Chapter  

2  
Intellectual  Revolutions  that  Defined  Society  
 
Introduction  
   
  This  section  provides  students  with  background  on  the  different  intellectuals  who  
made  great  contributions  to  science  that  propelled  scientific  and  technological  revolutions.  
Emphasis  is  given  on  how  these  intellectual  revolutions  shape  and  transform  society.    
 
Intended  Learning  Outcomes:  
 
1.   Articulate  ways  by  which  society  is  transformed  by  science  and  technology.    
 
 
What  is  an  Intellectual  Revolution?  
 
  An  intellectual  revolution  is  a  period  where  paradigm  shifts  occurred  and  where  
scientific   beliefs   that   have   been   widely   embraced   and   accepted   by   the   people   were  
challenged  and  opposed.  Historically,  this  intellectual  revolution  can  be  summed  up  as  
the  “replacement  of  Aristotelian  ethics  and  Christian  morality  by  a  new  type  of  decision  
making  which  may  be  termed  instrumental  reasoning  or  cost-­benefit  analysis”  (Wootton  
as  cited  by  McCarthy,  2019).    
 
 
The  Birth  of  Modern  Science  
 
Western  science,  like  so  many  other  aspects  of  Western  Civilization,  was  born  with  
the  ancient  Greeks.  They  were  the  first  to  explain  the  world  in  terms  of  natural  laws  rather  
than  myths  about  gods  and  heroes.  They  also  passed  on  the  idea  of  the  value  of  math  
and   experiment   in   science,   although   they   usually   thought   only   in   terms   of   one   to   the  
exclusion  of  the  other.    
 
The   most   influential   figure   in   Western   science   until   the   1600's,   was   the  
philosopher,  Aristotle,  who  created  a  body  of  scientific  theory  that  towered  like  a  colossus  
over   Western   Civilization   for   some   2000   years.   Given   the   limitations   under   which   the  
Greeks  were  working  compared  to  now,  Aristotle's  theories  made  sense  when  taken  in  a  
logical  order.  
 
However,   there   were   several   factors   that   worked   both   to   overthrow   Aristotle's  
theories  and  to  preserve  it.  First  of  all,  Aristotle's  theories  relied  very  little  on  experiment,  
which   left   them   vulnerable   to   anyone   who   chose   to   perform   such   experiments.   But  
attacking  one  part  of  Aristotle's  system  involved  attacking  the  whole  thing,  which  made  it  
a   daunting   task   for   even   the   greatest   thinkers   of   the   day.   Secondly,   the   Church   had  
grafted  Aristotle's  theories  onto  its  theology,  thus  making  any  attack  on  Aristotle  an  attack  
on  the  tradition  and  the  Church  itself.  
 

31
 Finally,  there  were  the  Renaissance  scholars  who  were  uncovering  other  Greek  
authors   who   contradicted   Aristotle.   This   was   unsettling,   since   these   scholars   had   a  
reverence   for   all   ancient   knowledge   as   being   nearly   infallible.   However,   finding  
contradicting  authorities  forced  the  Renaissance  scholars  to  try  to  figure  out  which  ones  
were  right.  When  their  findings  showed  that  neither  theory  was  right,  they  had  to  think  for  
themselves  and  find  a  new  theory  that  worked.  This  encouraged  skepticism,  freethinking,  
and  experimentation,  all  of  which  are  essential  parts  of  modern  science.  

Pattern  of  development  

The  combination  of  these  factors  generated  a  cycle  that  undermined  Aristotle,  but  
also  slowed  down  the  creation  of  a  new  set  of  theories.  New  observations  would  be  made  
that  seemed  to  contradict  Aristotle's  theories.  This  would  lead  to  new  explanations,  but  
always  framed  in  the  context  of  the  old  beliefs,  thus  patching  up  the  Aristotelian  system.  
However,   more   observations   would   take   place,   leading   to   more   patching   of   the   old  
system,   and   so   on.   The   first   person   who   started   this   slow   process   of   dismantling  
Aristotle's  cosmology  was  Copernicus.  His  findings  would  reinforce  the  process  of  finding  
new  explanations,  which  would  lead  to  the  work  of  Kepler  and  Galileo.  The  work  of  these  
three  men  would  lead  to  many  new  questions  and  theories  about  the  universe  until  Isaac  
Newton  would  take  the  new  data  and  synthesize  it  into  a  new  set  of  theories  that  more  
accurately  explained  the  universe.  

A.   Copernican  Revolution  

Nicolas  Copernicus  was  a  Polish  scholar  working  at  the  University  of  Padua  in  
northern   Italy.   The   problem   he   wrestled   with   was   the   paths   of   planetary   orbits.  
Through  the  centuries  close  observations  had  shown  that  the  heavens  do  not  always  
appear   to   move   in   perfect,   uninterrupted   circles.   Rather,   they   sometimes   seem   to  
move  backwards  in  what  are  known  as  retrogradations.  In  order  to  account  for  these  
irregularities,  astronomers  did  not  do  away  with  Aristotle's  theory  of  perfectly  circular  
orbits  around  the  earth.  Instead,  they  expanded  upon  it,  adding  smaller  circular  orbits  
(epicycles)   that   spun   off   the   main   orbits.   These   more   or   less   accounted   for   the  
retrogradations   seen   in   orbits.   Each   time   a   new   irregularity   was   observed,   a   new  
epicycle  was  added.  By  the  1500's,  the  model  of  the  universe  had  some  80  epicycles  
attached  to  ten  crystalline  spheres  (one  for  the  moon,  sun,  each  of  the  five  known  
planets,  the  totality  of  the  stars,  a  sphere  to  move  the  other  spheres,  and  heaven).  
The  second  century  Greek  astronomer,  Ptolemy  was  the  main  authority  who  put  order  
to  and  passed  this  cumbersome  system  of  epicycles  to  posterity.  

Copernicus'  solution  was  basically  geometric.  By  placing  the  sun  at  the  center  
of   the   universe   and   having   the   earth   orbit   it,   he   reduced   the   unwieldy   number   of  
epicycles  from  80  to  34.  His  book,  Concerning the Revolutions of the Celestial Worlds,  
published  in  1543,  laid  the  foundations  for  a  revolution  in  how  Europeans  would  view  
the  world  and  its  place  in  the  universe.  However,  Copernicus'  intention  was  not  to  
create  a  radically  new  theory,  but  to  get  back  to  even  older  ideas  by  such  Greeks  as  

32
Plato  and  Pythagoras  who  believed  in  a  heliocentric  (sun  centered)  universe.  Once  
again,   ancient   authorities   were   set   against   one   another,   leaving   it   for   others   to  
develop  their  own  theories.  

It  took  some  150  years  after  Copernicus'  death  in  1543  to  achieve  a  new  model  
of  the  universe  that  worked.  The  first  step  was  compiling  more  data  that  tarnished  the  
perfection  of  the  Ptolemaic  universe  and  forced  men  to  re-­evaluate  their  beliefs.  

Johannes  Kepler  

At  this  time,  Tycho  Brahe,  using  only  the  naked  eye,  tracked  the  entire  orbits  
of  various  stars  and  planets.  Previously,  astronomers  would  only  track  part  of  an  orbit  
at  a  time  and  assume  that  orbit  was  in  a  perfect  circle.  Brahe  kept  extensive  records  
of  his  observations,  but  did  not  really  know  what  to  do  with  them.  That  task  was  left  
to  his  successor,  Johannes  Kepler.  

Kepler   was   a   brilliant   mathematician   who   had   a   mystical   vision   of   the  

mathematical  perfection  of  the  universe  that  owed  a  great  deal  to  the  ancient  Greek  
mathematician  Pythagoras.  Despite  these  preoccupations,  Kepler  was  open  minded  
enough   to   realize   that   Brahe's   data   showed   the   planetary   orbits   were   not   circular.  
Finally,  his  calculations  showed  that  those  orbits  were  elliptical.  

Galileo  

As  important  as  Kepler's  conclusions  was  his  method  of  arriving  at  it.  He  was  
the  first  to  successfully  use  math  to  define  the  workings  of  the  cosmos.  Although  such  
a  conclusion  as  elliptical  orbits  inevitably  met  with  fierce  opposition,  the  combination  
of   Brahe's   observations   and   Kepler's   math   helped   break   the   perfection   of   the  
Aristotelian   universe.   However,   it   was   the   work   of   an   Italian   astronomer,   Galileo  
Galilei  (1564-­1642),  armed  with  a  new  invention,  the  telescope,  which  would  further  
shatter  the  old  theory  and  lead  the  way  to  a  new  one.  

Using  his  telescope,  Galileo  saw  the  sun's  perfection  marred  by  sunspots  and  
the  moon's  perfection  marred  by  craters.  He  also  saw  four  moons  orbiting  Jupiter.  In  
his   book,   The Starry Messenger   (1611),   he   reported   these   disturbing   findings   and  
spread  the  news  across  Europe.  Most  people  could  not  understand  Kepler's  math,  
but  anyone  could  look  through  a  telescope  and  see  for  himself  the  moon's  craters  
and  Jupiter's  moons.  

The   Church   tried   to   preserve   the   Aristotelian   and   Ptolemaic   view   of   the  
universe   by   clamping   down   on   Galileo   and   his   book   and   made   him   promise   not  
to  preach  his  views.  However,  in  1632,  Galileo  published  his  next  book,  Dialogue on
the Great World Systems,  which  technically  did  not  preach  the  Copernican  theory  (which  
Galileo  believed  in),  but  was  only  a  dialogue  presenting  both  views  "equally".  Galileo  
got   his   point   across   by   having   the   advocate   of   the   Church   and   Aristotelian   view  

33
named   Simplicius   (Simpleton).   He   was   quickly   faced   with   the   Inquisition   and   the  
threat  of  torture.  Being  an  old  man  of  70,  he  recanted  his  views.  However,  it  was  too  
late.  Word  was  out,  and  the  heliocentric  heresy  was  gaining  new  followers  daily.  

Galileo's  work  was  the  first  comprehensive  attack  on  the  Aristotelian/Ptolemaic  
cosmic   model.   He   treated   celestial   objects   as   being   subject   to   the   same   laws   as  
terrestrial  objects.  However,  Galileo  was  still  enthralled  with  perfect  circular  motion  
and,  as  a  result,  did  not  come  up  with  the  synthesis  of  all  these  new  bits  of  information  
into   a   new   comprehensive   model   of   the   universe.   This   was   left   to   the   last,   and  
probably  greatest,  giant  of  the  age,  Isaac  Newton.  

Isaac  Newton  

The  story  of  Newton  being  hit  on  the  head  by  an  apple  may  very  well  be  true.  
However,  the  significance  of  this  popular  tale  is  usually  lost.  People  had  seen  apples  
fall  out  of  trees  for  thousands  of  years,  but  Newton  realized,  in  a  way  no  one  else  had  
realized,  that  the  same  force  pulling  the  apples  to  earth  was  keeping  the  moon  in  its  
orbit.  In  order  to  prove  this  mathematically,  Newton  had  to  invent  a  whole  new  branch  
of  math,  calculus,  for  figuring  out  rates  of  motion  and  change.  The  genius  of  Newton  
in  physics,  as  well  as  William  Harvey  in  medicine  and  Mendeleev  in  chemistry,  was  
not  so  much  in  his  new  discoveries,  as  in  his  ability  to  take  the  isolated  bits  and  pieces  
of  the  puzzle  collected  by  his  predecessors  and  fit  them  together.  In  retrospect,  his  
synthesis  seems  so  simple,  but  it  took  tremendous  imagination  and  creativity  to  break  
the  bonds  of  the  old  way  of  thinking  and  see  a  radically  different  picture.  

The  implications  of  Newton's  theory  of  gravity  can  easily  escape  us,  since  we  
now  take  it  for  granted  that  physical  laws  apply  the  same  throughout  the  universe.  To  
the  mentality  of  the  1600’s,  which  saw  a  clear  distinction  between  the  laws  governing  
the  terrestrial  and  celestial  elements,  it  was  a  staggering  revelation.  His  three  laws  of  
motion  were  simple,  could  be  applied  everywhere,  and  could  be  used  with  calculus  
to  solve  any  problems  of  motion  that  came  up.  

The  universe  that  emerged  was  radically  different  from  that  of  Aristotle.  Thanks  
to  Newton,  it  was  within  our  grasp  to  understand,  predict,  and  increasingly  manipulate  
the  laws  of  the  universe  in  ways  no  one  had  been  able  to  do  before.  Newton's  work  
also  completed  the  fusion  of  math  promoted  by  Renaissance  humanists,  Aristotelian  
logic  pushed  by  medieval  university  professors,  and  experiment  to  test  a  hypothesis  
pioneered   by   such   men   as   Leonardo   da   Vinci   and   Galileo   into   what   we   call   the  
scientific  method.  This  fusion  had  gradually  been  taking  place  since  the  Renaissance,  
but  the  invention  of  calculus  made  math  a  much  more  dynamic  tool  in  predicting  and  
manipulating  the  laws  of  nature.  

The  printing  of  Newton's  book,  Principia Mathematica,  in  1687  is  often  seen  as  
the  start  of  the  Enlightenment  (1687-­1789).  It  was  a  significant  turning  point  in  history,  
for,   armed   with   the   tools   of   Newton's   laws   and   calculus,   scientists   had   an  

34
unprecedented  faith  in  their  ability  to  understand,  predict,  and  manipulate  the  laws  of  
nature   for   their   own   purposes.   This   sense   of   power   popularized   science   for   other  
intellectuals   and   rulers   in   Europe,   turning   it   into   virtual   religion   for   some   in   the  
Enlightenment.   Even   the   geometrically   trimmed   shrubbery   of   Versailles   offers  
testimony  to  that  faith  in  our  power  over  nature.  Not  until  this  century  has  that  faith  
been  seriously  undermined  or  put  into  a  more  realistic  perspective.  

B.   The  Darwinian  Revolution  

The  publication  in  1859  of  The  Origin  of  Species  by  Charles  Darwin  ushered  
in  a  new  era  in  the  intellectual  history  of  humanity.  Darwin  is  deservedly  given  credit  
for   the   theory   of   biological   evolution:   he   accumulated   evidence   demonstrating   that  
organisms   evolve   and   discovered   the   process,   natural   selection,   by   which   they  
evolve.   But   the   importance   of   Darwin's   achievement   is   that   it   completed  
the   Copernican   revolution   initiated   three   centuries   earlier,   and   thereby   radically  
changed  our  conception  of  the  universe  and  the  place  of  humanity  in  it.  

The  discoveries  of  Copernicus,  Kepler,  Galileo,  and  Newton  in  the  sixteenth  
and  seventeenth  centuries,  had  gradually  ushered  in  the  notion  that  the  workings  of  
the  universe  could  be  explained  by  human  reason.  It  was  shown  that  the  earth  is  not  
the  center  of  the  universe,  but  a  small  planet  rotating  around  an  average  star;;  that  the  
universe  is  immense  in  space  and  in  time;;  and  that  the  motions  of  the  planets  around  
the   sun   can   be   explained   by   the   same   simple   laws   that   account   for   the   motion   of  
physical  objects  on  our  planet.  These  and  other  discoveries  greatly  expanded  human  
knowledge,   but   the   intellectual   revolution   these   scientists   brought   about   was   more  
fundamental:  a  commitment  to  the  postulate  that  the  universe  obeys  immanent  laws  
that  account  for  natural  phenomena.  The  workings  of  the  universe  were  brought  into  
the  realm  of  science:  explanation  through  natural  laws.  Physical  phenomena  could  
be  accounted  for  whenever  the  causes  were  adequately  known.  

Darwin   completed   the   Copernican   revolution   by   drawing   out   for   biology   the  
notion  of  nature  as  a  lawful  system  of  matter  in  motion.  The  adaptations  and  diversity  
of   organisms,   the   origin   of   novel   and   highly   organized   forms,   even   the   origin   of  
humanity  itself  could  now  be  explained  by  an  orderly  process  of  change  governed  by  
natural  laws.  

The  origin  of  organisms  and  their  marvelous  adaptations  were,  however,  either  
left  unexplained  or  attributed  to  the  design  of  an  omniscient  Creator.  God  had  created  
the  birds  and  bees,  the  fish  and  corals,  the  trees  in  the  forest,  and  best  of  all,  man.  
God  had  given  us  eyes  so  that  we  might  see,  and  He  had  provided  fish  with  gills  to  
breathe  in  water.  Philosophers  and  theologians  argued  that  the  functional  design  of  
organisms  manifests  the  existence  of  an  all-­wise  Creator.  Wherever  there  is  design,  
there  is  a  designer;;  the  existence  of  a  watch  evinces  the  existence  of  a  watchmaker.  

35
 The   English   theologian   William   Paley   in   his   Natural   Theology   (1802)  
elaborated  the  argument-­from-­design  as  forceful  demonstration  of  the  existence  of  
the   Creator.   The   functional   design   of   the   human   eye,   argued   Paley,   provided  
conclusive  evidence  of  an  all-­wise  Creator.  It  would  be  absurd  to  suppose,  he  wrote,  
that   the   human   eye   by   mere   chance   "should   have   consisted,   first,   of   a   series   of  
transparent  lenses  ...  secondly  of  a  black  cloth  or  canvas  spread  out  behind  these  
lenses  so  as  to  receive  the  image  formed  by  pencils  of  light  transmitted  through  them,  
and  placed  at  the  precise  geometrical  distance  at  which,  and  at  which  alone,  a  distinct  
image   could   be   formed   ...   thirdly   of   a   large   nerve   communicating   between   this  
membrane  and  the  brain."  The  Bridgewater  Treatises,  published  between  1833  and  
1840,  were  written  by  eminent  scientists  and  philosophers  to  set  forth  "the  Power,  
Wisdom,   and   Goodness   of   God   as   manifested   in   the   Creation."   The   structure   and  
mechanisms  of  man's  hand  were,  for  example,  cited  as  incontrovertible  evidence  that  
the   hand   had   been   designed   by   the   same   omniscient   Power   that   had   created   the  
world.  

The  advances  of  physical  science  had  thus  driven  humanity's  conception  of  
the  universe  to  a  split-­personality  state  of  affairs,  which  persisted  well  into  the  mid-­
nineteenth  century.  Scientific  explanations,  derived  from  natural  laws,  dominated  the  
world   of   nonliving   matter,   on   the   earth   as   well   as   in   the   heavens.   Supernatural  
explanations,  depending  on  the  unfathomable  deeds  of  the  Creator,  accounted  for  
the  origin  and  configuration  of  living  creatures—the  most  diversified,  complex,  and  
interesting   realities   of   the   world.   It   was   Darwin's   genius   to   resolve   this   conceptual  
schizophrenia  (Ayala,  no  date).  

C.   Freudian  Revolution  

Sigmund  Freud  was  born  in  1856,  before  the  advent  of  telephones,  radios,  
automobiles,  airplanes,  and  a  host  of  other  material  and  cultural  changes  that  had  
taken  place  by  the  time  of  his  death  in  1939.  Freud  saw  the  entirety  of  the  first  
World  War–a  war  that  destroyed  the  empire  whose  capital  city  was  his  home  for  
more  than  seventy  years–and  the  beginning  of  the  next.  He  began  his  career  as  
an  ambitious  but  isolated  neurologist;;  by  the  end  of  it,  he  described  himself,  not  
inaccurately,   as   someone   who   had   had   as   great   an   impact   on   humanity's  
conception  of  itself  as  had  Copernicus  and  Darwin.  
 
Freud's  most  obvious  impact  was  to  change  the  way  society  thought  about  
and  dealt  with  mental  illness.  Before  psychoanalysis,  which  Freud  invented,  mental  
illness  was  almost  universally  considered  'organic';;  that  is,  it  was  thought  to  come  
from   some   kind   of   deterioration   or   disease   of   the   brain.   Research   on   treating  
mental   illness   was   primarily   concerned–at   least   theoretically–with   discovering  
exactly  which  kinds  of  changes  in  the  brain  led  to  insanity.  Many  diseases  did  not  
manifest   obvious   signs   of   physical   difference   between   healthy   and   diseased  

36
brains,  but  it  was  assumed  that  this  was  simply  because  the  techniques  for  finding  
the  differences  were  not  yet  sufficient.  
 
The   conviction   that   physical   diseases   of   the   brain   caused   mental   illness  
meant  that  psychological  causes–the  kinds  that  Freud  would  insist  on  studying–
were   ignored.   It   also   meant   that   people   drew   a   sharp   dividing   line   between   the  
"insane"  and  the  "sane."  Insane  people  were  those  with  physical  diseases  of  the  
brain.  Sane  people  were  those  without  diseased  brains.  
 
Freud  changed  all  of  this.  Despite  his  background  in  physicalism  (learned  
during   his   stay   in   Ernst   Brücke's   laboratory),   his   theories   explicitly   rejected   the  
purely  organic  explanations  of  his  predecessors.  One  of  Freud's  biggest  influences  
during  his  early  days  as  a  neurologist  was  Jean-­Martin  Charcot,  the  famous  French  
psychiatrist.  Charcot  claimed  that  hysteria  had  primarily  organic  causes,  and  that  
it  had  a  regular,  comprehensible  pattern  of  symptoms.  Freud  agreed  with  Charcot  
on   the   latter   point,   but   he   disagreed   entirely   on   the   former.   In   essence,   Freud  
claimed   that   neurotic   people   had   working   hardware,   but   faulty   software.   Earlier  
psychiatrists  like  Charcot,  in  contrast,  had  claimed  that  the  problems  were  entirely  
in  the  hardware.  As  psychoanalysis  became  increasingly  popular,  psychology  and  
psychiatry  turned  away  from  the  search  for  organic  causes  and  toward  the  search  
for  inner  psychic  conflicts  and  early  childhood  traumas.  As  a  consequence,  the  line  
between   sane   and   insane   was   blurred:   everyone,   according   to   Freud,   had   an  
Oedipal  crisis,  and  everyone  could  potentially  become  mentally  ill.  
 
Psychoanalysis  has  had  an  enormous  impact  on  the  practice  of  psychiatry,  
particularly   within   the   United   States,   but   today   it   is   regarded   by   most   sources–
medical,   academic,   governmental,   and   others–as   almost   entirely   incorrect   in   its  
conception   of   the   mind.   This   judgment   is   based   on   the   crucial   test   of  
psychoanalysis:   whether   or   not   it   really   helps   patients   with   behavioral   or  
psychological  problems.  The  consensus  is  that  is  does  not.  Psychoanalysis  in  its  
many   varieties   appears   to   have   little   or   no   efficacy   in   treating   mental   illness.   In  
contrast,  psychopharmacology  and  cognitive-­  behavioral  therapies  (therapies  that  
simply  try  to  change  what  the  patient  thinks  and  does  rather  than  analyzing  the  
causes  of  the  behavior),  while  far  from  perfect,  do  appear  to  help.  
 
If  this  is  true–and  we  have  a  great  deal  of  evidence  that  it  is–why  is  Freud  
still  so  important?  Why  do  we  generally  speak  of  him  as  a  great  figure  in  Western  
thought,   instead   of   as   a   strange   and   misguided   figure   of   turn-­of-­the-­   century  
Europe?  
 
There  are  at  least  two  reasons.  The  first  is  purely  practical:  psychoanalysis  
has  enormous  historical  significance.  Mental  illness  affects  an  large  proportion  of  
the   population,   either   directly   or   indirectly,   so   any   curative   scheme   as   widely  
accepted  as  was  Freud's  is  important  to  our  history  in  general.  The  second,  more  
important,  reason  is  that  Freud  gave  people  a  new  way  of  thinking  about  why  they  
acted  the  way  they  did.  He  created  a  whole  new  way  of  interpreting  behaviors:  one  

37
 could  now  claim  that  a  person  had  motives,  desires,  and  beliefs–all  buried  in  the  
unconscious–which   they   knew   nothing   about   but   which   nonetheless   directly  
controlled  and  motivated  their  conscious  thought  and  behavior.  This  hypothesis,  
derived  from  but  independent  of  Freud's  psychiatric  work,  was  the  truly  radical  part  
of  his  system  of  thought.  
 
D.   Scientific  Revolution  in  Mesoamerica  
 
Meso-­America  is  the  region  from  Mexico  to  Guatemala,  Belize  and  parts  of  
Honduras  and  El  Salvador.  There  were  no  major  ancient  civilization  that  developed  
in   North   America.   The   Mesoamerican   civilization   were   isolated   from   the  
accumulated   scientific   knowledge   of   Africa,   Asia   and   Europe.   They   were  
confronted  with  much  harder  conditions  than  the  ancient  civilizations  of  the  Indus  
valley,  Mesopotamia,  and  Egypt  which  developed  in  parallel  with  each  other  and  
established  contacts  between  each  other  at  a  very  early  stage.  This  exchange  of  
knowledge  between  these  ancient  civilizations  was  critical  in  the  development  of  
their   scientific   knowledge.   Because   of   this   isolation,   Mesoamerican   civilization  
developed  on  their  own  and  became  much  more  self-­reliant.    
 
The  most  advanced  Mesoamerican  civilization  was  the  Maya  civilization  that  
was  well  on  its  way  to  develop  true  science.  They  knew  how  to  make  paper  and  
had   pictorial   script   called   Maya   hieroglyphs   that   allowed   them   to   record   all  
knowledge  on  long  strips  of  paper  folded  harmonica-­style  into  books.  One  of  the  
three   books   recovered   called   The   Dresden   Codex   contains   predictions   of   solar  
eclipses   for   centuries   and   a   table   of   predicted   positions   of   Venus.   Unlike   the  
European  scientists  who  used  astronomical  instruments  like  telescopes,  the  Maya  
made  predictions  by  aligning  stars  with  two  objects  that  were  separated  by  a  large  
distance,  a  technique  that  achieved  great  accuracy  of  angular  measurement.  As  a  
result,  the  Maya  developed  the  most  accurate  calendar  ever  designed.  
 
The  Aztec  followed  the  same  road.  They  kept  their  own  script  and  languages  
but  assimilated  all  they  could  learn  from  Maya  society.  Their  manuscripts  describe  
how  the  Maya  performed  their  astronomical  observations.    
 
Several  outstanding  achievements  can  be  reported  in  the  area  of  technology  
and   invention.   The   manufacture   of   rubber   was   one   of   the   earliest   inventions,  
documented  by  the  use  of  a  rubber  ball  in  the  ball  game  tlachtli,  a  game  played  by  
Meso-­American  civilizations  from  earliest  times.  In  architecture  the  Maya  were  the  
first   to   use   pitched   ceilings   in   their   buildings   after   the   invention   of   the   corbelled  
vault.   Aztec   city   builders   also   understood   the   need   for   public   sanitation;;   public  
latrines  were  found  along  all  highways,  and  to  prevent  pollution  of  Lake  Texcoco  
canoes  transported  the  sewage  from  Tenochtitlán  to  the  mainland  every  morning.  
(von  Hagen,  1957)  
 
American  people  were  gifted  horticulturalists  and  cultivated  crop  plants  from  
the   earliest   times.   Among   the   plants   that   originated   in   Meso-­America   are   corn  

38
 (maize),  papaya,  avocado  and  cocoa.  Maize  is  the  only  cultivated  plant  that  was  
developed  so  early  in  human  history  that  its  wild  ancestor  is  no  longer  known.  It  
can,   however,   still   be   crossed   with   two   other   plants   found   only   on   the   Yucatan  
Peninsula.  
 
Finally,  several  sculptures  found  at  Meso-­American  sites  in  1975,  1979  and  
1983  and  dating  back  to  2000  -­  1500  BC  have  clear  magnetic  properties.  In  some  
of  these  sculptures  the  north  and  south  poles  are  in  most  conspicuous  positions,  
for  example  at  the  snout  and  at  the  back  of  the  head  of  a  frog  or  turtle.  Another  
magnetic   object   found   in   1966   was   shaped   as   if   it   was   to   be   used   to   indicate  
direction.  These  finds  strongly  suggest  that  the  early  Meso-­American  civilizations  
knew  about  and  used  magnetism.  (Malmström,  1976,  1979)  
 
E.   Asian  Scientific  Revolution  
 
Aside   from   China,   there   were   other   Asian   countries   that   contributed   to   the  
development  of  science  and  technology  in  the  world,  although  it  varied  depending  
on  country  and  time,  specially  in  the  present  times.  Currently,  Japan  is  probably  
the   most   notable   country   in   Asia   in   terms   of   scientific   and   technological  
achievement,  particularly  in  terms  of  its  electronics  and  automobile  products.  Other  
countries  are  also  notable  in  other  scientific  fields  such  as  chemical  and  physical  
achievements.    
The   general   conception   is   that   many   of   the   cutting-­edge   technological  
developments,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  scientific  advancements,  emanate  from  Asia.  
For   instance,   Japan,   Taiwan,   South   Korea,   and   China   together   produce   a  
staggering  90%  of  the  world’s  digital  gadgets.  Aside  from  the  region’s  hardware  
dominance,  nations  across  Asia  are  becoming  increasingly  important  to  the  global  
supply  of  digital  content  and  services,  something  which  will  only  increase  as  the  
continent  develops  over  the  coming  decades.    
South  Korea’s  cultural  popularity  around  the  world  has  caused  a  number  of  
startup’s   to   emerge   working   within   the   digital   and   technology   sectors,   including  
website  viki.com.    
Taiwan   is   following   a   similar   path   to   Japan   meanwhile,   moving   away   from  
hardware  production,  instead  turning  to  software  and  content  development.  
Together,   the   points   raised   throughout   this   article   proves   Asia   is   truly   a  
crucible   of   innovative   technological   development;;   a   continent   that   will   play   an  
incredibly  important  role  in  the  evolution  of  our  digital  age.  
 
 
F.   Scientific  Revolution  in  Middle  East  
 
During  the  3,000  years  of  urbanized  life  in  Mesopotamia  and  Egypt  tremendous  
strides   were   made   in   various   branches   of   science   and   technology.   The   greatest  
advances  were  made  in  Mesopotamia—very  possibly  because  of  its  constant  shift  of  
population  and  openness  to  foreign  influence,  in  contrast  to  the  relative  isolation  of  
Egypt  and  the  consequent  stability  of  its  population.  The  Egyptians  excelled  in  such  

39
applied  sciences  as  medicine,  engineering,  and  surveying;;  in  Mesopotamia  greater  
progress  was  made  in  astronomy  and  mathematics.  The  development  of  astronomy  
seems   to   have   been   greatly   accelerated   by   that   of   astrology,   which   took   the   lead  
among  the  quasi-­sciences  involved  in  divination.  The  Egyptians  remained  far  behind  
the  Babylonians  in  developing  astronomy,  while  Babylonian  medicine,  because  of  its  
chiefly  magical  character,  was  less  advanced  than  that  of  Egypt.  In  engineering  and  
architecture  Egyptians  took  an  early  lead,  owing  largely  to  the  stress  they  laid  on  the  
construction  of  such  elaborate  monuments  as  vast  pyramids  and  temples  of  granite  
and  sandstone.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Babylonians  led  in  the  development  of  such  
practical  arts  as  irrigation  (Albright,  2014).    
 
Both   sciences   and   pseudosciences   spread   from   Egypt   and   Mesopotamia  
to   Phoenicia   and   Anatolia.   The   Phoenicians   in   particular   transmitted   much   of   this  
knowledge  to  the  various  lands  of  the  Mediterranean,  especially  to  the  Greeks.  The  
direction  taken  by  these  influences  can  be  followed  from  Egypt  to  Syria,  Phoenicia,  
and  Cyprus,  thanks  to  a  combination  of  excavated  art  forms  that  prove  the  direction  
of  movement,  as  well  as  to  Greek  tradition,  which  lays  great  stress  on  what  the  early  
Greek   philosophers   learned   from   Egypt.   Mesopotamian   influence   can   be   traced  
especially  through  the  partial  borrowing  of  Babylonian  science  and  divination  by  the  
Hittites  and  later  by  the  transmission  of  information  through  Phoenicia.  The  Egyptians  
and  Mesopotamians  wrote  no  theoretical  treatises;;  information  had  to  be  transmitted  
piecemeal  through  personal  contacts.  
 
Of   all   the   accomplishments   of   the   ancient   Middle   East,   the   invention   of   the  
alphabet  is  probably  the  greatest.  While  pre-­alphabetic  systems  of  writing  in  the  Old  
World  became  steadily  more  phonetic,  they  were  still  exceedingly  cumbersome,  and  
the  syllabic  systems  that  gradually  replaced  them  remained  complex  and  difficult.  In  
the  early  Hyksos  period  (17th  century  BC)  the  Northwestern  Semites  living  in  Egypt  
adapted  hieroglyphic  characters—in  at  least  two  slightly  differing  forms  of  letters—to  
their   own   purposes.   Thus   was   developed   the   earliest   known   purely   consonantal  
alphabet,   imitated   in   northern   Syria,   with   the   addition   of   two   letters   to   designate  
vowels  used  with  the  glottal  catch.  
 
This   alphabet   spread   rapidly   and   was   in   quite   common   use   among   the  
Northwestern   Semites   (Canaanites,   Hebrews,   Aramaeans,   and   especially   the  
Phoenicians)  soon  after  its  invention.  By  the  9th  century  BC  the  Phoenicians  were  
using  it  in  the  western  Mediterranean,  and  the  Greeks  and  Phrygians  adopted  it  in  
the  8th.  The  alphabet  contributed  vastly  to  the  Greek  cultural  and  literary  revolution  
in   the   immediately   following   period.   From   the   Greeks   it   was   transmitted   to   other  
Western   peoples.   Since   language   must   always   remain   the   chief   mode   of  
communication   for   people,   its   union   with   hearing   and   vision   in   a   uniquely   simple  
phonetic   structure   has   probably   revolutionized   civilization   more   than   any   other  
invention  in  history.  
 
 
 

40
G.   Scientific  Revolution  in  Africa  

The  history  of  the  sciences  in  Africa  is  rich  and  diverse.  The  applied  sciences  of  
agronomy,   metallurgy,   engineering   and   textile   production,   as   well   as   medicine,  
dominated  the  field  of  activity  across  Africa.  So  advanced  was  the  culture  of  farming  
within  West  Africa,  that  ‘New  World‘  agricultural  growth  was  spawned  by  the  use  of  
captives  from  these  African  societies  that  had  already  made  enormous  strides  in  the  
field  of  agronomy.  In  her  work  Black  Rice,  Judith  Carnoy  demonstrates  the  legacy  of  
enslaved  Africans  to  the  Americas  in  the  sphere  of  rice  cultivation.  We  know  also  that  
a  variety  of  African  plants  were  adopted  in  Asia,  including  coffee,  the  oil  palm,  fonio  
or   acha   (digitaria   exilis),   African   rice   (oryza   glabberima),   and   sorghum   (sorghum  
bicolor).  Plants,  whether  in  terms  of  legumes,  grain,  vegetables,  tubers,  or,  wild  or  
cultivated   fruits,   also   had   medicinal   implications   for   Africans   and   were   used   as  
anesthetics   or   pain   killers,   analgesics   for   the   control   of   fever,   antidotes   to   counter  
poisons,   and   anthelmints   aimed   at   deworming.   They   were   used   also   in  
cardiovascular,  gastro-­intestinal,  and  dermatological  contexts.  Some  of  these  such  
as  hoodia  gordonii  and  combrettum  caffrum  are  being  integrated  within  contemporary  
pharmaceutical  systems  (Emeagwali,  n.d.).  
 
Africa’s  areas  of  scientific  investigation  include  the  fields  of  astronomy,  physics,  
and  mathematics.  Laird  Scranton,  making  use  of  the  extensive  collections  of  Marcel  
Griaule,   has   deepened   our   understanding   of   Malian   cosmological   myths   and   their  
perceptions   of   the   structure   of   matter   and   the   physical   world.   Dogon   knowledge  
systems  have  also  been  explored  in  terms  of  their  perceptions  on  astronomy.  Dogon  
propositions   about   Sirius   B   have   been   discussed   by   Charles   Finch   in   The   Star   of  
Deep  Beginnings.  The  solar  calendar  that  we  use  today  evolved  from  the  Egyptian  
calendar  of  twelve  months,  calibrated  according  to  the  day  on  which  the  star  Sirius  
rose  on  the  horizon  with  the  Sun.  Scranton  suggests  major  interconnections  between  
the  thought  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  and  that  of  the  Malians  of  West  Africa.  
 
In  the  field  of  Mathematics,  Nubian  builders  calculated  the  volumes  of  masonry  
and  building  materials,  as  well  as  the  slopes  of  pyramids,  for  construction  purposes.  
Bianchi  points  to  a  Nubian  engraving  at  Meroe,  in  ancient  Sudan,  dated  to  the  first  
century   B.C.E.,   which   reflects   “a   sophisticated   understanding   of   mathematics.”  
Included  in  the  engraving  were  several  lines,  inclined  at  a  72-­degree  angle,  running  
diagonally   from   the   base   of   a   pyramid.   Bianchi   suggests   that   the   Nubian   King  
Amanikhabale  of  the  first  century  BCE  was  the  owner  of  that  pyramid.  Interestingly,  
the   Nubians   of   Meroe,   who   constructed   more   pyramids   than   the   Egyptians,   built  
steep,  flat-­topped  pyramids.  
 
In   the   field   of   medicine,   common   patterns   and   trends   emerged   across   the  
continent.  These  included  scientifically  proven  methods,  as  well  as  techniques  and  
strategies  which  were  culturally  specific  and  psychologically  significant.  Among  the  
common   principles   and   procedures   were   hydrotherapy,   heat   therapy,   spinal  
manipulation,   quarantine,   bone-­setting   and   surgery.   Incantations   and   other  
psychotherapeutic   devices   sometimes   accompanied   other   techniques.   The  

41
 knowledge   of   specific   medicinal   plants   was   quite   extensive   in   some   kingdoms,  
empires,   and   city   states   such   as   Aksum,   and   Borgu   (in   Hausaland).   The   latter  
continues  to  be  well  known  for  orthopedics  (bone-­setting),  as  is  the  case  of  Funtua  in  
Northern  Nigeria.  Many  traditional  techniques  are  still  utilized  in  some  areas.  Others  
have  undergone  change  over  time,  have  been  revived  in  more  recent  periods,  or  have  
fallen  into  oblivion.  

Various  types  of  metal  products  have  been  used  over  time  by  Africans,  ranging  
from   gold,   tin,   silver,   bronze,   brass,   and   iron/steel.   The   Sudanic   empires   of   West  
Africa  emerged  in  the  context  of  various  commercial  routes  and  activities  involving  
the  gold  trade.  In  the  North  and  East,  Ethiopia  and  Sudan  were  the  major  suppliers  
of  gold,  with  Egypt  a  major  importer.  In  Southern  Africa,  the  kingdom  of  Monomotapa  
(Munhumutapa)  reigned  supreme  as  a  major  gold  producer.  In  the  various  spheres  
of  metal  production,  specific  techniques  and  scientific  principles  included:  excavation  
and  ore  identification;;  separation  of  ore  from  non-­ore  bearing  rock;;  smelting  by  the  
use  of  bellows  and  heated  furnaces;;  and  smithing  and  further  refinement.  
The   use   of   multishaft   and   open-­shaft   systems   facilitated   circulation   of   air   in  
intense  heating  processes,  while  the  bellows  principle  produced  strong  currents  of  air  
in  a  chamber  expanded  to  draw  in  or  expel  air  through  a  valve.  The  various  metal  
products   served   a   wide   range   of   purposes,   including:   armor   (as   in   some   northern  
Nigerian  city-­states),  jewelry  (of  gold,  silver,  iron,  copper  and  brass),  cooking  utensils,  
cloth  dyeing,  sculpture,  and  agricultural  tools.  The  technical  know-­how  and  expertise  
of   blacksmiths   helped   to   enhance   their   status,   although   they   were   also   often  
associated  with  supernatural  and  psychic  powers,  as  well.  
 
In   various   parts   of   ancient,   medieval,   and   contemporary   Africa,   building  
constructions  of  various  dimensions,  shapes,  and  types  emerged,  reflecting  various  
concepts,  techniques,  raw  material  preferences,  and  decorative  principles.  Builders  
integrated   the   concepts   of   the   arch,   the   dome,   and   columns   and   aisles   in   their  
constructions.   The   underground   vaults   and   passages,   as   well   as   the   rock-­hewn  
churches,   of   Axum   are   matched   in   Nubia   and   Egypt   with   pyramids   of   various  
dimensions.  In  the  Sahelian  region,  adobe,  or  dried  clay,  was  preferred  in  the  context  
of  moulded  contours,  at  times  integrated  with  overall  moulded  sculpture.  Permanent  
scaffolding  made  of  protruding  planks  characterized  the  Malian  region.  The  principle  
of  evaporative  cooling  was  integrated  into  building  design.  Mats  were  used  as  part  of  
the   decor   and   also   to   be   saturated   repeatedly   in   order   to   cool   the   room.  
Derelict   ruins   from   walled   cities—such   as   Kano,   Zazzau,   and   other   city-­states   of  
Hausaland  in  the  central  Sudanic  region  of  West  Africa—complement  structures  such  
as   the   rock-­hewn   and   moulded   churches   of   Lalibela   in   Ethiopia   or   the   Zimbabwe  
enclosures.  The  structures  of  ancient  Nubia,  as  well  as  those  of  Egypt,  are  parallel  
structures  in  the  northeast.    
 
 
 
 
 

42
 H.   Information  Revolution  
 
Information   revolution   is   a   period   of   change   that   describes   current  
economic,  social  and  technological  trends  beyond  the  Industrial  Revolution.  The  
information   revolution   was   fueled   by   advances   in   semiconductor   technology,  
particularly   the   metal-­oxide-­semiconductor   field-­effect   transistor   (MOSFET)   and  
the   integrated   circuit   (IC)   chip,   leading   to   the   Information   Age   in   the   early   21st  
century  (Lukasiak,  2010;;  Orton,  2009).  
 
Information   revolution   might   prove   as   significant   to   the   lives   of   people.  
Computer  technology  is  at  the  root  of  this  change,  and  continuing  advancements  
in   that   technology   seem   to   ensure   that   this   revolution   would   touch   the   lives   of  
people.   Computers   are   unique   machines;;   they   help   to   extend   the   brain   power.  
Computerized  robots  have  been  replacing  blue-­collar  workers;;  they  might  soon  be  
replacing  white  collar  workers  as  well.  Computers  are  merely  devices  that  follow  
sets  of  instructions  called  computer  programs,  or  software,  that  have  been  written  
by  people  called  computer  programmers.  Computers  offer  many  benefits,  but  there  
are  also  many  dangers.  They  could  help  others  invade  one's  privacy  or  wage  war.  
They  might  turn  one  into  button  pusher  and  cause  massive  unemployment.  User-­
friendly   systems   can   be   easily   used   by   untrained   people.   The   key   development  
that  made  personal  computers  possible  was  the  invention  of  the  microprocessor  
chip  at  Intel  in  1971.  
 
The   information   revolution   led   us   to   the   age   of   the   internet,   where  
optical  communication  networks  play  a  key  role  in  delivering  massive  amounts  of  
data.   The   world   has   experienced   phenomenal   network   growth   during   the   last  
decade,  and  further  growth  is  imminent.  The  internet  will  continue  to  expand  due  
to   user   population   growth   and   internet   penetration:   previously  
inaccessible   geographical   regions   in   Africa   and   Asia   will   come   online.   Network  
growth   will   only   be   accelerated   by   improvements   in   integrated  
circuits.  Transistor  size  has  been  halved  every  two  years  since  the  middle  of  the  
last  century.  The  new  internet-­based  global  economy  requires  a  worldwide  network  
with   high   capacity   and   availability,   which   is   currently   limited  
by  submarine  optical  communication  cables.  
 
New  ideas  keep  coming  from  the  information  transport  community.  Since  
the   first   edition   of   Undersea   Fiber   Communication   Systems   in   2002,   the   optical  
fiber  communication  industry  moved  into  the  “coherent”  era.  We  transport  an  order  
of  magnitude  more  bits  than  just  five  years  ago.  We  encode  information  into  phase,  
polarization,  and  amplitude  of  electromagnetic  waves.  Michael  Faraday  would  be  
proud,  knowing  that  we  send  over  10,000,000,000,000  bits  every  second  across  
the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  a  single  strand  of  fiber.  We  would  leave  in  awe  Sir  William  
Thomson   (known   as   Lord   Kelvin),   who   was   the   scientific   leader   of   an   1858  
endeavor  that  built  the  first  submarine  cable  with  a  transmission  speed  of  one  word  
per   minute.   Sir   Thomson   and   Cyrus   Field,   an   American   businessman  
and  telecommunications  pioneer,  would  be  surprised  to  find  out  how  many  tools  

43
 developed   during   their   first   transatlantic   expedition   are   still   in   use   today.   At   first  
glance,  the  modern  cable  looks  similar  to  the  1858  cable,  which  was  copper  based  
with   a   gutta-­percha   (trans-­poly   isoprene)   isolator.   In   modern   day   cables,   gutta-­
percha   has   been   replaced   with   polyethylene.   We   still   use   copper   to   power  
submarine  repeaters,  and  have  added  optical  fibers  during  the  last  decade  of  the  
last  century.    
 
The  uniqueness  of  this  engineering  marvel  is  a  combination  of  information  
science,   nonlinear   optics,   electrical   engineering,   material   science,   engineering  
practices,   project   management,   marine   expertise,   and   high   reliability   standard.  
Undersea  fiber  communication  systems  will  continue  to  serve  society.  
 
  Impact  of  Information  Revolution  
 
The  truly  revolutionary  impact  of  the  Information  Revolution  is  just  beginning  
to   be   felt.   But   it   is   not   "information"   that   fuels   this   impact.   It   is   not   "artificial  
intelligence."   It   is   not   the   effect   of   computers   and   data   processing   on   decision-­
making,  policymaking,  or  strategy.  It  is  something  that  practically  no  one  foresaw  
or,  indeed,  even  talked  about  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago:  e-­commerce—that  is,  the  
explosive   emergence   of   the   Internet   as   a   major,   perhaps   eventually   the   major,  
worldwide   distribution   channel   for   goods,   for   services,   and,   surprisingly,   for  
managerial   and   professional   jobs.   This   is   profoundly   changing   economies,  
markets,  and  industry  structures;;  products  and  services  and  their  flow;;  consumer  
segmentation,  consumer  values,  and  consumer  behavior;;  jobs  and  labor  markets.  
But  the  impact  may  be  even  greater  on  societies  and  politics  and,  above  all,  on  the  
way  we  see  the  world  and  ourselves  in  it.  
At  the  same  time,  new  and  unexpected  industries  will  no  doubt  emerge,  and  
fast.  One  is  already  here:  biotechnology.  And  another:  fish  farming.  Within  the  next  
fifty  years  fish  farming  may  change  us  from  hunters  and  gatherers  on  the  seas  into  
"marine  pastoralists"—just  as  a  similar  innovation  some  10,000  years  ago  changed  
our   ancestors   from   hunters   and   gatherers   on   the   land   into   agriculturists   and  
pastoralists.  
It  is  likely  that  other  new  technologies  will  appear  suddenly,  leading  to  major  
new  industries.  What  they  may  be  is  impossible  even  to  guess  at.  But  it  is  highly  
probable—indeed,  nearly  certain—that  they  will  emerge,  and  fairly  soon.  And  it  is  
nearly  certain  that  few  of  them—and  few  industries  based  on  them—will  come  out  
of  computer  and  information  technology.  Like  biotechnology  and  fish  farming,  each  
will  emerge  from  its  own  unique  and  unexpected  technology.  
Of  course,  these  are  only  predictions.  But  they  are  made  on  the  assumption  
that   the   Information   Revolution   will   evolve   as   several   earlier   technology-­based  
"revolutions"   have   evolved   over   the   past   500   years,   since   Gutenberg's   printing  
revolution,   around   1455.   In   particular,   the   assumption   is   that   the   Information  
Revolution   will   be   like   the   Industrial   Revolution   of   the   late   eighteenth   and   early  
nineteenth   centuries.   And   that   is   indeed   exactly   how   the   Information   Revolution  
has  been  during  its  first  fifty  years.  
 

44