytes of
dermis and subcutaneous.
▪ Bronzing – a darkened skin pigmentation
usually caused by stimulant effect of excess
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) on the
melanocytes.
* Associated with Addison’s disease
▪ Bruising – a blue to purple discoloration
caused by broken blood vessels.
* Associated with trauma, blood disorders
Burn – is an injury to a tissue caused by heat,
cold, friction, chemicals, electricity, or
radiation.
Classification of Burns:
1. Partial-Thickness Burn – the part of the
stratum basale remains viable, and
regeneration of the epidermis occurs from
within the burn area, as well as from the
edges of the burn.
a. First-Degree Burn
✔ this involves only the epidermis
✔ presence of redness, slight swelling, pain.
✔ heals within 2 to 3 days or about a week
with no scarring.
✔ usually caused by sunburn or brief
exposure to very hot or very cold objects.
b. Second-Degree Burn
✔ damages both the epidermis and dermis.
✔ symptoms may include redness, pain,
swelling, and blisters.
✔ if minimal dermal damage, heals about 2
weeks with no scarring.
✔ if burn goes deep into the dermis, the
wound appears red, tan, or white and heals
for several months with some scarring.
2. Full-Thickness Burn / Third-Degree Burn
✔ the epidermis & dermis are completely
destroyed.
✔ usually painless as the sensory receptors
have been destroyed.
✔ the burned areas appear white, tan,
brown, black, or deep cherry red
✔ recovery occurs from the edges of the
burn wound.
✔ skin graft may be necessary. spreading lesion or as a deeply pigmented
nodule; metastasis is common and often
Burn Treatments: fatal.
▪ Split Skin Graft – a burn
treatment procedure in which the epidermis Effects of Aging:
and part of the dermis are removed from ▪ Blood flow to the skin is reduced. Skin
another part of the body and placed over becomes thinner, and elasticity is lost. It
the burn area. begins to sag and wrinkle.
▪ Debridement – a procedure that involves ▪ Sweat and sebaceous glands are less active
removal of dead tissue from the burn area resulting in reduced ability for
that helps prevent infections by cleaning the thermoregulation. The number of
wound. melanocytes decreases, but some areas
develop age spots.
▪ Gray or white hair is evident.

Skin Diseases and Disorders:

Ringworm, Eczema & Dermatitis, Psoriasis,
Impetigo, Decubitus Ulcers, Rubeola
(Measles), Rubella (German Measles),
Chicken Pox, Shingles, Cold Sores (Fever
Blisters), Genital Herpes and Acne

Skin Cancer
✔ Most common type of cancer and mainly
caused by UV light exposure from the sun.
✔ Common to develop in fair-skinned people
or older than 50 years old.
✔ Prevented by limiting sun exposure and
using sunscreens that should block UVA and
UVB rays.
* UVA rays can cause tanning of the skin;
associated with malignant melanomas.
* UVB rays can cause burning of the skin
associated with basal cell & squamous cell
carcinomas.

Types of Skin Cancer:

1. Basal Cell Carcinoma – most frequent type
that affects the cells in stratum basale and
extends into dermis to produce an open
wound; readily treatable with surgery.
2. Squamous Cell Carcinoma – develops from
cells immediately superficial to the stratum
basale; if untreated, can metastasize and
lead to death.
3. Malignant Melanoma – a rare form that
arises from melanocytes, usually in pre-
existing mole; appear as a large, flat,