C O V E R S T O RY

the
Aeronaut
UNREALISTIC
T R A I N I N G

When the
duck-horse
surpasses the
black swan.
By Andrés Ospina

Created by
Super Anima

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C O V E R S T O R Y

DUCK-
HORSE
U N R E A L I S T I C T R A I N I N G

by Andrés Ospina

Training is probably the most important process for a pilot in their career; it is
their first contact with what awaits them. It's impossible to train for everything that
life can bring, but falling into unrealistic training is easier than it seems.
This has only one name: negative training.

I f you are one of those who enter the grocery store with a
specific list but also buy the lottery ticket just in case, you have
more opportunities than those who do not buy it. However, I am
sorry to say that your chances of winning will depend on many
variables. The odds drop from 1 in 14 million to 1 in 178 million,
depending on which lottery you buy. But hey, don't get
discouraged; at least you have a chance.
The same thing happens with an emergency; the likelihood of it
occurring depends on many factors, but it can happen just like
winning the lottery. The difference is that nobody wants to win this
one.
To mitigate the chances of winning this so-called lottery, the
industry now employs multiple advanced training processes,
state-of-the-art devices, competency-based training
methodologies, and technological advances that grow
exponentially every day.
This is where flight training for pilots becomes the best option to
mitigate adverse conditions that could jeopardize aviation safety.
The use of technology today aims to enhance the way we
approach these situations, but technology alone cannot handle it;
it requires human interaction in two fields: the instructor and the
student.
An instructor is the most valuable asset a student can have, but if
this instructor is more of a magician than a facilitator, that's when
negative training comes into play—the significant question that
many have wanted to explain, but few know how to define.
The great question about negative training has been attempted to
be answered by many, but is there only one answer? I believe not.
Negative training and negative transfer of learning are related
concepts, but they refer to different aspects of learning and skill
development. This is where one must begin to understand unreal
training and comprehend when the groundwork is laid for the
black swan to be born.
Negative training involves intentionally exposing learners to
incorrect methods to enhance learning, while negative transfer of
learning refers to the interference caused by previously learned
skills or knowledge when trying to acquire new skills or
knowledge.
The first refers to a specific instructional approach where learners
are deliberately exposed to incorrect or inappropriate techniques
or information and the second one occurs when prior knowledge
or skills hinder or interfere with the learning of a new task or the
performance of a different skill. In this case, the skills or
knowledge learned in one context have a negative impact on
performance in another context. It happens when there is a
similarity or overlap between the two tasks or domains, leading to
confusion or errors.
I remember entering a simulator once, where today, I am not clear
which of the two aspects was more evident, or if both were so
evident that they prevented the simulator from becoming the
essential tool that all pilots need at some point in their lives.
Surely, as you read this, you are recalling dreadful memories of
some instructor who, at the time, said, 'I have a bonus track for
you! “Nobody wants a bonus track, stop this!”

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“The instructor remains the key factor in the success of training.”
In pilot training, each flight scenario presents a unique rhetorical
situation, whether during academic exercises, in the workplace, or
when communicating with air traffic control. Instructors are faced
with a constant problem: how can they effectively communicate
their ideas and decisions in a way that is clear, informative, and
compelling to their audience, which might include other students
or instructors?
Some flight training situations are well defined and prescribed,
while others require instructors to make independent decisions.
Between these two extremes are complex flight scenarios
characterized by various limitations and freedoms, which require
instructors to make use of their skills, not the excessive use of the
imagination, or better defined as pulling something out of the hat.
As in other professional settings, instructors must master the art of
communication and adapt their language to suit the audience and
the situation. Being able to convey critical information, instructions,
or decisions in a concise and persuasive manner is essential to
maintaining training effectively and efficiently.
Through comprehensive training and experience, instructors learn
to handle various rhetorical situations, developing the ability to
communicate effectively and make well-informed decisions while
considering the various limitations and freedoms encountered in
the dynamic environment of pilot training.
INSTRUCTOR, THE FUNDAMENTAL PIECE
To understand where the duck horse is
born and why it surpasses the black
swan, it is essential to first define the
importance of the instructor's role and
why their role is fundamental in the
development of proper training. The
instructor serves as a coach and
counselor, ensuring that the training
time is utilized effectively, and that the
objectives and purposes are met and
achieved. However, before delving
deeper, we must ask: How was this
instructor trained?
Not too long ago, instructors were
appointed for reasons that would be
scandalous today, despite such
practices still prevailing in many
countries. Instructors were chosen
solely based on their tenure in the
organization, being friends with the
boss, belonging to a union, or any
other reason that wasn't necessarily
based on merit. The consequences
over time have become evident, leading
to multiple accidents resulting from
negative training.
But this has changed over time; we
have come to understand that eating at
the finest restaurants doesn't make us
chefs. Despite having had great
instructors who learned on the fly how
to conduct a class, many were
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successful in effectively conveying what we now know as a
session.
Today, a pilot brings their experience as the initial requirement to
become an instructor, and they undergo specific training, which
now, more than ever, involves the human factor as a fundamental
piece of any trainer.
The training process for instructors has evolved, recognizing the
significance of not only technical expertise but also the ability to
connect with and guide learners effectively. Pilots who wish to
become instructors now undergo specialized training that
emphasizes both instructional skills and the understanding of
human psychology in the learning process.
This transformation ensures that instructors are not merely
experienced pilots but also skilled educators, capable of imparting
knowledge, fostering critical thinking, and providing effective
feedback to future pilots. It is through this comprehensive
approach that we strive to improve the quality and safety of pilot
training, reducing the risks associated with negative training and
promoting a culture of continuous improvement in aviation
education.
But a trained instructor is not a guarantee of success; without a
supportive team behind them, they can quickly mount the duck
horse faster than we think. The training department or whoever
guides them at the technical and administrative level must be
composed of a strong team of professionals who invest in
research, production of training products, and verification. The
creation of syllabi and training materials should be standardized
for everyone, understanding that as long as we have human
interaction, there will always be an instructor who deviates from
the the guidelines.
This is where management comes in,
using many tools to keep a
homogeneous group, preventing them
from taking the duck horse for a ride.
Concordance, standardizations, and
many other methods to maintain group
balance will lead to fewer riders each
day. Remember, the black swan will
always be there; be prepared for it, as
the real goal is to motivate students to
the fullest.
Today, instructors cannot be without
proper preparation to fulfill their role.
Doing so will only bring problems to the
team and leave significant gaps in the
knowledge of the students, gaps that
can impact flight safety. Relying on
subjectivity without collected data is no
longer acceptable, as it will only lead to
traditional training without clear
objectives.
We are no longer in the era where
instructors entered the classroom or
simulator with an axe in hand; those
times are over, and we must build
every day to understand the processes
in new generations of aircraft and
Drawing by Giordano Aita
individuals. Innovation will be the
foundation of training for the future.
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What isa? Def. A black swan is an unpredictable event that is beyond what is normally
BlackSWAN
expected of a situation and has potentially severe consequences.
Black swan events are characterized by their extreme rarity, severe impact,
and the widespread insistence they were obvious in hindsight.
The industry has witnessed many stories with a happy ending, but
unfortunately, many more with tragic outcomes. Did you recognize
some of the accidents mentioned above; these were selected
from among many other accidents and incidents in which we can
be sure that none of the pilots aboard those aircraft had been
trained beforehand to deal with what they faced.
How did they overcome these situations? They put all their
experience, skills, and competencies into action to navigate the
unexpected. Cases like Air Canada B767 (1983), TACA B737
(1988), United DC-10 (1989), Indian Airlines A300 (1993), Air
Transat A330 (2001), British Airways B777 (2008), US Airways
A320 (2009), and Qantas A380 (2010), to name a few, show that
a single failure, one mistake, or simply something unforeseen can
result in the tragedies we mentioned above.
Engineering has continuously advanced to make simulators more
realistic each day, aiming to represent the aircraft as closely as
possible. However, many instructors still treat these tools like a
Pandora's box where once the door is closed, they don't know
what will happen.
Imagination is infinite to the extent that unrealistic scenarios are
introduced, driven by the complexity and absurdity of many
failures and their combinations. But what happens when an
unexpected, untrained event appears? How do we prepare for it?
Realistic training has shown us that there is no need to split the
aircraft in half to observe human behavior during a single failure.
Even the simplest evaluation can lead to an evacuation simply due
to human behavior during the session. Believe me, there's no
necessity to create a movie-like unrealistic scenario to achieve
surprising results.
The "black swan" has appeared more times than we would have
wanted, with incidents involving many airlines and planes.
However, none of these events required anything beyond dealing
with the failure at hand; they had enough to handle.
An excellent way to enhance the quality of training and pilots'
performance is to expose trainees to classical startle effects
caused by "black swan events."
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These unexpected situations can provide valuable experiences
when conducted in a positive environment, improving pilots'
resilience and self-awareness.
After facing an unpredictable event, each pilot can assess their
strengths and weaknesses, based on their behavior and reactions
during the incident. Armed with this knowledge, pilots can operate
primarily based on their demonstrated strengths and develop
strategies to overcome weaknesses, ensuring they don't hinder
overall crew performance.
Experiencing "black swan events" doesn't mean turning the world
upside down. A well-designed failure in a surprising situation is
sufficient to showcase a pilot's potential. There's no need to
invent unrealistic scenarios that even Michael Mann's worst movie
wouldn't include.
Dealing with the unexpected doesn't require an exorcism to get
out of the situation. Train for expected situations to solve the
unexpected. However, the instructor shouldn't be the factor that
worsens the situation; it will deteriorate according to the
administration of the circumstances. Remember, the goal is to
learn, whether from an unexpected situation or not, but the trainee
should never leave the simulator without having learned
something.
No simulator can simulate every possible life scenario. This is why
the instructor is a vital component in providing trainees with all the
tools through instruction to face the black swan one day. The
instructor's role is not to create impossible or absurd scenarios in
the simulator; instead, it is to prepare the pilots for the
unpredictable challenges they may encounter.
Scenarios are not created with the outcome the instructor would
like to have, much less with the intention of achieving a
predetermined grade. They are designed with the objective of
attaining a safety standard that ensures a secure operation.
Remember, it's not about how I, as an instructor, would like it or
how I would have done it; it's about how they did it.
Not having a clear guide or a defined syllabus will only
turn the instructor into a magician pulling something out
of a hat. However, even a magician has a script for their shows.
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An instructor needs their imagination precisely to avoid the mistake of

exaggeration. While traditional instructor training considered TEM, there is now
considerable emphasis on how competencies serve to manage threats, errors,
Doesn’t “expecting
upsets, and UAS and promote resiliency to black swan events. It is essential for the unexpected”
instructors to be familiar with AQP, CBTA/EBT or any other training methodology, make the unexpected
what the competencies are (if any), how to enhance them, and how to assess expected?
them.
A new study related witch startle effect,
Many instructors confuse the black swan with an excessively difficult situation merely showed that it’s dangerous to
that involves multiple failures, leading to a landing where nobody knows how it ignore the challenges posed by surprising
was accomplished. This way of thinking is incorrect. Preparing for the situations. “However, how to train pilots
unexpected means developing competencies to understand how to handle the for these situations is still not very clear. Is
unexpected based on the training received. it, for instance, necessary to surprise pilots
during simulator training, or to train under
We mustn't forget that a crucial actor here is the training program, the training stress? If so, to what extent?”
module. If it is unrealistic, overly burdensome, and improbable, the outcome will
reflect that same improbability. Whereas commercial airline pilots may
once have been assessed wholly on their
manual flying (aircraft handling) skills,
nowadays pilot assessment is
predominantly based on Systems and Crew
Management, where management of the
automated systems and maintenance of
situational awareness replace many of the
traditional flying skills.

For a pilot, situational awareness means

having a mental picture of the existing
inter-relationship of location, flight
conditions, configuration and energy state
CRITICALLY ENDANGERED of your aircraft as well as any other factors
that could be about to affect its safety such
(Let's hope that this species disappears soon.) as proximate terrain, obstructions, airspace
reservations and weather systems. The
Every instructor must prepare and keep up to date with the latest advances in potential consequences of inadequate
methodologies, processes, and training systems. No instructor should saddle the situational awareness include CFIT, loss of
duck-horse at any moment in life, as this will only bring problems that could be control, airspace infringement, loss of
irreparable for many students, starting with breaking their self-confidence. separation, or an encounter with wake
Those sessions where the copilot died, an engine failed, the good one caught vortex turbulence, severe air turbulence,
fire, the departure airport closed after takeoff in optimal conditions, and to top it heavy icing, or unexpectedly strong head
all off, the landing gear wouldn't come up, must come to an end. winds.

An instructor who doesn't grasp the role of being a coach for their students, Researchers have identified a number of
whose function is to observe rather than spending the entire session pushing strategies that can reduce the negative
buttons, is an instructor who fails to understand modern training. It's also effects of startle and help improve pilot
essential for them to grow as a person and not fall into a dominant position where performance during and immediately
they constantly demonstrate that they know more than the students. While this following a startle event. These include:
might be evident from the beginning, it doesn't add anything to the students if
they end up competing with them. Know your aircraft, Maintain handling
skills be competent and comfortable flying
To ensure effective and safe training, instructors must embrace evidence-based the aircraft "without the automation”, Train
practices, utilizing data-driven approaches to identify areas for improvement and appropriately, simulator exercises should
adjust their methods accordingly. Embracing objective assessments and be conducted in a constructive manner with
continuous evaluation will lead to a more robust training program that addresses a focus on evidence based (most likely)
the specific needs of the students and promotes a culture of excellence in events. However, there should also be
aviation education. Only by adapting to the changing landscape and utilizing a constructive use of unexpected critical
more systematic and data-informed approach can we ensure that future pilots events, Be cognizant of your surroundings,
are well-prepared to face the challenges of the aviation industry. develop and maintain effective situational
awareness skill-sets. Avoid complacency,
Formative and summative assessments should be terms mastered by any Anticipate threats, utilize effective threat
instructor and reinforced by the training department. and errors management (TEM) strategies.
Formative assessments have low stakes and usually carry no grade, which in Adopt a "what would I do if.." mindset.
some instances may discourage the students from doing the task or fully
engaging with it. The goal of summative assessment is to evaluate student Martin, W., Murray, P. and Bates, P. (2012).
learning at the end of an instructional unit by comparing it against some standard The Effects of Startle on Pilots During Critical
Events: A Case Study Analysis.
or benchmark.

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If the instructor understands their role in the process of safety,
they will never saddle the Duck-Horse, as with the appropriate
tools, they will be able to show the students their capabilities, the
strengths provided by their competencies, and the opportunities
that arise from their weaknesses. The instructor is the vital
component who will demonstrate to the students the challenges of
flying the aircraft; they are the ones who initially know the
differences between the aircraft and the simulator, and they are
aware of the limits of the aircraft and do not exceed them in the
simulator. Investing in technology will be of no use if we
exaggerate its use without a real objective: safety.
The topic of unrealistic training has been considered and
discussed in various publications, including those from aircraft
manufacturers like Airbus, who wrote an article in 2019 titled "The
Adverse Effects of Unrealistic Simulator Scenarios."
This is a reality that, unfortunately, is increasing. The need to train
pilots in the shortest possible time has led to the selection of
inexperienced instructors facing enormous challenges in
methodologies they are unfamiliar with. While it may not be their
fault, the responsibility lies with those who manage training
programs in airlines and training centers, where such behaviors
are overlooked.

A person who can perform a task in a predictable situation may The industry must continue innovating the training process hand-
not necessarily be able to perform the same task when surprised. in-hand with technology, human factors, and instructor training,
Therefore, flight training programs should include elements of focusing on their role as observers rather than enforcers. By
surprise to better prepare pilots for unexpected situations. following some of these recommendations, we can expect to see
fewer duck-horses tied outside simulators in the not-so-distant
In a study, more than 20 airline pilots were tested using a motion- future.
base flight simulator. They were first trained on recoveries from A
eight different upsets in a specific order and then performed
recovery procedures for four stalls. Afterward, they were informed
that their aircraft would stall three minutes after passing a
particular landmark and were required to execute proper stall
recovery procedures.

In one situation, the stall occurred as per the instructions.

However, for other pilots, the stall happened about 5 seconds
before reaching the landmark, and they were also distracted by
researchers asking them to rate their sickness on a scale. The
surprise stall negatively affected the pilots' adherence to the stall-
recovery procedures.

The study aimed to highlight the difference between skillfulness in

predictable versus surprise situations. Responding to a surprise
requires different mental processes and actions, forcing pilots to
make sense of the situation and react accordingly. If pilots only
train with predictable and scripted scenarios, their competencies
may become "brittle" and less resilient in emergency situations.

To address this issue, an Evidence-Based Training (EBT) program

is suggested. In an EBT program, pilots recognize their
competencies and learn how to manage the startle effect
effectively.

Introducing variability and unpredictability in simulator training is

crucial to effectively teach pilots how to handle surprises and
unexpected events. This approach enhances their ability to react
and respond in real-life scenarios. However, it is important to
avoid using scenarios taken from horror movies. Identify such
scenarios and exclude them from the training program.

“Everything is unprecedented
until it happens for the first time”.
Chesley Burnett “SULLY”
Sullenberger III
U.S. Ambassador to the International
Civil Aviation Organization (Former)
Capt. A32S (Former)
US Airways

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