CIVL 309

WATER AND WASTEWATER

TREATMENT
Nana Ackerson, Ph.D.
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Energy and Natural Resources, Sunyani, Ghana

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SEDIMENTATION

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Particle Size, Type of Impurity and Removal
Mechanism

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Sedimentation
• Impurities in water are kept in suspension at sufficient velocity and
turbulence.
• Minimal velocity and turbulence produce quiescent or semi-quiescent
condition to settle out impurities due to gravitational force.
• The separation of solids in water is called sedimentation or
clarification or settling.
• Sedimentation is a physical unit operation

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Sedimentation
• Sedimentation is achieved with sedimentation tank, settling tank or
clarifier – rectangular, square, or circular.
• The rate of particle settlement is dependent on:
• Layer of settled solids at the bottom of the tank is called sludge.
❑size and density of particles
❑rate are buoyancy
❑drag friction
❑temperature
❑viscosity
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Types of Suspended Solids (SS) for
Sedimentation Tank

Suspended Solid Specific Gravity Grain Size

Sand 2.65
Sand, silt, clay and silica Fine Clay, 1.03 ≥0.02 mm
Silt
Iron and alum flocs 1.18 – 1.34 Submicron to 1 mm
Crystals of CaCO3 2.7 15 – 20 mm

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Types of Settling

Discrete particle settling • Type I

Flocculant settling • Type II
Hindered settling • Type III
Compression settling • Type IV

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Type I: Discrete Particle Settling
• Particles settle discretely and individually at a constant settling
velocity.
• No coalesce during settling. Particle shape, size and density are
• Examples
preserved. E.g., Sand and grit particles in water.
• Pre-sedimentation for sand removal prior to coagulation in water
• Can be described by Stoke’s Law
treatment plant.
• Grit chamber for removal of grit in wastewater treatment plant.
• Settling of sand particles during backwashing of rapid sand filters.
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Type I

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Type II Flocculant settling
• Particles coalesce and flocculate.
• Increase in size exhibiting increased velocity during the settling.
• Examples:
• Particles continuously change in shape, size and density as they settle.
• Alum and Iron coagulation in water treatment.
• Modeling require laboratory settling column test.
• Primary sedimentation tank, upper part of the secondary sedimentation
tank, chemical flocs in physical-chemical treatment of wastewater.

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Type II

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Type III Hindered or Zone Settling
• Solids concentration is high such that the settling of one particle
hinders the settling of neighbouring particle.
• Examples:
Inter-particle forces hold the particles in fixed position relative to one
• another to sedimentation
Secondary form a blanket or and
tank zonesludge
or unit.
gravity thickener in wastewater
• treatment.
A distinct solids—liquid phase interface can be observed.
•• Lime softening
The settling sedimentation
velocity for removalisofused
of the ‘interface’ hardness
in theindesign
water treatment
of settling
tanks not the settling of individual particles

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Type III

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Type IV Compression settling
• •Compression
Examples: of the particles structure occurs due to the weight of
particles being constantly added as they keep settling from the
• Bottom thick layer of solids (i.e., sludge) observed in any type of
supernatant liquid.
sedimentation tank in water and wastewater treatment including sludge
• Particles are in contact and the lower layer of solids support the upper
gravity thickeners.
ones.
• Occurs in the sludge zone
• Thickness of the sludge layer decreases as the water oozes out from
the solids/floc matrix
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Type IV

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Theory of Sedimentation
• Particles are irregular in shape and varied in sizes.

• Equivalent diameter known as hydrodynamic diameter is adopted for

settling particles.

• Particles are assumed to be discrete and spherical with the same

settling velocity.

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 Stoke’s Law
• Sir Isaac Newton
• Gravitational 𝐹𝐺 =
force:showed (𝜌a𝑠 )𝑔𝑉
that particle
𝑝 falling in a quiescent fluid
accelerates until the frictional resistance, or drag, on the particle is
• Buoyancy force: 𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌 𝑔𝑉𝑝
equal to the gravitational force of the particle
𝑣2
• Drag force: 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑝 (𝜌)
2
• ρs=density of particle, kg/m3 g=acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
• ρ=density of fluid, kg/m3 Vp=volume of particle, m3
• CD=drag coefficient v=velocity of particle, m/s
• Ap=cross-sectional area of particle, m2 Forces acting on a free-falling
particle in a fluid ( FD =drag force;
FG =gravitational force;
FB=buoyancy force). ( Source:
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Davis and Cornwell, 2008.)
Stoke’s Law
• Driving force for acceleration of the particle is the difference between the
gravitational and buoyant forces: 𝐹𝐺 − 𝐹𝐵 = 𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌 𝑔𝑉𝑝
• When the drag force is equal to the driving force, the particle velocity
reaches a constant value called the terminal settling velocity (vs).
• 𝐹𝐺 − 𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝐷
𝑣2
• 𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌 𝑔𝑉𝑝 = 𝐶𝐷 𝐴𝑝 (𝜌)
2
𝑉𝑝 4Τ3(𝜋)(𝑑 Τ2)3 2
• For spherical particles with a diameter=d, = = 𝑑
𝐴𝑝 (𝜋)(𝑑 Τ2)2 3
𝟒𝒈 𝝆𝒔 −𝝆 𝒅 ½ 𝟒𝒈 𝑺𝒔 −𝟏 𝒅 ½ 𝝆𝒔
• 𝒗𝒔 = [ ] =[ ] Ss=specific gravity=
𝟑𝑪𝑫 𝝆 𝟑𝑪𝑫 𝝆 18
Stoke’s Law
• The drag coefficient depends on the flow regime surrounding the
particle using dimensionless ratio called Reynolds number, R.
• Flow regime:
✓Laminar: fluid moves in layers, or laminas, with one layer gliding smoothly
over adjacent layers with only molecular interchange of momentum
✓Transition: Mode of fluid flow intermediate between laminar and turbulent.
✓Turbulent: fluid motion is very erratic with a violent transverse interchange of
momentum

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Stoke’s Law
(𝑑)𝑣𝑠
•𝑅=
𝑣
✓d=diameter of sphere, m vs=velocity of sphere, m/s
✓v=kinematic viscosity, m2/s=µ/ρ ρ=density of fluid, kg/m3
✓µ=dynamic viscosity, Pa.s
• For spherical particles moving through the liquid
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• 𝐶𝐷 = , for R≤0.5 Laminar
𝑅
24 3
• 𝐶𝐷 = + + 0.34, for 0.5<R≤104 Transition
𝑅 𝑅
• 𝐶𝐷 = 0.4 Turbulent 20
Stoke’s Law
• Stoke’s law: settling velocity,
𝒈(𝝆𝒔 −𝝆)𝒅𝟐
• 𝒗𝒔 = Laminar
𝟏𝟖𝝁

𝒈(𝑺𝒔 −𝟏)𝒅𝟐
• 𝒗𝒔 = Laminar
𝟏𝟖𝝊

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Stoke’s Law
• Dynamic viscosity and density of water are functions of water
temperature.
• Stokes’ law is valid for spherical particles and laminar flow (R≤1);
thus for Type I particle settling.

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Transitional Flow
1. Calculate velocity using Stokes law.
2. Calculate and check Reynolds number. R>1
3. Calculate CD.
4. Use Newton equation to estimate the velocity.
5. This velocity is used to check the Reynolds number
6. Repeat from step 2 until convergence i.e., the velocity yields a
Reynolds number equal to that used in estimating the settling
velocity
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Turbulent Flow
• CD=0.4
𝟒𝒈 𝝆𝒔 −𝝆 𝒅 ½
• 𝒗𝒔 = [ ]
𝟑(𝟎.𝟒)𝝆
𝝆𝒔 −𝝆
• 𝒗𝒔 = [𝟑. 𝟑 ∙ 𝒈 ∙ 𝒅 ]½
𝝆

• 𝒗𝒔 = [𝟑. 𝟑 ∙ 𝒈 ∙ 𝒅 𝑺𝒔 − 𝟏 ]½

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Ideal Sedimentation Tank
• There are four distinct zones namely inlet, settling, outlet, and sludge
zone.
• The particles settle only in settling zone where calm conditions prevail.
• Uniform flow across the settling zone.
• The particle concentration is uniform as flow enters the settling zone.
• The particles reaching the sludge zone are considered removed and are
not re-suspended.
• Particles reaching the outlet zone ‘escape’ sedimentation and are
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considered not removed.
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Ideal Sedimentation Tank
• The time, t, (detention time) taken by a particle, A, to fall through a
𝑯
depth of H is 𝒕 =
𝒗𝒔
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒
• For horizontal flow, the detention time is 𝑡 =
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑉 𝐿𝑥𝐵𝑥𝐻 𝑨∙𝑯
•𝑡= = =
𝑄 𝑄 𝑸
𝐻 𝐴∙𝐻 𝑸
• = 𝒗𝒔 = A=surface area of settling zone
𝑣𝑠 𝑄 𝑨

• vs is the settling velocity termed as critical settling velocity vo, surface

overflow rate 28
Overflow Rate
• The upward water velocity that will enable the separation of the water
from the particle is called the overflow rate.
• The overflow rate indicates the rate at which water overflows the top
of the tank into the weirs.
• It is also called the hydraulic surface loading, or the surface loading,
because it has units of m3/d·m2.

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Considerations
• The terminal or critical settling velocity of particles vo, permitting their complete
removal is function of the surface area A of the sedimentation tank.
• vo does not depend on the depth (H) and detention time (t).
• All the particles with vs≥vo are removed completely.
• Particles with vs<vo are removed in proportion given by vs/vo.
• The particles with vs<vo will only be removed if they enter the tank at a distance
from the bottom not greater than h, where h = vs*t . The particles entering above
this point, with vs<vo will not be removed and will escape sedimentation
• All the settleable solids can be theoretically removed by placing a series of trays,
at a distance of vs*t , in the tank. 30
Particle Removal in Horizontal Tank

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Types of Sedimentation

Based on the • Circular

shape of tank • Rectangular

• Horizontal
Based on the • Radial
direction of flow • Vertical
• Remove settleable solids only either by
Based on the plain sedimentation or after flocculation.
function • Combine flocculation and clarification
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Flow Pattern in Sedimentation Tank

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Circular Tanks
Radial flow with Radial flow with
Clariflocculator Spiral flow tanks
central inlet peripheral inlet
• Water enters • Water enters • Both flocculation • water enters at an
central inlet pipe from the and clarification angle from one
• Water moves periphery takes place in the or more points
radially to • Water moves same unit on the outer edge
periphery outlet radially towards • Water moves forming spirals.
the central outlet through central • Water moves
shaft to towards the
flocculator, then central collector
to outer tank for
clarification

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Rectangular Tanks
• Flow is parallel to the length of the basin i.e., rectilinear flow.

• Sludge is provided on inlet side

• Bottom of the tank slopes slightly downward toward the inlet end to
make sludge removal easier.

• A mechanical scrapper is used to drag the sludge into the pit

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Design Parameters for Sedimentation Tank

1. Detention time, Td
• The theoretical amount of time water (or the particle) remains in a
sedimentation tank.
𝒗
• 𝑻𝒅 =
𝑸
✓Td = Detention time, hours(h)
✓V = Volume of water in tank, m3
✓Q = Average volumetric flow rate of incoming water, m3/hr
• Minimum recommended detention time = 2.5 h
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Surface Over Flow Rate
• It is the volumetric flow rate (Q) of water flowing ‘over the surface
with plan area ‘A’.
𝑸
• 𝒗𝒐 =
𝑨
• vo = Surface overflow rate m3/d.m2
• Q = Average flow rate, m3/d
• A = Tank surface area(plan), m2
• Can be visualised as an average ‘upflow’ velocity of water in the
settling tank
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Weir Loading Rate
• It is the average flow rate (Q) per unit length (m) of the weir at the
outlet.
• Also called the weir hydraulic loading rate with units of expression as
m3/d.m.
• The typical values ranges between 140 m3/d.m to 270 m3/d.m.
• Recommended maximum = 250 m3/d.m.

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Design Equations
❑Sedimentation tank efficiency
1
𝑣0 −
• 𝑝 = 1 − [1 + 𝜂 𝑄ൗ ] 𝜂
𝐴

𝑄 𝑣0 𝜂
• Design surface overflow rate, = 𝜂 −𝜂
𝐴 [ 1−𝑝 −1]

✓p = Percent efficiency = 75% (can be assumed)

✓η= co-efficent indicating the tank performance = Zero for best possible performance
✓= ⅛ for very good performance
✓=⅟4 for good performance
✓= ½ for average performance
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 Design Equations – Inlet Arrangement
• Designed to minimise turbulence of • K = 1 for orifices
flow across the inlet channel that runs
• Hf = Head loss across the orifices for
along the width of a rectangular tank.
uniform distributions of flow, m
• Head loss, 𝐻𝑓 = ℎ1 (1 − 𝑚2 )
• h1 = Head loss at 1st orifice, m
𝑄
• Flow through each orifice, m3/s, 𝑞 = • m = fraction of flow in the last
𝑁
• If vn=velocity through orifice orifice with respect to that in the first
=0.2 to 0.3 m/s orifice usual 0.9 to 0.95.
𝐾(𝑣𝑛2 ) • N = number of orifice with inlet
• Head loss through orifice, 𝐻𝑓 =
2𝑔 channel
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Design Equations – Inlet Arrangement

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Design Equations – Outlet Arrangement
• Outlet of sedimentation tank comprises of three parts
i. Effluent weir usually consisting of 90° V-notches or wide crest weir
ii. Effluent launder
iii. Outlet box

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Effluent Weir Usually Comprises Of 90° V-
notches
𝑄,𝑚3 /𝑠
• Weir length, 𝑚 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 𝑚3 /𝑑.𝑚

• Discharge rough 90°

8 𝜃 5
•𝑄= 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 tan ℎ2
15 2
• Q = The discharge rate,m3/s
• Cd = discharge co-efficient = 0.6 to 0.7 for head
• θ= angle of the notch h = head causing flow, m
5Τ
• For, 90 V-notch: 𝑄 = 2.362𝐶𝑑 (ℎ) 2
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Effluent launder
• It is designed as an ‘open channel’ with full flow at all the cross-sections in the
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
channel using Manning’s formula: 𝑽 = 𝑹𝟑 𝑺𝟐
𝒏
• V = Velocity of flow, m/s
• n = Manning’s-co-efficient = 0.013 for RCC surface
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝑏𝑥𝑑
• R = hydraulic mean depth, 𝑅 = = =
𝑤𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃 𝑏+2𝑑
• b = width of the channel (launder, m) d = depth of water, m
• S = slope of channel or hydraulic gradient, m/m
• Q=flow rate, m3/s, 𝑄 = 𝑉𝑥𝐴 = 𝑉𝑥 𝑏𝑥𝑑
𝟓 𝟏
(𝒃𝒙𝒅)𝟑 𝑺𝟐
• Substituting for V, 𝑸 = 𝟐
𝒏(𝒃+𝟐𝒅)𝟑 46
High Rate Settling
• Rate of clarification process can be increased either by:
❑Increasing the density of the particles: add the micro sand particles 20
to 200 µm size as ‘ballast.’
• or
❑Decreasing the distance that the particle must travel prior to its
removal: introduce a series of ‘inclined’ plates or tubes in a rectangular
horizontal flow settling basin. Plates are inclined at 60° to the
horizontal.
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