General Meteorology

Introduction to the Atmosphere

 Vertical structure of the atmosphere
Earth’s atmosphere is arranged into four layers, based on the variation of the
temperature with altitude.
Stratosphere

• Extends upward from the tropopause to about 50 km.

• Temperature inversion occurs and it increases to ~ -15oC at the stratopause - the
upper boundary of stratosphere.
• Stable and contains less water vapour. Few clouds. Does not cause convection.
• The ozone layer is found at 15-30 km.
• Increase in temperature with height occurs due to the absorption of UV radiation
from the sun by ozone.
●
● Ozone helps the earth to maintain its heat balance, and reduces the amount of
harmful UV radiation that reaches the earth's surface.
●
● Ozone destruction can be both natural (UV radiation or molecular collisions) or
man-made (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons).
●
● Aircrafts fly in the lower stratosphere to avoid the turbulence which is common
in the troposphere below.
Mesosphere

• Above the stratopause lies the mesosphere that extends to 80-85 km.
• An ozone layer is absent to cause heating, so temperatures decreases with height.
• The coldest temperatures in Earth's atmosphere, ~ -90° C, are found near
mesopause - the top of the layer.
• Meteors burn up in this layer.
• Air pressure at the bottom of the layer is .1% (1mb) of the pressure at sea level.
• The stratosphere and mesosphere together are sometimes referred to as the
middle atmosphere.
Thermosphere

• The layer of very rare air above mesopause extending between 500-1000 km.
• Temperatures increase substantially with height due to the absorption of UV and
X-Ray from the sun by oxygen molecules (O2)
• ~ 500-2000oC in the upper thermosphere depending on solar activity.
• The aurora, the Northern Lights and Southern Lights, occur in the thermosphere.
 Ionosphere

●
Region overlapping the mesosphere and thermosphere between 80-400km.
●
High energy solar radiation dissociates atmospheric molecules and ionizes atoms
and molecules.
●
The electrically charged atoms and molecules formed in this way are called
ions, giving the ionosphere its name.
●
Ionized molecules interact with charged particles from the sun to produce
brilliant light displays at high latitudes -aurora borealis (northern lights) or
aurora australis (southern lights), in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres,
resp.
●
Ionosphere reflects and absorbs radio waves, allow us to receive shortwave radio
broadcasts.
Aurora
Exosphere

• The outermost layer of our atmosphere,

• It extends from the top of the thermosphere to outer space
• Mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen and helium.
• Outer boundary ~1,00,000-1,90,000 km above earth’s surface

According to the general homogeneity of atmospheric composition,

atmosphere is divided into
Homosphere : Extends from earth’s surface to about 80 kms where the
proportion of gases is nearly uniform.
Heteorosphere: The upper portion of the atmosphere, characterized by
variation in composition and mean molecular weight of constituent gases
Weather and Climate

Climatic data

• A time series of measurements of sufficient length, consistency and

continuity to determine climate variability and change.
• Such measurements provide an objective basis for the understanding
and prediction of climate and its variability, such as global warming.
• Climate observations are sourced from numerous meteorological and
related observational networks and systems throughout the world.
• Observations of the atmosphere, ocean and land-based systems are
needed to describe the whole climate system.
Climate Normals
• Three-decade averages of climatological variables including
temperature and precipitation.
• Climate normals are used for two principal purposes.
1. They serve as a benchmark or reference against which recent or
current observations can be compared.
2. They are also widely used as a prediction of the conditions most
likely to be experienced in a given location.
Climate Normals are grouped into 3 categories.

Principal climatological surface parameters, Secondary climatological

surface parameters and other climatological surface parameters.

Principal climatological surface parameters are

1. Precipitation total
2. Number of days with precipitation
3. Monthly mean values of maximum, minimum and daily mean
temperatures
4. Mean value of sea-level pressure
5. Mean vapour pressure
6. Total number of hours of sunshine
Members

WMO has 187 Member States and 6 Member Territories.

Members are divided into six regions:

Region I: Africa
Region II: Asia
Region III: South America
Region IV: North America, Central America and the Caribbean
Region V: South-West Pacific
Region VI: Europe
World weather watch (WWW)
• One of the crowning achievements of WMO.
• This programme facilitates the development, operation and enhancement
of worldwide systems for observing and exchanging meteorological and
related observations.
• WWW is a huge success, both in terms of meeting its primary goal of
enabling the weather services around the world to better serve their users
and in terms of providing a model for successful international
collaboration on a global scale.
The three core elements of the WWW are
1. Global Observing System (GOS)
2. Global Telecommunications System (GTS)
3. Global Data-processing and Forecasting System (GDPFS)

 Global Observing System (GOS), is comprised of operationally reliable

surface-based and space-based subsystems, that consist of observing facilities
on land, at sea, in the air and in outer space.

 Global Telecommunication System (GTS), consist of telecommunication

centres, facilities and arrangements for the rapid exchange of information.

 Global Data-processing and Forecasting System (GDPFS) encompass the

meteorological centres and operational arrangements for processing
observational data and preparing forecasts and warning.
Global Observing System (GOS)
The Global Observing System is comprised of a space-based system of environmental satellites
and a surface-base network of diverse upper-air and surface observing systems operated by a
plethora of national and international agencies .

Methods and facilities for making meteorological and other environmental

observations on a global scale. Source: WMO
Space-based system of environmental satellites
• The space-based component is comprised of three types of satellites:
operational meteorological low-Earth-orbiting; geostationary; and
environmental research and development (R&D) satellites.
• Low-Earth-orbiting (most of them in polar orbit) and geostationary
meteorological satellites remain crucial for the provision of valuable data,
products and services, including imagery, soundings and data collection and
distribution.
• Current operational meteorological satellites include geostationary and polar-
orbiting missions operated by China, India, Japan, the USA and ESA.

Surface-based network of observing systems

Upper-air
This is comprised of Global Positioning System, vertically pointing radar systems
(profilers); modern avionics systems on commercial airliners—providing
environmental data on ascent and descent, as well as at flight level; and sounding
capability from satellites and the shipboard upper-air systems.
Surface
Automated weather-observing technologies allow for the deployment of
observing systems in more remote locations. The second is the observations over
the ocean.
The main long-term objectives of the Global Observing System are:

1. To improve and optimize global systems for observing the state of the
atmosphere and the ocean surface to meet the requirements, in the most
effective and efficient manner, for the preparation of increasingly accurate
weather analyses, forecasts and warnings, and for climate and environmental
monitoring activities carried out under programmes of WMO and other
relevant international organizations.

2. To provide for the necessary standardization of observing techniques and

practices, including the planning of networks on a regional basis to meet the
requirements of the users with respect to quality, spatial and temporal
resolution and long-term stability.

Today, the Global Observing System is one of the key component observing system
of the WMO Integrated Global Observing System (WIGOS).