J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn.

98 (2010) 520–532

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Wind Engineering

and Industrial Aerodynamics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jweia

An investigation into the sheltering performance of porous windbreaks under

various wind directions
Cheng-Peng Yeh a, Chien-Hsiung Tsai b, Ruey-Jen Yang a,n
a
Department of Engineering Science, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
b
Department of Vehicle Engineering, National Pingtong University of Science and Technology, Pingtong, Taiwan

a r t i c l e in f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study performs a series of simulations utilizing the Navier–Stokes equations and the RNG k–e
Received 2 December 2008 turbulence model to investigate the efficacy of porous windbreaks in preventing the wind erosion of
Received in revised form stockpiles in an open storage yard. The simulations focus specifically on the effects of the fence porosity,
19 April 2010
the geometric configuration of the wind fence, and the direction of the incident wind. The basic validity
Accepted 23 April 2010
of the simulation model is confirmed by performing scale-model wind-tunnel experiments. In general,
Available online 15 May 2010
the results show that the dust control efficiency of the windbreak is fundamentally dependent on the
Keywords: direction of the incident wind. It addition, it is shown that a rectangular wind fence provides a poor
Windbreak sheltering effect for wind incident with an angle of 451, but is relatively more effective for winds
Wind erosion
incident in a normal direction. By contrast, an octagonal wind fence yields higher dust control efficiency
CFD
for oblique incident angles, but is less effective for normally incident winds. Finally, it is shown that the
RNG k–e turbulence model
shelter effect can be improved, via the deployment of additional wind fences within the storage yard or
at either end of the yard.
& 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction fence with a porosity of ep ¼30% reduced the pressure fluctuation

The wind erosion of stockpiles in an open storage yard is an
important concern in the wind engineering domain. However, the
mechanisms responsible for wind erosion are highly complex and
vary in accordance with differences in the local geographical,
meteorological, and stockpile surface conditions. Loredo-Souza and
Schettini (2005) showed that the erosion of coal piles in an open
storage yard was the result of three specific mechanisms, namely
creep, saltation, and suspension. Park and Lee (2002) reported that
the dust emissions from open coal piles were directly related to the
pressure fluctuations and shear stress acting on the surface of the
pile, and could be significantly reduced by arranging porous wind
fences in such a way that the turbulence intensity of the wind was
reduced before passing over the pile.
Many previous studies have shown that the intensity of the
turbulent flow behind a wind fence is dependent upon the fence
porosity, ep, i.e. the ratio of the aggregated area of the holes in the
fence to the total surface area of the fence. Castro (1971)
performed two-dimensional simulations to investigate the wake
characteristics of perforated plates positioned normal to an air-
stream and showed that the recirculation zone behind the plates
disappeared when the porosity exceeded a value of ep ¼30%.
Similarly, Yaragal et al. (1997) showed experimentally that a wind
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: + 886 6 2002724; fax: + 886 6 2766549.
E-mail address: rjyang@mail.ncku.edu.tw (R.-J. Yang).
in the downstream region of the fence by around 50% compared to
a solid fence. However, neither study addressed the effect of the
resulting flow patterns on the sheltered stockpiles, and thus their
results were of little direct benefit in determining how best to
configure the windbreaks around a real-world storage yard. In an
attempt to address this limitation, Lee et al. (Lee and Kim, 1999;
Lee and Park, 2000, 2001; Lee et al., 2002; Park and Lee, 2003)
performed a series of wind-tunnel experiments to examine the
mutual interaction between the geometry of the stockpile, the
properties and position of the windbreak, and the conditions of
the atmospheric boundary layer in determining the wind erosion
characteristics of open coal and sand piles. Santiago et al. (2007)
verified the performance of various turbulence models by
performing wind tunnel experiments and showed that a wind
fence with a porosity of ep ¼30–40% yielded an effective reduction
in the pressure fluctuations acting on the surface of a stockpile
with a prism-like geometry. Lee and Lim (2001) utilized the RNG
(renormalization group) k–e turbulence model to examine the
flow characteristics around a 2-D triangular-shaped prism located
behind a porous wind fence as a function of the porosity, height
and position of the fence. Their results showed that a porosity of
around 30–50% resulted in the maximum attenuation of the mean
pressure acting on the prism surface.
However, doubts remains over the ability of small-scale
simulation models to accurately reproduce the wind erosion
mechanisms observed in the real world (Sakamoto et al., 2001;
Obasaju and Robins, 1998). Consequently, Meroney (2006) and

0167-6105/$ - see front matter & 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jweia.2010.04.002
 C.-P. Yeh et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 98 (2010) 520–532 521

Torano et al. (2006) argued that while small-scale simulations Einstein summation convention as follows:
provide a useful means of validating the experimental results  
@ðrkÞ @ðrkÞ @ mt @k
obtained using a small scale model, obtaining accurate insights þui ¼ þGre ð3Þ
@t @xi @xi sk @xi
into the real-world wind erosion phenomenon requires the use of
full-scale simulation models. In addition to the scaling problem,  
the majority of the windbreak studies presented in the literature @ðreÞ @ðreÞ @ mt @e e e2
þ ui ¼ þ C1e GC2e r ð4Þ
consider the simplified case in which the wind blows in one @t @xi @xi se @xi k k
direction only. Bourdin and Wilson (2007) presented computa-
where k is the turbulence kinetic energy, e is the kinetic energy
tional fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations which showed that the
dissipation rate, sk is the Prandtl number of the turbulence kinetic
nature of the flow structures formed behind windbreaks is
energy, and se is the Prandtl number of the turbulence kinetic
fundamentally dependent on the direction of the wind. However,
energy dissipation rate. The remaining variables in Eqs. (3) and (4)
the simulations did not consider the stockpiles themselves, and
are defined as follows:
therefore definitive conclusions regarding the optimal configura-
tion of the windbreaks relative to the stockpiles could not be G ¼ 2mt Sij Sij , ð5Þ
obtained.
In an attempt to address the various limitations described C2e ¼ C2e þ C20 e , ð6Þ
above, this study conducts full-scale CFD simulations using the
Reynolds averaged Navier–Stokes equations and the RNG k–e
Cm rZ3 ð1Z=Z0 Þ
turbulence model to investigate the efficacy of porous windbreaks C02e ¼ , ð7Þ
1 þ bZ3
in suppressing the wind erosion of stockpiles in an open storage
yard. The simulations commenced by investigating the correlation
between the porosity of the windbreak and the wind velocity at k2
mt ¼ rCm , ð8Þ
which particles are first eroded from the stockpile. The validity of e
the simulation model is confirmed by comparing the numerical
results with the observations obtained from scale-model wind k
Z¼S , ð9Þ
tunnel experiments. A series of simulations are then performed to e
investigate the shelter effect provided by wind fences with qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
different geometrical configurations under various normal and S¼ 2Sij Sij , ð10Þ
oblique incident wind directions.
where Sij is the shearing-rate tensor. The coefficients of the
model are the default values proposed by Fluent (2006), i.e.,
Cu ¼0.085, se ¼0.719, sk ¼0.719, C1e ¼ 1.42, C2e ¼1.68, b ¼0.012,
2. Model description and Z0 ¼4.38.

2.1. Governing equation

2.2. Porous media model
2.1.1. 3-D averaged Navier–Stokes equations
In modeling the flow field characteristics within the storage In the simulations, the flow of the wind through the windbreak
yard, the present simulations make two fundamental assump- is modeled in accordance with Darcy’s law. That is, an additional
tions: (1) the existence of a neutral atmospheric boundary layer momentum source term is added to the standard fluid flow
and (2) the fluid flow satisfies the continuity equations and equations. The source term comprises an inertial loss term
3-D Reynolds averaged Navier–Stokes momentum equations. (Idel’chik, 1986).
In addition, the model is simplified by assuming that a non-slip 1
boundary condition and the fluid flows in an incompressible Dp ¼ C2 r9uj 9uj ð11Þ
2
manner. The governing equations can therefore be written as
follows: where C2 (E z/l) is the inertial resistance factor and can be
Continuity equation: computed from empirical equations as follows:
 
@r @ ro1 2 l 1
þ ðrui Þ ¼ 0, ð1Þ z1KB ¼ Dp= ¼ z0 þ l , ð12Þ
@t @xi 2 dr ep 2

where r is the density of the fluid and ui denotes the fluid velocity
ro21 1
in the ith direction. z ¼ Dp ¼ zj þ e0Re z1KB , ð13Þ
2 e2p
Momentum equation:
  where z0 is the contrast constant (Table 1) (Idel’chik, 1986),
@ @ @p @ @u @  
ðrui Þ þ ðrui uj Þ ¼  þ m i þ ru0i u0j , ð2Þ l is the thickness, dr is the hydraulic diameter, l is the friction
@t @xj @xi @xj @xj @xj
coefficient ( ¼0.3164/Re0.25), ep is the porosity, and z is the correct
where p is the static pressure and ru0i u0j is the Reynolds stress value by the Reynolds number (Table 2) (Idel’chik, 1986).
caused by turbulence.
Table 1
Corresponding value by different porosity.

2.1.2. Turbulence model ep 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

In the present simulations, the turbulent flow is modeled using z0 1.71 1.67 1.63 1.59 1.55 1.50
the RNG k–e turbulence model because of its good prediction of
ep 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
complex flows (Choudhury, 1993). The complete formulation z0 1.45 1.39 1.32 1.22 1.00
of the RNG k–e turbulence model (Fluent Inc., 2006) is given in
522 C.-P. Yeh et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 98 (2010) 520–532

Table 2
Corresponding value by different Reynolds number.

Re
ep
25 40 60 102 2  102 4  102 103
e0Re

0.34 0.36 0.37 0.40 0.42 0.46 0.53

zj

0 1.94 1.38 1.14 0.89 0.69 0.64 0.39

0.2 1.78 1.36 1.05 0.85 0.67 0.57 0.36
0.3 1.57 1.16 0.88 0.75 0.57 0.43 0.30
0.4 1.35 0.99 0.79 0.57 0.40 0.28 0.19
0.5 1.10 0.75 0.55 0.34 0.19 0.12 0.07
0.6 0.85 0.56 0.30 0.19 0.10 0.06 0.03
0.7 0.58 0.37 0.23 0.11 0.06 0.03 0.02
0.8 0.40 0.24 0.13 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.01
0.9 0.20 0.13 0.08 0.03 0.01 0 0
0.95 0.03 0.03 0.02 0 0 0 0

Re
ep
2  103 4  103 104 2  104 105 2  105 106
e0Re

0.59 0.64 0.74 0.81 0.94 0.96 0.98

zj

0 0.30 0.22 0.15 0.11 0.04 0.01 0

0.2 0.26 0.20 0.13 0.09 0.03 0.01 0
0.3 0.22 0.17 0.10 0.07 0.03 0.01 0
0.4 0.14 0.10 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.01 0
0.5 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0
0.6 0.02 0.01 0.01 0 0 0 0
0.7 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.95 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2.3. Numerical method

The simulations were performed using FLUENT CFD software.

In the solution procedure, the differential equations were
discretized using the finite volume method and the pressure
and velocity fields were decoupled using the semi-implicit
method for pressure-linked equation (SIMPLE) (Patankar, 1980).

2.4. Boundary conditions

2.4.1. Atmospheric boundary layer

Generally speaking, the atmospheric boundary layer within a
height of 200 m of the Earth’s surface is called the atmospheric
surface layer and has a virtually constant shear stress. Thus, in the
present simulations, the input profile of the velocity and
turbulence (k and e) conform to the following neutral atmospheric
boundary layer distribution (Richards and Hoxey, 1993):
 
u z þz0
UðzÞ ¼ ln , ð14Þ
K z0
 n Fig. 1. Computational domain of 3-D storage yard model.
z
UðzÞ ¼ Uref , ð15Þ
zref

ðu Þ2
kðzÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi , ð16Þ length ( ¼0.01 m, which is equivalent to a roughness height of
Cm
approximately 0.3 m of the suburb), Cm is a model constant of the
standard k–e model ( ¼0.09), k is the turbulent kinetic energy, and
ðu Þ3
eðzÞ ¼ , ð17Þ e is the turbulent dissipation rate. Note that Eq. (14) is equivalent
Kðz þ z0 Þ
to the power law profile governing the velocity in the atmospheric
where U is the velocity, un is the friction velocity, K denotes the boundary layer (shown in Eq. (15)), for which n has a value of
von-Karman constant ( ¼0.41), z is the height, z0 is the roughness approximately 0.14.
 C.-P. Yeh et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 98 (2010) 520–532 523

2.4.2. Computational domain domain. A depth of 8H will lead to the blockage ratio r4%, and is
Fig. 1 presents a schematic illustration of the computational consistent with that suggested by Franke et al. (2004).
domain for the 3-D full-scale storage yard model used in the
present simulations. As shown, the storage yard is assumed to 2.5. Grid system
contain five parallel rows of prism-like stockpiles interrupted at
their mid-length positions by a central aisle. Appropriate The computational domain was meshed using an orthogonal
conditions are specified at boundary cells to correctly reflect grid system in order to accurately reproduce the boundary layer
the physical phenomena of the flow field. At the upstream section, phenomenon near the ground. Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 3,
the neutral atmospheric boundary layer velocity profile is the mesh was constructed using a non-uniform grid size in order
imposed. A reference pressure for the outlet at the downstream to achieve a satisfactory trade-off between the computational cost
section of the computational domain is specified. On the and the need to capture the dramatic variations in the flow field in
boundary at the top and the lateral of the domain, a zero-gra- the vicinity of the windbreaks and stockpile surface. The
dient in the direction normal to the boundary for pressure is computational grids keep expansion ratio g r1.5 in regions of
assumed. For solid boundaries, a non-slip condition is used. In high velocity gradients, and the maximum aspect ratio of the
addition, the wall boundaries are assigned to the terrain surface, grids are less than 50. The height of first cell adjacent to the wall
which is applied through the standard wall functions imple- (bottom of domain) is 2.5 times of the roughness height (Franke
mented in Fluent 6.3.26 (2006). The wall function definition plays et al., 2004). In total, the grid comprised around two million
an important role that should be compatible with inlet velocity, individual cells.
turbulent kinetic energy, and turbulence dissipation rate.
Otherwise, the velocity profile will be immediately affected by
2.6. Numerical validation
the incorrect wall boundary. Recently, this compatibility problem
has been addressed by Blocken et al. (2007). As suggested,
To our knowledge, this paper maybe the first study to simulate
alleviating the requirement yp 4ks can partially solve this
the flow around a porous wind fence and flow interacting with
problem. Here yp is a distance from the center point P of the
stockpiles embedded in an atmospheric layer. Hence, in order to
wall-adjacent cell to the wall (bottom of domain), and ks is the
validate the numerical method and the possible applicability of
height of physical roughness. Fig. 2 indicates the principal real-
the turbulence models used later for simulating these cases in this
world dimensions of interest in the model, namely the height and
study, we choose the Bradley and Mulhearn (1983) data as a
width of each stockpile, the separation distance between
benchmark. They measured field data of velocity and stress
neighboring stockpiles, the distance between the final stockpile
perturbations behind a shelter fence (height¼1.2 m) in a neutral
and the fence, and the height of the fence, respectively. Note that
atmospheric boundary layer. In the comparison, streamwise
for full-scale storage yard model, the depth of the computational
velocity component is normalized with the average wind speed
domain is 8H (¼ 0.15 L). To consider both accuracy and efficiency
for our numerical calculations, several numerical experiments
have been carried out to ensure the erosion potential calculated in
this paper do not depend on the choice of the computational

Fig. 2. Schematic illustration showing critical dimensions in full-scale simulation Fig. 4. Variations for horizontal profiles of streamwise mean velocity (U/U04) at z/
model. h¼0.38, 1.88.

Fig. 3. Body-fit grid system used in present simulations.

524 C.-P. Yeh et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 98 (2010) 520–532
of oncoming upstream flow at height z ¼4 m (U04). Normalized
velocities at fixed heights of z/h¼0.38 and 1.88 are shown in
Fig. 4. Computed normalized velocity for the two turbulence
models are qualitative in good agreement with the experimental
data. Overall, the numerical results of RNG k–e model (present
model) are more accurate than the standard k–e model in terms of
the variations of the flow field.
2.7. Evaluation of windbreak efficacy
In the present simulations, the efficacy of the various wind
fences was evaluated in terms of two performance indicators,
namely the wind erosion potential and the dust control efficiency.
According to Section 13.2.5 of the AP-42 Compilation of Air
Pollutant Emission Factors published by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA), the wind erosion emissions from a
stockpile can be estimated by the following emission factor:
X
N
Emission factor ¼ m Pi ,
i¼1
where m is a particle size multiplier, N is the number of
disturbances per year, and Pi is the erosion potential (g/m2).
The wind erosion potential, P, is defined as
P ¼ 58ðu ut Þ2 þ 25ðu ut Þ,
P¼0 for u r ut ,
where un is the friction velocity (m/s) on the surface of the storage
pile and ut is the threshold friction velocity (m/s) and is
determined experimentally. The friction velocity is given by
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u ¼ tw =r ð20Þ
In evaluating the efficacy of the windbreaks considered in this
study, the simulations adopt reference value of ut ¼0 m/s for the
most conservative estimation, and denote the corresponding
values of the wind erosion potential as P0. Note that while some
researchers have used a shear stress performance indicator to
evaluate the windbreak efficiency, this approach is similar to the
use of P0 in the present simulations since P0 ¼58 un2 +25 un.
Fig. 5. Schematic illustration showing experimental setup for particle motion visualization and threshold velocity measurement.
As shown in Eq. (18), the emission factor varies as a function of
a constant m and the wind erosion potential Pi. In practice, Pi
represents the rate of emission of particles from the stockpile. For
instance, to reduce Pi by 10% means to decrease particle emission
rate by 10%, in other words, the dust control efficiency improves
by 10%. Thus, in the current simulations the aim is to determine
the windbreak porosity and windbreak configuration, which
minimize the value of Pi. Note that in this study, the dust control
efficiency of the various windbreaks is evaluated via a comparison
with the scenario in which no fence is deployed.
2.8. Experimental apparatus and methods
The accuracy of the simulation model in predicting the wind
erosion effect was validated by performing an initial set of
experimental trials in a closed-return type wind-tunnel with a
test section of 0.55  0.55 m2 (width  height). As shown in Fig. 5,
the experimental apparatus included a green laser with an output
power of 100 mW (GM-XP01-100), a single-lens reflex camera
ð18Þ
(Canon, 350D), a DV video recorder (SONY, DCR-PC115), a VCR
and a PC. In the experiments, a 1/300 scale model of a sand
pile was constructed within the wind tunnel and the critical
threshold velocity (Vc), i.e. the velocity at which the particles
first begin to drift, was identified by gradually increasing the
velocity whilst continuously observing the image of the sand pile
ð19Þ
captured by the video recorder. In order to establish the cor-
relation between the windbreak porosity and the critical
threshold velocity, experiments were performed for three
different sheltering conditions, namely (1) no windbreak (i.e.
ep ¼100%), (2) a windbreak with a porosity of ep ¼30%, and (3) a
solid windbreak (ep ¼0%).
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Wind-tunnel experiments and numerical validations for the
1/300th geometry-scale
The qualitative analysis of the simulation model in predicting
the wind erosion effect is validated by comparing the numerical
 C.-P. Yeh et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 98 (2010) 520–532 525

results with the same scale-model used in wind-tunnel experi-
ment. The scale-model is a 1/300 scaled-down of the original coal
pile model. The computational domain for this case adopts the
test section size of the wind-tunnel in experiment. For solid
boundaries, a non-slip condition is used. At the inlet section, the
uniform flow with a constant velocity (U¼2.4, 3.6, and 7.1 m/s, for
three simulating cases) is imposed.
Fig. 6 presents the simulation and experimental results obtained
for the test-tunnel experiment performed without using a windbreak
(i.e. ep ¼100%). The simulation results presented in Fig. 6a show the
streamline patterns around the stockpile and the distribution of the
wind erosion potential on the surface of the stockpile. The results
clearly show that the majority of the airborne particles originate from
the top of the stockpile. This observation is readily confirmed in the
experimental image presented in Fig. 6b. According to the wind-
tunnel results, the corresponding critical threshold velocity has a
value of 2.4 m/s. Fig. 7 presents the simulation and experimental
results for the case in which the stockpile is sheltered behind a solid
fence (i.e. ep ¼0%). In this case, it can be seen that particle saltation
occurs principally on the windward surface of the pile due to the
formation of a vortex between the fence and the sand pile. In
addition, the experimental results show that the introduction of the
solid windbreak increases the threshold velocity to a value of around
3.6 m/s. Fig. 8 presents the simulation and experimental results
obtained when the stockpile is shielded using a windbreak with a
porosity of ep ¼30%. Both sets of results show that particle saltation is
therefore confined primarily to the leeward surface of the stockpile.
Finally, the wind-tunnel results indicate that the introduction of the
porous windbreak increases the critical velocity of the particles to
almost 7.1 m/s. Overall, the experimental images presented in
Figs. 6–8 show that the use of a windbreak with a porosity of
ep ¼30% yields a higher critical particle velocity than either a solid
windbreak or no windbreak at all, and is therefore more effective in
suppressing the wind erosion of the stockpile.

Fig. 6. Motion of sand particles without wind fence: (a) numerical simulation results (U ¼ 2.4 m/s) and (b) wind-tunnel visualization results (Vc ¼2.4 m/s).
526 C.-P. Yeh et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 98 (2010) 520–532

Fig. 7. Motion of sand particles behind solid wind fence (ep ¼0%): (a) numerical simulation results (U ¼3.6 m/s) and (b) wind-tunnel visualization results (Vc ¼ 3.6 m/s).

Figs. 6–8 demonstrate that an excellent qualitative agreement
exists between the numerical and experimental results. Further-
more, it is evident that the regions of particle saltation shown in
the experimental images coincide with the regions of higher wind
erosion potential shown in the simulation results. Thus, the
overall validity of the simulation model is confirmed.
3.2. Efficacy of wind fences in suppressing wind erosion of stockpile
under different wind directions
The results presented above have considered the wind to be
incident on the stockpile in one direction only for the wind-tunnel
test model. However, in practice, the stockpiles within an open
storage yard are exposed to wind from a variety of directions
(depending on the local environmental conditions, the time of year,
and so on). Accordingly, in searching for the wind fence configuration
which maximizes the shelter afforded to the stockpiles, it is not
enough to consider one wind direction alone. A further series of
simulations for the full-scale model were performed in which the
stockyard was sheltered using wind fences with various geometrical
configurations and the wind was assumed to approach the yard from
five different directions, namely normally (i.e. y ¼01 and 901) and
obliquely (i.e. y ¼ 22.51, 451, and 67.51). (Note that y is measured with
respect to the longitudinal axis of the stockpiles of the windward side
of the shelterbelt.)
3.2.1. Efficacy of rectangular wind fence
The simulations commenced by considering the shelter effect
provided by a conventional rectangular wind fence around the
perimeter of the storage yard. Fig. 9 presents the distribution of
the wind erosion potential on the stockpile surface for each of the
five considered wind directions. Note that in performing the
simulations, the fence was assumed to have a height of x¼20 m
 C.-P. Yeh et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 98 (2010) 520–532 527

Fig. 8. Motion of sand particles behind wind fence with porosity ep ¼30%: (a) numerical simulation results (U¼ 7.1 m/s) and (b) wind-tunnel visualization results
(Vc ¼ 7.1 m/s).

and a porosity of ep ¼30%. Note also that the pink numerals in the
table indicate the dust control efficiency, while the black
numerals indicate the average wind erosion potential, i.e.
R the wind is incident with an angle of y ¼451. To clarify this result,
P0 dA
P0 ¼ A , ð21Þ
A
where A denotes the surface area of the stockpile.
Overall, the results show that the rectangular wind fence
provides a relatively poor sheltering effect. For example, when the
wind is incident with an oblique angle of y ¼22.51 or 451, the
average wind erosion potential has a value of 64.8 and 76.6 g/m2,
respectively. Nonetheless, the pink numerals in the table indicate
that the rectangular fence provides at least some improvement in
the dust control efficiency relative to that achieved when no fence
is used, e.g. an improvement of 56% for the case of wind incident
with an angle of y ¼901, 36% for winds incident with an angle of
y ¼01 or 67.51, and so on.
3.2.1.1. Flow-field phenomena associated with corner-flow
(y ¼451). The results presented in Fig. 9 indicate that the rec-
tangular wind fence yields a particularly poor shelter effect when
two further simulations were performed to examine the char-
acteristics of the flow field induced in the storage yard under the
effects of a corner flow. Fig. 10 illustrates the velocity vector
contours at a height of 10 m above the ground and shows that the
wind fence essentially protects only those stockpiles immediately
behind the fence. As a result, no more than a minor improvement
in the dust control efficiency is obtained (i.e. 17%). Fig. 11 presents
the corresponding surface streamline patterns at various positions
of the storage yard. Since the wind fence has a porosity of ep ¼30%,
flow vortices are induced behind the fence for a section of
distances. The vortex structures extend and enlarge gradually
along the length of the windbreak. After the corner-wind passes
over the fence, it crosses the vortex behind the fence and
528 C.-P. Yeh et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 98 (2010) 520–532
Fig. 9. Distribution of P0 on stockpile surface under different wind directions for rectangular wind fence (U10 ¼8 m/s, xfence ¼ 20 m, ep ¼ 30%).
Fig. 10. Velocity vector fields at height 10m above ground for wind direction of
y ¼ 451 and rectangular wind fence (U10 ¼ 8 m/s, xfence ¼20m, ep ¼30%).
congregates at the middle of the stockpile. Therefore, high wind
erosion potential is produced on the surface of the stockpile, and
thus poor dust control efficiency is obtained.
3.2.2. Efficacy of octagonal wind fence
A further series of simulations were performed in which the
storage yard was sheltered using an octagonal wind fence, as
shown in Fig. 12. The table at the foot of the figure compares the
wind erosion potential and dust control efficiency characteristics
of the rectangular wind fence (upper row) with those of the
octagonal fence (lower row). Comparing the two sets of results, it
is evident that for all wind incident angles other than y ¼ 01 or 901,
the octagonal wind fence results in both a lower wind erosion
potential and a higher dust control efficiency. In other words, the
octagonal wind fence is more effective than the conventional
rectangular fence in sheltering the stockpiles within the storage
yard from the erosive effects of an obliquely incident wind.
However, its performance is notably poorer than that of the
rectangular wind fence for normally incident wind. The wind
erosion for winds incident with an angle of y ¼ 01 is serious
because the length of the lateral fence of the octagonal
configuration is much shorter than the rectangular form. Thus,
further simulations were performed in which additional fences
were added to the octagonal fence in either the perpendicular or
parallel direction of the storage yard.
3.2.3. Efficacy of octagonal wind fence with additional mid-fences in
perpendicular direction
Fig. 13 illustrates the distribution of the wind erosion potential
on the surface of the stockpiles under various wind directions
when the storage yard is sheltered using an octagonal fence with
two additional fences installed in the perpendicular direction in the
middle of the yard. From inspection of the data presented in the
table, it is seen that the addition of the two perpendicular fences
yields a reduction in the average wind erosion potential for all
directions of the incident wind. In particular, it is observed that the
additional fences greatly improve the shelter effect when the wind
is incident with an angle of y ¼01. As a result of the lower wind
erosion potential, the dust control efficiency is improved to 49%
(y ¼901), 48% (y ¼67.51), 43% (y ¼451), 48% (y ¼ 22.51), and 42%
(y ¼01), respectively, which is better than that achieved by the
conventional rectangular wind fence for all wind directions other
than y ¼901. Thus, the additional fences yield a significant
improvement in the protection afforded to the stockpiles within
the open yard. However, coal transportation vehicles generally
operate in a direction parallel to that of the stockpiles in CSC (China
Steel Corporation), and thus the use of perpendicular fences is
somewhat impractical from an operational perspective. Therefore,
another two configurations of material yard are proposed to satisfy
the requirement of CSC. The efficiency of new proposed
configurations is described in the next two sections.
3.2.4. Efficacy of octagonal wind fence with additional mid-fences in
parallel direction
Fig. 14 illustrates the wind erosion potential distribution on the
stockpile surface for the case where the storage yard is protected by
 C.-P. Yeh et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 98 (2010) 520–532 529

Fig. 11. Surface streamline patterns at different positions of storage yard for wind direction of y ¼ 451 and rectangular wind fence (U10 ¼8 m/s, xfence ¼ 20 m, ep ¼ 30%).

Fig. 12. Distribution of P0 on stockpile surface under different wind directions for octagonal wind fence (U10 ¼8 m/s, xfence ¼ 20 m, ep ¼ 30%).

an octagonal wind fence around its perimeter and two additional
fences deployed in the parallel direction between the 3rd and 4th
stockpile rows. The results indicate that the introduction of the two
fences yields an effective improvement in the dust control efficiency
of the windbreak configuration for wind with an incident angle of
y ¼22.5–901 compared to that achieved using the octagonal fence
alone. However, the configuration provides a poor sheltering effect
when the wind is incident on the stockyard with an angle of 01 (i.e. a
dust control efficiency of just 20%). Under this case, the main reason
for the high erosion potential is that the mid-fences are parallel to the
wind direction. Furthermore, comparing Figs. 13 and 14, it is evident
that while the configuration with parallel mid-fences represents an
improvement over that with perpendicular fences from an
operational sense. Finally, in a separate series of simulations, it was
determined that the dust control efficiency values obtained when the
parallel fences were positioned between the second and third
stockpiles rows were identical to those obtained when deploying
the fences between the third and fourth rows. Thus, it can be inferred
that the wind fence configuration shown in Fig. 14 is equally effective
for the case in which the wind reverses and blows in the opposite
direction to that shown in the figure.
3.2.5. Efficacy of octagonal wind fence with additional mid-fences
and end-fences
In an attempt to improve the relatively poor sheltering effect
provided by the octagonal windbreak configuration with parallel
mid-fences in the case of wind with an incident angle of 01, a final
configuration was considered in which additional fences were
added not only in the parallel direction within the storage yard, but
also in the perpendicular direction at the two ends of the yard (see
Fig. 15). The results presented in the lower row of the table indicate
that the additional end fences improve the dust control efficiency
from 20% to 35% for wind with an incident angle of 01, whilst
retaining a high degree of protection against the erosive effects of
wind with an incident angle of 901. However, it is also observed
that the additional fences prompt a notable degradation in the dust
control efficiency for wind incident with an angle of y ¼ 22.51.
4. Conclusions
The effectiveness of porous wind fences in preventing wind
erosion has been investigated numerically utilizing CFD simulations
530 C.-P. Yeh et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 98 (2010) 520–532

Fig. 13. Distribution of P0 on stockpile surface under different wind directions for octagonal wind fence with additional vertical fences in center of storage yard (U10 ¼8
m/s, xfence ¼20 m, ep ¼30%).

Fig. 14. Distribution of P0 on stockpile surface under different wind directions for octagonal wind fence with additional parallel fences between 3rd and 4th stockpile rows
(U10 ¼8 m/s, xfence ¼ 20 m, ep ¼ 30%).
 C.-P. Yeh et al. / J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 98 (2010) 520–532
Fig. 15. Distribution of P0 on stockpile surface under different wind directions for octagonal wind fence with parallel fences between 3rd and 4th stockpile rows and
additional vertical end fences (U10 ¼ 8 m/s, xfence ¼20m, ep ¼30%).
based on the Navier–Stokes equations and the RNG k–e turbulence
model. It has been shown that the simulation results are in good
agreement with those obtained from wind-tunnel experiments. The
results have shown that a wind fence porosity of ep ¼30% yields an
effective reduction in the wind erosion potential acting on the
surface of coal piles in an open storage yard. Moreover, it has been
shown that the dust control efficiency of porous windbreak
structures is significantly dependent upon the direction of the
incident wind. The simulation results have revealed that the
traditional rectangular wind fence configuration protects stockpiles
from the erosive effects of wind incident with a normal angle, but
has extremely poor dust control efficiency for wind incident with an
angle of 451. By contrast, an octagonal wind fence improves the
shelter effect when the wind is incident with an oblique angle. It has
been shown that the shelter effect of the octagonal wind fence can
be improved for all values of the wind incident angle via the addition
of perpendicular or parallel windbreak structures within the
confines of the storage yard. However, perpendicular mid-fences
are generally impractical from an operational point of view, while
parallel fences yield only a marginal improvement in the shelter
effect afforded to the stockpiles from wind incident with an angle of
01. Thus, a final configuration has been considered in which
perpendicular fences are added to the two ends of the octagonal
wind fence in addition to the two parallel fences within the storage
yard. The results have shown that this windbreak configuration
provides a high degree of protection against the erosive effects of
normally incident wind, but is less effective in sheltering the
stockpiles from wind incident with an angle of y ¼22.51.
531
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