Psychology

in the
Workplace –
Part 1
Rachael Heckenberg
PSY1APP@latrobe.edu.au
Week 5
PSY1APP
 Learning Objectives
• Define motivation and differentiate between
the types of motivation
• Understand and apply two theories of
motivation: Hierarchy of Needs and Expectancy
Theory
• Investigate the different factors that influence
job satisfaction and occupational stress
• Understand communication and the different
types of conflict
• Identify causes of conflict and investigate the
different ways to manage conflict in the
workplace
 Organizational/Industrial
Psychology
• Most people spend most of their waking hours at work until
they retire.
• Therefore, it is important that we understand how people
behave at work, what explains their performance, how work
can impact their lives in and outside of the workplace
• Industrial/organizational psychology applies psychological
principles to understanding people in the workplace.
• It is multi-disciplinary and covers topics such as:
• Personnel selection
• Training and professional development
• Performance
• Employees’ health and wellbeing
• Motivation and job satisfaction
• Work-life balance
Motivation

• Motivation is related to a number of individual and organizational outcomes and is a

crucial factor in performance.
• It is influenced by several different factors, including environmental factors of the
workplace and how individuals are managed within the workplace.
• Work motivation is defined as a set of energetic forces that originate both within as
well as beyond an individual to initiate work-related behavior and to determine its
form, direction, intensity, and duration (Pinder, 2008).
Intrinsic Motivation
• Intrinsic Motivation comes from the person and
is the desire to complete or perform an activity
for its own sake. The satisfaction comes from
completing the task rather than an associated
outcome.
▪ For example – pursuing work that you find
fulfilling, meaningful and satisfying, autonomy
over tasks
Extrinsic Motivation
• Extrinsic Motivation comes from outside of the
person and is the desire to complete an activity
for the outcome it will provide, i.e., a potential
reward or positive consequences or to avoid a
negative consequence/punishment.
• For example – pay, benefits, bonuses,
deadlines, recognition and praise
 Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation

• Incentives that are strongly related to performance of a task are associated with better performance.
E.g., Salespeople receiving commission.
• Intrinsic motivation is also strongly related to performance
▪ Extrinsic incentives also a better predictor of quantity performance, while intrinsic motivation
was a better predictor of quality performance.
• Intrinsic motivation is also associated with optimism, job satisfaction, organizational commitment,
and better health and wellbeing.
• Extrinsic motivation has been linked to lower job satisfaction and wellbeing outcomes.
• The undermining effect refers to the idea that the presentation of incentives on an initially enjoyable
task reduces subsequent intrinsic motivation for the task.
• Extrinsic motivation does not always undermine intrinsic motivation – dependent on the type of
incentive.
 Maslow’s
Hierarchy
of Needs

(Truxillo et al., 2015)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• Maslow suggested that people must fulfill the lower-level needs before moving up
to the higher order needs – called fulfillment progression.
• The Hierarchy of Needs can be applied to the workplace by thinking about what
motivates people to engage in work, choose their occupation, and to advance in
their career.
• In addition, workplaces could potentially increase employee motivation, satisfaction,
performance, and wellbeing by meeting the needs of employees.
• Although there is some research that needs may not need to be met in the order
proposed by Maslow, more recent, large-scale studies have suggested employees do
tend to focus on each level in order.
Application of fulfillment,
reaching
potential, • Self-actualization
strengths,
the Hierarchy of growth

Needs to the Social recognition,

sense of
accomplishment, • Esteem
Workplace respect, appreciation,
rewards

Social support from supervisors

and colleagues, belongingness
and acceptance, • Social
friendships/connections

Job security, safe work environment (free

from harassment/danger), health care • Security/safety
benefits

Pay, access to fresh air, water, food, hygienic amenities • Physiological

Expectancy Theory
• Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) attempts to explain what motivates people to behave in a particular
way, focusing on their goals and what they put effort into.
• It proposes that motivation to increase effort is determined by a calculation in which individual
evaluate their situation.
• Specifically, a person’s beliefs about the degree to which effort leads to performance, and that
performance will lead to a desired outcome, determines their level of motivation.

Expectancy Instrumentality Valence

• Effort leads to • Performance • The

performance leads to a reward/outcome
reward/outcome is valuable

(Based on Porter & Lawler, 1968)

 Expectancy Theory

Motivation force = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

• Expectancy theory is generally supported by empirical evidence

• However, it has been criticized for being too simple, for not considering the social
context and for a lack of construct validity
▪ The components of the theory are each associated with motivation, but there is less support for
the multiplicative relationship/the model when considered as a whole
• Still, it continues to be a popular model as it provides a general framework for
assessing, interpreting, and evaluating employee behavior in learning, decision
making, attitude formation, and motivation.
 Application of Expectancy Theory

• Scenario: You’re a HR manager in a company, you’ve noticed staff productivity has

been reduced lately. How could you apply expectancy theory to increase employee
motivation and therefore, see an increase in output?
 Job Satisfaction

• Job satisfaction refers to the feelings people have toward their job.
• More specifically, it is “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the
appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” (Locke, 1976).
• Job satisfaction can be measured as a global construct (overall job satisfaction) or as
facet-based (average score based on ratings of different aspects of the job).
 Job Satisfaction

Job Characteristics
Leadership Performance
Stress Organizational
Organizational support citizenship behaviours
Job Satisfaction Absenteeism
Justice
Personality Turnover
Person-environment fit Unit performance
 Work Engagement

• Work engagement is an independent concept that is negatively associated with burnout

• It can be defined as a positive, fulfilling state of mind related to work. It has three main
characteristics:
▪ Vigor: high levels of energy, mental resilience and persistence and willingness to invest
effort into work
▪ Dedication: a strong sense of significance, enthusiasm, pride, challenge and inspiration
in regards to work
▪ Absorption: difficulty detaching from work as individual is happily engrossed and fully
concentrated on the work
 • Workplace stress occurs when perceived job demands
and efforts exceed the employee’s perceived
resources to cope, or rewards being gained.

Workplace
Stress
 Burnout

• Burnout is the progressive loss of energy and enthusiasm caused by persistent strain in the
workplace
• Malasch and Jackson (1981) defined burnout as a syndrome that affected those working in human
services. They suggested burnout had three components:
▪ Emotional exhaustion: feelings of being emotionally depleted and unable to give to others at a
psychological level
▪ Depersonalisation: negative and detached attitudes towards clients
▪ Reduced personal accomplishment: negatively evaluating themselves and their work with
clients, feeling dissatisfied with work accomplishment
• Burnout has since been found in all sectors and redefined more generally, rather than specific to
clients
▪ Depersonalisation redefined as cynicism, referring to detachment from one’s work
▪ Personal accomplishment redefined as reduced professional efficacy in both social and non-
social aspects of work
 The Job
Demands
Resources
Model

Adapted from Demerouti, Bakker,

Nachreiner, & Schaufeli (2001)
The JD-R Model – Three Hypotheses
Health impairment process – demands exhaust employees’ mental and
physical resources, depleting energy leading to exhaustion and health
problems

Motivation process – job resources have motivational potential and lead

to high work engagement, low cynicism, and excellent performance

Interaction effect – resources buffer the impact of demands on job strain,

and that engagement is highest when both demands and resources are
high
 Evidence for the JD-R Model
Job Demands Job Resources Interaction Effect
• Burnout • Work engagement and • Some evidence that high job
motivation resources buffer impact of
• Psychosomatic
• Lower number of job demands on burnout
symptoms
absences • Some evidence that high job
• Poorer mental health, resources in the context of
• Increased organizational
i.e., anxiety and high job demands increases
commitment
depression work engagement
• Sickness absence • Personal resources may also
buffer impact of job
demands on burnout, but
findings are mixed
 Communication Processes
• Communication is the process of transmitting information and understanding from one person to
another (Adu-Oppong & Agyin-Birikorang, 2014).
• In the workplace it has three main functions: coordination, transmission of information and sharing
emotions and feelings.
• Effective communication helps people grasp issues, build rapport, achieve consensus, work towards
goals and reduce conflicts.

(Adu-Oppong & Agyin-Birikorang, 2014).

Conflict in the Workplace
• Conflict is defined as a disagreement or opposition of interests or
ideas.
• It can be due to inappropriate or poor communication, which results
in misinterpreting one’s words or value.
• Intrapersonal conflict arises from within a person. It can occur when
there is uncertainty about expectations, roles, or confidence.
• Interpersonal conflict occurs among individuals (e.g., coworkers,
managers and employees). It can occur due to competition or
personality or values differences.
• Intergroup conflict occurs between different groups (e.g., different
departments/divisions, employee union and management, or
competing companies). Merging two groups together can lead to
friction between the groups—especially if there are scarce resources
to be divided among the group.
Causes Conflict in the Workplace
Organizational Structure Limited Resources Task Interdependence

• A lack of a clear • Limited funding, • Accomplishment of a

organizational structure equipment, time goal is dependent on
• A lack of clear • Greater competition others
reporting lines

Incompatible Goals Personality Differences Communication Problems

• Arises when two parties • Some personality • Communication issues can

think that their goals are differences may be more
mutually exclusive likely to clash
• May also result in role • E.g., Type A individuals tend
conflict to have more conflict with
Type B individuals
arise between individuals or
be due to larger
organizational structures
• They may be small
misunderstandings
Outcomes of Conflict
- Consideration of a broader range of
ideas, resulting in a better, stronger
idea
- Surfacing of assumptions that may
be inaccurate
- Increased participation and
creativity
- Clarification of individual views that
build learning
- Increased stress and anxiety among
individuals, which decreases
productivity and satisfaction
- Feelings of being defeated and
demeaned, which lowers individuals’
morale and may increase turnover
- A climate of mistrust, which hinders
the teamwork and cooperation
necessary to get work done
 Change the structure

Change the composition of the team

Strategies
for Create a common opposing force
Managing
Consider majority rule
Conflict
Problem solve
 Conflict-Handling Style
• Avoidance – this style is typically uncooperative and unassertive. They are prone to postponing any
decisions in which conflict may arise.
• Accommodation – this style is cooperative and unassertive. Typically, the person will give in to what the
other side wants.
• Compromise – this style is a middle-ground, the person will express their own concerns but also respect
other person’s goals. When this applied as conflict management solution, each person sacrifices something.
• Competition – this style is when the individual is more interested in getting the outcome, they want instead
of keeping other parties happy.
• Collaboration – this style incorporates both assertiveness and cooperation. The person high on
collaboration may still challenge points but not the other person and the emphasis is on problem solving
and integration of each other’s goals.
• The best approach to conflict management is dependent on the situation, however collaboration works in
many situations.
• Individuals may have one dominant style that they tend to use frequently but more successful people are
able to match their style to the situation.
Conflict-
Handling
Styles
 Psychology in the Workplace – Part 2

Next Week Good luck with your Group

Presentations!!
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