MEDICAL IMPORTANCE OF INSECT

Abstract
In ancient cultures, insects were used as medicine, and today, scientists are studying and
trying to rediscover many natural products from insects. Insects and insect-derived
products are used in many parts of the world since ancient times as medicinal agents. The
medicinal uses of insects and other arthropods plays an important role to treat various
maladies and injuries and has a long tradition can be effective and provide results. Insect as
a natural product having potential source as a medicine that is useful in curing as well as
giving protection from some major diseases such as Bacterial infections, HIV and Cancer
etc.

Introduction
Pest Control means management or elimination of insects, wildlife, & rodents that have
become pests of humans. In ancient cultures, insects were used as medicine, and today,
scientists are studying and trying to rediscover many natural products from insects. Insects
and insect-derived products are used in many parts of the world since ancient times as
medicinal agents. Honey is applied to treat burns. Honey and beeswax combination used
for several dermatologic disorders, includes psoriasis, tinea, pityriasis versicolor, atopic
dermatitis and diaper dermatitis. Royal jelly used to treat postmenopausal symptoms. Bee
and ant venom have reduced the number of swollen joints in patients with rheumatoid
arthritis. Propolis, a hive sealant made by bees, has been utilized to cure aphthous
stomatitis. Cantharidin, a derivative of the bodies of blister beetles, has been applied to
treat warts and molluscum contagiosum. Combining insects with conventional treatments
may provide further benefit. The medicinal uses of insects and other arthropods plays an
important role to treat various maladies and injuries and has a long tradition can be
effective and provide result. Insects and other arthropods provide ingredients that have
been a staple of traditional medicine for centuries in part of East Asia, Africa and South
America.
Honey Bee Products Used as Medicine
To treat diseases, such as arthritis, rheumatism, pain, cancerous tumors and skin diseases
Bee venom therapy have been used in traditional medicine. Bee venom contains a variety
of peptides including melittin, apamin, ado lapin, the mast cell de-granulating peptide,
enzymes (phospolipase-A2), and amines like histamine and epinephrine and non-peptide
components with a variety of pharmaceutical properties. For the treatment of cancer cells,
including renal, lung, liver, prostate, mammary gland as well as leukemia cells can be
targets of bee venom peptides such as melittin and phospolipase-A2. Recently Moon
reported that bee venom can induce apoptosis in cancer cells (in human leukemic
U937cells) the key regulators in bee venom induced apoptosis are Bcl-2 and caspase-3
through down regulation of the ERK and Akt signal pathway.
Treatment for Rheumatoid Arthritis
Bee venom induces apoptosis in rheumatoid synovial
cells through a decrease in BCL2 expression and an
increase in BAX and caspase-3 expression. Bee venom
induces apoptosis through caspase-3 activation in
synovial fibroblasts of patients with rheumatoid arthritis

Treatment for HIV

Toxin found in bee venom can destroy Human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Bee venom contains
melittin that surrounds HIV virus as well as other viruses. This melittin is loaded with
nanoparticles that attack an essential part of the virus’ structure. Nanoparticles are easy to
manufacture in large quantities to supply them for future clinical trials.

Maggot Products
Maggot therapy is a type of biotherapy involves the introduction of live, disinfected
maggots (fly larvae) into the nonhealing skin and soft tissue wound(s) of a human or animal
for the purpose of cleaning out the necrotic (dead) tissue within a wound (debridement)
and disinfection. There is evidence that maggot therapy may help with wound healing.
Maggot therapy divided into 3 processes:
a) debridement of wounds;
b) wound healing;
c) disinfection of wounds.
Debridement of Wounds: Application of maggots to the wound then cleaning and removal
of necrotic tissue and debris (eschar) occur so that granulation and healing can begin.
Maggots clean wounds by the extra- corporeal production of enzymes that digest the debris
which the maggots then feed upon. initially, the main enzymes identified in the maggot
excretions/secretion (ES) is chymotrypsin and trypsin-like serine proteases, an aspartyl
proteinase and a metalloproteinase. Ammonia secretion increases the pH to activate the
serine proteases. The most active enzymes are produced by first instar larvae. Wound
Healing: It has an immunomodulatory role in the wound healing process 8 In particular,
neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes, and the complement system respond to exposure
to the MS. With neutrophils, the ES inhibit elastase, the respiratory burst, hydrogen
peroxide production, and migration of these cells.
Elastase breaks down the extracellular matrix and delays epithelial repair, while oxygen
radicals would probably have a similar effect. Concomitantly, the inhibition of neutrophil
migration would help resolve the prolonged inflammatory response, to which they
contribute, present in a chronic. Disinfection of Wounds: ES able to kill bacterial infection of
wounds, including antibioticresistant strains such as MRSA. Many different antibacterial
factors in dipterans, includes a range of AMPs such as Sarcotoxin- 1A, a cecropin-like
molecule from the flesh fly Sarcophaga peregrine, which is more active against Gram-
negative bacteria than Grampositive forms. More recently lucifensin II was discovered and
characterized from Lucilia cuprina and found to be identical to the L. sercata lucifensin
except for one amino acid residue Thus, lucigenin’s are cationic AMP (antimicrobial
peptide) has main activity against Gram-positive bacteria. The anti-bacterial factors of the
house fly, Musca domestica are also detected, because of its role as a vector of pathogens
such as MRSA.

Fruit Fly
Fruit fly is the type of insect which can detect
one of the treacherous diseases which we
called “cancer”. Cancer cells exhibit a
metabolism that is fundamentally altered as
compared to that of normal cells leading to
changes in the tumor’s microenvironment, in
lipid peroxidation activity and to a variety of
potential intra-and extracellular cancer-
specific markers. Thus, quantitative and
qualitative variations of metabolites provide
important information on cell condition.
Ant
The South American tree ant, Pseudomyrmex sp. commonly called as the samsum ant has
venom which possesses many pharmacological effects such as reducing inflammation,
relieving pain, inhibition of tumor growth, hepatitis treatment, and liver protection.
According to Bai, a primary alkaloid obtained from fire ant Solenopsis invicta exhibits anti
angiogenic activity; this toxin has the ability to inhibit a series of kinases involving in
angiogenesis mechanism. Polyrachisla melliden, a medicinal ant used in Chinese medicine,
was confirmed to exert potent analgesic and anti-inflammatory actions. Its therapeutic
efficacy in the treatment of various inflammatory disorders had been reported. Weak vision
was treated with ant eggs mixed with an equal amount of white flour to make dough. Most
of the native healers used ants. Ants were put into canvas bags and put around the legs of
paralyzed.

Termite
From a serviceable standpoint, termites are
commonly used insects in traditional popular
medicine. A total of 45 termite species
belonging to four families were recorded as
being used by human populations, with 43
species used in the human diet or for
livestock feeding and nine species used as a
therapeutic resource. Different species of
termites are used to treat various diseases
that affect human’s health. For e.g.
Microkeratomes exiguous used for asthma, bronchitis, influenza, whooping cough, flu.
Nasturtiums macrocephalus is used to treat asthma, leakage, bronchitis, ‘catarrh in the
chest’ coughs, influenza, sore throat, sinusitis and tonsillitis.
Conclusion
The purpose of the present study is to focus on the use of insect as a natural product having
potential source as a medicine that is useful in curing as well as giving protection from the
diseases. Here are the significant recent advances in developing insect as potential new
alternative medicinal drugs. This is an exciting and rapidly expanding new field since insects
are hugely variable and have utilized an enormous range of natural products to cope up the
environmental perturbations for many years.
 INSECTS ARE AGRICULTURAL PESTS
The Importance of Insects in Agricultural Ecosystems
Abstract
Sufficient food production for a growing human population has become an issue of global
concern. Almost all of the world’s fertile land is currently in use and arable land areas
cannot be expanded significantly. The global challenge is to secure high and quality yields
and to make agricultural production environmentally compatible. Insects have been hugely
successful in terms of both species richness and abundance. Insects make up the most
numerous group of organisms on earth, around 66% of all animal species, and being good
dispersers and exploiters of virtually all types of organic matter, can be found almost
everywhere, forming an important part of every ecosystem and are vital within our food
supply chains performing valuable ecosystem services. Insects have been predominantly
perceived as competitors in the race for survival. Herbivorous insects damage 18% of world
agricultural production. Despite this damage less than 0.5 percentage of the total number
of the known insect species are considered pests. Insect pests are created through the
manipulation of habitats by humans, where crops are selected for larger size, higher yields,
nutritious value, and are cultivated in monocultures for maximum production. This provides
a highly favourable environment for the population increase of herbivorous insects. To
ensure stable crop yields we need to change the management strategies of
agroecosystems. We need to manage these systems in such a way that insects performing
valuable ecosystem services are also incorporated into the system. This will ensure stable,
resilient and sustainable systems in a constantly changing environment and will go a long
way to ensure future food security. This paper examines the important role that insects
generally play in ecosystems and how the services that insects provide can improve
agricultural ecosystems.
1. Introduction
Sufficient food production for a growing
human population has become an issue
of global concern. It is estimated that by
2050 the global population size will have
increased by 46%, requiring increased
agricultural production to ensure food
security. The challenges we face are to
produce food and ensure food security
in an environment where insect and disease damage and climate change are major
constraints. The use of land for agricultural food production affects large parts of terrestrial
area, whose contribution to biodiversity is essential for successful future conservation.
Almost all of the world’s fertile land is currently in use and arable land areas cannot be
expanded significantly. In addition to using large quantities of land, agriculture threatens
the stability and survival of natural biodiversity more than any human activity in the world.
The clearing of natural ecosystems to increase food crops and livestock production, use of
large quantities of water and application of agricultural chemicals are contributing to
significant changes in ecological systems. The global challenge is to secure high and quality
yields and at the same time ensure that agricultural production is environmentally
sustainable. To reach this goal we will have to reconsider the role of insects in our
agricultural ecosystems. Insects, as drivers of ecosystem functions, play a major role in
agro-ecology, the management of agricultural systems in an ecologically sound and
sustainable way by encouraging ecosystem services (ES) provided by beneficial organisms.
Ecosystem services (ES) are the benefits that humans derive from ecosystems. In terrestrial
ecosystems insects play key ecological roles in
diverse ecological processes such as nutrient
cycling, seed dispersal, bioturbation, pollination,
and pest control. In conventional agriculture,
production practices focus on few preferred species
and their specific requirements, yet the potential
services of many other species are ignored.
Agricultural production systems are intensified by
increased use of external inputs to increase yield, but at the cost of biodiversity, causing
ecosystems to become destabilized. Diversity is a central characteristic of natural
ecosystems and facilitates these systems to be resilient and able to survive major changes.
This biodiversity found in natural ecosystems can also be the key to sustainable agricultural
production and food security. Agricultural systems cannot survive major disturbances
because of a lack of diversity in these systems. Understanding the function of insects in
ecosystems will enable us to recognize their importance in the sustainable functioning of
our agricultural systems and their role in future food security.
2. The Measurement of Biodiversity
We do not know the exact number of all species on earth, but the estimated number of
species is 5 - 15 million species. Biodiversity is variation of life and refers to all species of
plants, animals and microorganisms existing and interacting within an ecosystem. This
biodiversity performs a variety of ecological services in an ecosystem, which support one
another and work together to form a stable and sustainable ecosystem. Traditionally the
determination of biodiversity was based on the number of species in an ecosystem, with
ecosystems with a higher number of species being perceived as more stable and resilient.
Biodiversity is, however, not just about numbers in an ecosystem, but also the particular
traits contributed by various species. Traits are defined as physical or behavioural
characteristics that evolve in response to competitive interactions and a-biotic conditions.
Different species have different characteristics, measured in certain traits and it is these
specific traits that contribute to ecosystem health and resilience. Traits will therefore
influence survival, fitness and rates of resource processing, consequently influencing
ecosystem services. Woodcock et al. regards species richness as a simple descriptor of
community structure, which takes no account of the range and value of behavioural or
morphological species traits that contribute to the delivery of ecosystem services. Species
identity alone cannot be used to predict the strength and type of ecological interactions of
organisms without additional information about the trait and biology of the species.
Considering only the number of species therefore ignores any variation in ecological
interactions with species and functional differences within species that can rival differences
between species. Functional diversity is also important in determining how organisms will
cope with changes in the ecosystem and it is essential to consider interaction of these
functions between different species.

The other variable important in determining biodiversity is size. Natural communities

exhibit regular size-abundance relationships and body size is a key factor determining
ecological interactions. The diversity of resources used by an individual increases with the
size of the particular individual. Volker et al. demonstrated that both body size and species
identity is important in predicting how changes in community structure influence the
functioning of natural ecosystems. The loss of both species and size classes will therefore
have detrimental consequences for ecosystems.
When species go extinct locally, their unique traits are lost from the ecosystem and overall
functional diversity will decline as a result, potentially impacting the delivery of vital
ecosystem services. When determining biodiversity it is therefore important to consider
both size and function, as well as the interaction between the different species in an
ecosystem.
3. Contribution of Insects to Biodiversity
Arthropods have existed for more than 400 million years and survived the Permian and
Cretaceous mass extinctions. Insects have been hugely successful in terms of both species
richness and abundance and insects and terrestrial arthropods are seen to be the largest
contributors to species richness. Insects account for approximately 66% of all known
species, constituting more than three-quarters of today’s global biodiversity. There are
about 1 million species of known insects, but only around 7% - 10% of insects are
scientifically described. Since many insect species are not yet identified, it is estimated that
there could be around eight million species of insects on earth. Stork et al. estimates all
insects to be around a mean of 5.5 million species and a range of 2.6 - 7.8 million. The total
number of insect individuals is estimated 1018 - 1019. In terms of biomass insects also
dominate with 150 to 1 500 kilos of insects for each human being.
There are 39 insect orders, with the most speciose group represented by the Beetles
(Order: Coleoptera). Beetles alone account for around 40% of all described arthropod
species, with an estimate of 1.5 million beetle species. The reason why there are so many
species of beetles is reflected in the Jurassic origin of numerous modern lineages, high
lineage survival, and diversification into a wide range of niches, including the utilization of
all parts of plants.
4. Role of Insects in Ecosystems
Biotic communities are vital for providing
ecological functions and ecosystem
services. As a dominant form of animal
biomass and life on earth, insects
represent many different trophic niches
and a wide range of ecological functions
in their natural ecosystems, including
herbivory, carnivory, and detritus feeding.
Insects are abundant in all terrestrial
ecosystems and display a wide variation
among species in almost any aspect of
their biology. Because of the large
numbers of insects and great intra-and interspecific variety the functional significance of
insects is enormous and the ecosystem services provided by insects vital. Insects are the
key components in diverse ecosystems as major role players in functioning of ecosystem
processes. Since insects are mostly perceived as pests or potential pests, this ecological
importance of insects often goes unnoticed. The main ecological functions of insects in
ecosystems are ecosystem cycling, pollination, predation/parasitism, and decomposition:
4.1. Ecosystem Cycling
Insect herbivores change the quality, quantity, and timing of plant detrital inputs and can
potentially have large effects on ecosystem cycling. Belovsky and Slade found that
grasshopper herbivory increased plant abundance because of greater N availability. Insect
herbivores are therefore important drivers of ecosystem processes by transforming living
plant biomass into frass, greenfall, and throughfall and may drive a significant fraction of
above-ground to belowground N and P fluxes across entire ecosystems.
4.2. Pollination
Over three quarters of wild flowering plant species in temperate regions need insects for
pollination and about two thirds of all plant species rely on insects for pollination. The most
important pollinators are bees, beetles, butterflies and flies. Insects therefore contribute to
plant diversity and affects animal biodiversity through pollination indirectly.

4.3. Predation/Parasitism
Occupying the higher trophic levels as
secondary or tertiary consumers,
predators and parasites help control the
population increase of primary
consumers or phytophagous organisms
below a threshold. Herbivorous insects
with the potential of becoming pests
are under natural control by insect
predators and parasitoids. In the insect
orders Odonata (dragon flies) and
Neuroptera (lacewings and ant lions) all
the insect species are predators, while a large percentage of species in the orders
Hemiptera (bugs), Coleoptera (beetles), Diptera (flies) and Hymenoptera (wasps, bees and
ants) are predators, either as larvae or in both larval and adult stages. There are various
parisitoids in the order Hymenoptera that parasitizes either adults, larvae or eggs of other
insects. For instance, Aphytis lingnanensis parasitizes scale insects, Aphelinus asychis,
Aphelinus varipes, Diaeretiella rapae, Aphidius colemani, Aphidius, matricariae and
Aphidius ervi parasitizes cereal aphids and Trichogramma parasitic wasps attack
Lepidopteran eggs.
4.4. Decomposition
The decomposition of organic waste, such as dung and carrion is an important ecosystem
process which is largely provided by insects. There are about 4000 documented dung beetle
species which play an important role in the decomposition of manure. Dung beetles are
principally important in the maintenance of pasture health by burying dung, which has the
effect of removing surface wastes and recycling nutrients that can be used by plants.
Negative environmental effects, such as loss of grass cover, growth of unpalatable grass,
leaching of nutrients in surface rainwater runoff, and the buildup of large populations of
dung-breeding flies, that resulted from a lack of dung beetles contributing the needed
ecosystem function were seen in Australia before the introduction of dung beetles adapted
to cattle dung. Dung beetles contribute to soil health by increasing nitrogen, phosphorous,
potassium, calcium and magnesium or total proteins content. Dung beetles also contribute
to the carbon cycle reducing GHG emissions by between 7% and 12%. Beetle larvae, flies,
ants and termites clean up dead plant matter and break it down for further decomposition
by microbes. Ants and termites, the soil macrofauna in dry and hot regions, play an
important role in the increase of mineral nitrogen in the soil.
Carrion provides food to a diverse community of insects with major roles for insect
detritivores such as flies and beetles. Calliphorid flies are the first to exploit cadavers and
this is the start of a dynamic succession of arthropod species colonizing the cadaver, which
can comprise 100 species from tens of insect families. It is, however, the function
contributed by a specific species that determines the efficiency of the decomposition.
Farwig et al. found that decomposition rate of carrion is dependent on composition not
abundance of the assemblages of insect scavengers.
5. The Value of Non-Native Insect Species in Ecosystems
Introduced species have the potential of becoming invasive and may prey on or
outcompete indigenous species. Many non-native species, however, can also provide
valuable ecosystem services. With a constantly changing environment ecosystems need to
change and adapt to survive. Non-native species can be seen as the pioneers and colonists
in this constant renewal. These species could come to fill important ecosystem functions,
particularly in places where native species cannot survive as a result of environmental
changes. Non-native species may contribute to ecosystem resilience by providing habitat,
food, or trophic subsidies for native species, serving as catalysts for the restoration of
native species, serving as substitutes for extinct ecosystem engineers, and providing
important ecosystem services. There are many success stories of non-native insect species
providing vital ecosystem functions when introduced to new ecosystems. As far back as
1887 the cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchase, was successfully controlled by the release
of the introduced coccinellid beetle Rodoliacardinalis. Since then a total of 2627
introductions have resulted in satisfactory control against 172 pest species, the majority of
which having a long lasting effect. Dung beetles from Africa and Europe were screened and
introduced into Australia to successfully decrease cattle dung in Australian pastures.

6. Insects in Agriculture
For as long as humans practiced crop agriculture, pests have occurred on their crops and
insects have been predominantly perceived as competitors in the race for survival. The
insect-plant relationship is the dominant biotic interaction and approximately 50% of insect
species are herbivorous, with most herbivorous species feeding on plants in one or a few
related plant families. Herbivorous insects damage 18% of world agricultural production
and this is mainly controlled by chemical methods. Despite these damages, less than 0.5
percentage of the total number of the known insect species are considered pests. Aside
from anthropocentric perception and societal prejudice, insects are not pests in an
ecological or evolutionary context.
Insects are vital for human survival, because crops cannot be produced without the
ecosystem functions provided by insects. Around 72% of the world’s crops are dependent
on insects for pollination. Pollinating insects improve or stabilize the yield of three-quarters
of all crop types globally―one-third of global crop production by volume. A variety of insect
taxa have been linked with increasing seed set. Insect pollinators includes hundreds of
species of solitary bees, bumblebees, flies, beetles and butterflies, and in several crops, wild
bee species are more important for pollination than the honeybee, Apis mellifera. Globally
pollination services by insects are estimated to contribute 9.5% to yield of crop production.
Pest control is an inevitability in agriculture. Predatory insects contribute significant
ecosystem functions by controlling pest insects in cultivated crops. It was indicated in 75%
of field studies that generalist predators reduce pest populations in arable farmland
significantly, with ground beetles being dominant generalist predators in arable crops and
effectively reducing population sizes of economically significant agricultural pests such as
aphids, slugs, root feeding flies and phytophagous beetles.
Insects are also important in improving agricultural soil. Through their activity in the soil,
dung beetles increase nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium and magnesium or total
proteins content which significantly elevate the yield of wheat plants relative to chemical
fertilizers.

7. Effect of Human Induced Habitat Change on Insect Functional Diversity

Natural ecosystems are complex systems
with diverse interactions. In agriculture,
complex natural ecosystems are converted to
simplified managed ecosystems and the
intensification of resource use, including
applications of more agrochemicals and a
generally higher input and output. These
systems are open systems where energy is
lost and therefore need continued costly
external inputs. This is in contrast with
natural ecosystems that are closed systems,
where energy is recycled within the system, eliminating the need for external inputs. In
agricultural ecosystems the important ecosystem functions, mostly provided by insects, are
systematically removed. Insect pests are created through the manipulation of habitats by
humans, where crops are selected for larger size, higher yields, nutritious value, and are
cultivated in monocultures for maximum production. Monocultures essentially create
“biological deserts” where only a limited number of species can survive. In addition,
monocultures provide a highly favourable environment for the population increase of
certain herbivorous insects. These herbivorous insects are also capable of evolving to
biotypes that can adapt to new situations, for example, overcome the effect of toxic
materials, such as pesticides, or bypass natural or artificial plant resistance. When using
pesticides natural predators are killed in the process, leaving no control for the population
growth of the herbivorous insects. Ecosystem functions are further decreased by chemical
fertilizers. Overuse of nitrogen fertilizer enables a few plant species to thrive, while the
majority of plant species that have symbiotic relationships with insects disappear from the
system.

The intensification of agricultural production systems in combination with high

agrochemical input in crop fields, are the primary causes for the rapid decrease of
biodiversity. The loss of this agricultural biodiversity have both financial and social risk, as
well as lasting effects on agricultural productivity, impacting food security in the long term.
Continued sustainable land use in unpredictable and changing environments is only
possible with conservation of maximum biodiversity. A shift to sustainable agriculture will
require changes in production methods that will enhance diversity in farming systems.

8. Conclusion
With most of the world’s fertile land being used for agriculture and arable land areas that
cannot be expanded further we are running out of options to ensure food security for a
growing population. The only option left is to use the existing land more sustainably. In this
regard insects can provide the necessary solutions. Insects, as major contributors to
ecosystem function on all levels, perform critical functions in any ecosystem. We need to
manage agricultural systems in such a way that insects performing valuable ecosystem
services form a fundamental part of the system. Diversity in terms of species is just one of
many possible ways of describing communities and there are other aspects when
considering a community such as the size and ecological role of the most abundant species,
as well as the interaction between different groups and the structure of the community.
Biodiversity should not be viewed as only an add-on, but it should be viewed as an integral
part in our agricultural ecosystems and of paramount importance for our future food
security. Future research in sustainable agriculture should therefore focus on the role of
insects in ecosystems. By understanding the important functions of insects in natural
ecosystems their value in agricultural systems can be realized. With a knowledge of
ecosystem functions provided by insects we can then accommodate these insects in
agricultural systems by changing the management practices to increase the functional
diversity in these systems.
BIOLOGICAL METHODS FOR PLANT PROTECTION
Introduction
Plant diseases need to be controlled to maintain the quality and abundance of food, feed,
and fiber produced by growers around the world. Different approaches may be used to
prevent, mitigate or control plant diseases. Beyond good agronomic and horticultural
practices, growers often rely heavily on chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Such inputs to
agriculture have contributed significantly to the spectacular improvements in crop
productivity and quality over the past 100 years. However, the environmental pollution
caused by excessive use and misuse of agrochemicals, as well as fear-mongering by some
opponents of pesticides, has led to considerable changes in people’s attitudes towards the
use of pesticides in agriculture. Today, there are strict regulations on chemical pesticide
use, and there is political pressure to remove the most hazardous chemicals from the
market. Additionally, the spread of plant diseases in natural ecosystems may preclude
successful application of chemicals, because of the scale to which such applications might
have to be applied. Consequently, some pest management researchers have focused their
efforts on developing alternative inputs to synthetic chemicals for controlling pests and
diseases. Among these alternatives are those referred to as biological controls.

A variety of biological controls are available for use, but further development and effective
adoption will require a greater understanding of the complex interactions among plants,
people, and the environment. To that end, this article is presented as an advanced survey
of the nature and practice of biological control as it is applied to the suppression of plant
diseases. This survey will i) describe the various definitions and key mechanisms of
biocontrol, ii) explore the relationships between microbial diversity and biological control,
iii) describe the current status of research and application of biological controls, and iv)
briefly outline future directions that might lead to the development of more diverse and
effective biological controls for plant diseases.

 Definitions
The terms “biological control” and its abbreviated synonym “biocontrol” have been used in
different fields of biology, most notably entomology and plant pathology. In entomology, it
has been used to describe the use of live predatory insects, entomopathogenic nematodes,
or microbial pathogens to suppress populations of different pest insects. In plant pathology,
the term applies to the use of microbial antagonists to suppress diseases as well as the use
of host-specific pathogens to control weed populations. In both fields, the organism that
suppresses the pest or pathogen is referred to as the biological control agent (BCA).
More broadly, the term biological control also has been applied to the use of the natural
products extracted or fermented from various sources. These formulations may be very
simple mixtures of natural ingredients with specific activities or complex mixtures with
multiple effects on the host as well as the target pest or pathogen. And, while such inputs
may mimic the activities of living organisms, non-living inputs should more properly be
referred to as biopesticides or biofertilizers, depending on the primary benefit provided to
the host plant. The various definitions offered in the scientific literature have sometimes
caused confusion and controversy. For example, members of the U.S. National Research
Council took into account modern biotechnological developments and referred to biological
control as “the use of natural or modified organisms, genes, or gene products, to reduce
the effects of undesirable organisms and to favor desirable organisms such as crops,
beneficial insects, and microorganisms”, but this definition spurred much subsequent
debate and it was frequently considered too broad by many scientists who worked in the
field (US Congress, 1995). Because the term biological control can refer to a spectrum of
ideas, it is important to stipulate the breadth of the term when it is applied to the review of
any particular work.

Published definitions of biocontrol differ depending on the target of suppression; number,

type and source of biological agents; and the degree and timing of human intervention.
Most broadly, biological control is the suppression of damaging activities of one organism
by one or more other organisms, often referred to as natural enemies. With regards to
plant diseases, suppression can be accomplished in many ways. If growers’ activities are
considered relevant, cultural practices such as the use of rotations and planting of disease
resistant cultivars (whether naturally selected or genetically engineered) would be included
in the definition. Because the plant host responds to numerous biological factors, both
pathogenic and non-pathogenic, induced host resistance might be considered a form of
biological control. More narrowly, biological control refers to the purposeful utilization of
introduced or resident living organisms, other than disease resistant host plants, to
suppress the activities and populations of one or more plant pathogens. This may involve
the use of microbial inoculants to suppress a single type or class of plant diseases. Or, this
may involve managing soils to promote the combined activities of native soil- and plant-
associated organisms that contribute to general suppression. Most narrowly, biological
control refers to the suppression of a single pathogen (or pest), by a single antagonist, in a
single cropping system. Most specialists in the field would concur with one of the narrower
definitions presented above. In this review, biological control will be narrowly defined as
highlighted above in bold.
Types of interactions contributing to biological control
Throughout their lifecycle, plants and pathogens interact with a wide variety of organisms.
These interactions can significantly affect plant health in various ways. In order to
understand the mechanisms of biological control, it is helpful to appreciate the different
ways that organisms interact. Note, too, that in order to interact, organisms must have
some form of direct or indirect contact. Odum (1953) proposed that the interactions of two
populations be defined by the outcomes for each. The types of interactions were referred
to as mutualism, protocooperation, commensalism, neutralism, competition, amensalism,
parasitism, and predation. While the terminology was developed for macroecology,
examples of all of these types of interactions can be found in the natural world at both the
macroscopic and microscopic level. And, because the development of plant diseases
involves both plants and microbes, the interactions that lead to biological control take place
at multiple levels of scale.

From the plant’s perspective, biological control can be considered a net positive result
arising from a variety of specific and non-specific interactions. Using the spectrum of
Odum’s concepts, we can begin to classify and functionally delineate the diverse
components of ecosystems that contribute to biocontrol. Mutualism is an association
between two or more species where both species derive benefit. Sometimes, it is an
obligatory lifelong interaction involving close physical and biochemical contact, such as
those between plants and mycorrhizal fungi. However, they are generally facultative and
opportunistic. For example, bacteria in the genus Rhizobium can reproduce either in the
soil or, to a much greater degree, through their mutualistic association with legume plants.
These types of mutualism can contribute to biological control, by fortifying the plant with
improved nutrition and/or by stimulating host defenses. Protocooperation is a form of
mutualism, but the organisms involved do not depend exclusively on each other for
survival. Many of the microbes isolated and classified as BCAs can be considered facultative
mutualists involved in protocooperation, because survival rarely depends on any specific
host and disease suppression will vary depending on the prevailing environmental
conditions. Further down the spectrum, commensalism is a symbiotic interaction between
two living organisms, where one organism benefits and the other is neither harmed nor
benefited. Most plant-associated microbes are assumed to be commensals with regards to
the host plant, because their presence, individually or in total, rarely results in overtly
positive or negative consequences to the plant. And, while their presence may present a
variety of challenges to an infecting pathogen, an absence of measurable decrease in
pathogen infection or disease severity is indicative of commensal interactions. Neutralism
describes the biological
interactions when the
population density of one
species has absolutely no
effect whatsoever on the
other. Related to biological
control, an inability to
associate the population
dynamics of pathogen with
that of another organism
would indicate neutralism.
In contrast, antagonism
between organisms results
in a negative outcome for
one or both. Competition within and between species results in decreased growth, activity
and/or fecundity of the interacting organisms. Biocontrol can occur when non-pathogens
compete with pathogens for nutrients in and around the host plant. Direct interactions that
benefit one population at the expense of another also affect our understanding of
biological control. Parasitism is a symbiosis in which two phylogenetically unrelated
organisms coexist over a prolonged period of time. In this type of association, one
organism, usually the physically smaller of the two (called the parasite) benefits and the
other (called the host) is harmed to some measurable extent. The activities of various
hyperparasites, i.e., those agents that parasitize plant pathogens, can result in biocontrol.
And, interestingly, host infection and parasitism by relatively avirulent pathogens may lead
to biocontrol of more virulent pathogens through the stimulation of host defense systems.
Lastly, predation refers to the hunting and killing of one organism by another for
consumption and sustenance. While the term predator typically refer to animals that feed
at higher trophic levels in the macroscopic world, it has also been applied to the actions of
microbes, e.g. protists, and mesofauna, e.g. fungal feeding nematodes and
microarthropods, that consume pathogen biomass for sustenance. Biological control can
result in varying degrees from all of these types of interactions, depending on the
environmental context within which they occur. Significant biological control, as defined
above, most generally arises from manipulating mutualisms between microbes and their
plant hosts or from manipulating antagonisms between microbes and pathogens.

Mechanisms of biological control

Because biological control can result from many different types of interactions between
organisms, researchers have focused on characterizing the mechanisms operating in
different experimental situations. In all cases, pathogens are antagonized by the presence
and activities of other organisms that they encounter. Here, we assert that the different
mechanisms of antagonism occur across a spectrum of directionality related to the amount
of interspecies contact and specificity of the interactions (Table 1). Direct antagonism
results from physical contact and/or a high-degree of selectivity for the pathogen by the
mechanism(s) expressed by the BCA(s). In such a scheme, hyperparasitism by obligate
parasites of a plant pathogen would be considered the most direct type of antagonism
because the activities of no other organism would be required to exert a suppressive effect.
In contrast, indirect antagonisms result from activities that do not involve sensing or
targeting a pathogen by the BCA(s). Stimulation of plant host defense pathways by non-
pathogenic BCAs is the most indirect form of antagonism. However, in the context of the
natural environment, most described
mechanisms of pathogen suppression
will be modulated by the relative
occurrence of other organisms in
addition to the pathogen. While many
investigations have attempted to
establish the importance of specific
mechanisms of biocontrol to particular
pathosystems, all of the mechanisms described below are likely to be operating to some
extent in all natural and managed ecosystems. And, the most effective BCAs studied to date
appear to antagonize pathogens using multiple mechanisms. For instance, pseudomonads
known to produce the antibiotic 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG) may also induce host
defenses (Iavicoli et al. 2003). Additionally, DAPG-producers can aggressively colonize
roots, a trait that might further contribute to their ability to suppress pathogen activity in
the rhizosphere of wheat through competition for organic nutrients (Raaijmakers and
Weller 2001).
Table 1.  Types of interspecies antagonisms leading to biological control of plant pathogens.

Type Mechanism Examples

Lytic/some nonlytic mycoviruses

Ampelomyces quisqualis
Direct antagonism Hyperparasitism/predation Lysobacter enzymogenes
Pasteuria penetrans
Trichoderma virens
Mixed-path 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol
Antibiotics Phenazines
antagonism
Cyclic lipopeptides
Chitinases
  Lytic enzymes Glucanases
Proteases
Ammonia
  Unregulated waste products Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen cyanide
Physical/chemical Blockage of soil pores
  Germination signals consumption
interference
Molecular cross-talk confused
Indirect Exudates/leachates consumption
Competition Siderophore scavenging
antagonism
Physical niche occupation
Contact with fungal cell walls
  Induction of host resistance Detection of pathogen-associated,
molecular patterns
Phytohormone-mediated induction
Hyperparasites and predation

In hyperparasitism, the pathogen is directly attacked by a specific BCA that kills it or its
propagules. In general, there are four major classes of hyperparasites: obligate bacterial
pathogens, hypoviruses, facultative parasites, and predators. 

Obligate Bacterial Pathogens Hypoviruses

Preadators Facultative Parasites

Pasteuria penetrans is an obligate bacterial pathogen of root-knot nematodes that has

been used as a BCA. Hypoviruses are hyperparasites. A classical example is the virus that
infects Cryphonectria parasitica, a fungus causing chestnut blight, which causes
hypovirulence, a reduction in disease-producing capacity of the pathogen. The
phenomenon has controlled the chestnut blight in many places (Milgroom and Cortesi
2004). However, the interaction of virus, fungus, tree, and environment determines the
success or failure of hypovirulence. There are several fungal parasites of plant pathogens,
including those that attack sclerotia (e.g. Coniothyrium minitans) while others attack living
hyphae (e.g. Pythium oligandrum). And, a single fungal pathogen can be attacked by
multiple hyperparasites. For example, Acremonium alternatum, Acrodontium
crateriforme, Ampelomyces quisqualis, Cladosporium oxysporum, and Gliocladium
virens are just a few of the fungi that have the capacity to parasitize powdery mildew
pathogens (Kiss 2003). Other hyperparasites attack plant-pathogenic nematodes during
different stages of their life cycles (e.g. Paecilomyces lilacinus and Dactylella oviparasitica).
In contrast to hyperparasitism, microbial predation is more general and pathogen non-
specific and generally provides less predictable levels of disease control. Some BCAs exhibit
predatory behavior under nutrient-limited conditions. However,Trichoderma produce a
range of enzymes that are directed against cell walls of fungi. However, when fresh bark is
used in composts, Trichoderma spp. do not directly attack the plant pathogen, Rhizoctonia
solani. But in decomposing bark, the concentration of readily available cellulose decreases
and this activates the chitinase genes of Trichoderma spp., which in turn produce chitinase
to parasitize R. solani (Benhamou and Chet 1997).
Antibiotic-mediated suppression
Antibiotics are microbial toxins that can, at low concentrations, poison or kill other
microorganisms. Most microbes produce and
secrete one or more compounds with antibiotic
activity. In some instances, antibiotics produced by
microorganisms have been shown to be particularly
effective at suppressing plant pathogens and the
diseases they cause. Some examples of antibiotics
reported to be involved in plant pathogen
suppression are listed in Table 2. In all cases, the
antibiotics have been shown to be particularly
effective at suppressing growth of the target
pathogen in vitro and/or in situ. To be effective,
antibiotics must be produced in sufficient quantities near the pathogen to result in a
biocontrol effect. In situ production of antibiotics by several different biocontrol agents has
been measured (Thomashow 2002); however, the effective quantities are difficult to
estimate because of the small quantities produced relative to the other, less toxic, organic
compounds present in the phytosphere. And while methods have been developed to
ascertain when and where biocontrol agents may produce antibiotics (Notz 2001),
detecting expression in the infection court is difficult because of the heterogenous
distribution of plant-associated microbes and the potential sites of infection. In a few cases,
the relative importance of antibiotic production by biocontrol bacteria has been
demonstrated, where one or
more genes responsible for
biosynthesis of the antibiotics
have been manipulated. For
example, mutant strains
incapable of producing
phenazines (Thomashow and
Weller 1988) or phloroglucinols
(Keel 1992, Fenton et al. 1992)
have been shown to be equally capable of colonizing the rhizosphere but much less capable
of suppressing soilborne root diseases than the corresponding wild-type and
complemented mutant strains. Several biocontrol strains are known to produce multiple
antibiotics which can suppress one or more pathogens. For example, Bacillus cereus strain
UW85 is known to produce both zwittermycin (Silo-Suh 1994) and kanosamine (Milner et
al. 1996). The ability to produce multiple antibiotics probably helps to suppress diverse
microbial competitors, some of which are likely to be plant pathogens. The ability to
produce multiple classes of antibiotics, that differentially inhibit different pathogens, is
likely to enhance biological control. More recently, Pseudomonas putida WCS358r strains
genetically engineered to produce phenazine and DAPG displayed improved capacities to
suppress plant diseases in field-grown wheat (Glandorf et al. 2001, Bakker et al. 2002).

Table 2. Some of antibiotics produced by BCAs

Antibiotic Source Target pathogen Disease Reference

2, 4-diacetyl- Pseudomonas Shanahan et al.

Pythium spp. Damping off
phloroglucinol fluorescens F113 (1992)
Agrobacterium Agrobacterium
Agrocin 84 Crown gall Kerr (1980)
radiobacter tumefaciens
Aflatoxin Moyne et al.
Bacillomycin D Bacillus subtilis AU195 Aspergillus flavus
contamination (2001)
Bacillomycin, Bacillus Fusarium Koumoutsi et al.
Wilt
fengycin amyloliquefaciens FZB42 oxysporum (2004)
Lysobacter sp. strain SB- Aphanomyces
Xanthobaccin A Damping off Islam et al. (2005)
K88 cochlioides
Trichoderma Wilhite et al.
Gliotoxin Rhizoctonia solani Root rots
virens (2001)
Pantoea agglomerans C9- Sandra et al.
Herbicolin Erwinia amylovora Fire blight
1 (2001)
Iturin A B. subtilis QST713 Botrytis cinerea and R. Damping off Paulitz and
solani Belanger (2001),
Kloepper et al.
 (2004)
Pythium Leclere et al.
Mycosubtilin B. subtilis BBG100 Damping off
aphanidermatum (2005)
P. fluorescens 2-79 and Gaeumannomyces Thomashow et al.
Phenazines Take-all
30-84 graminis var. tritici (1990)
Pyoluteorin, Pythium ultimum and R. Howell and
P. fluorescens Pf-5 Damping off
pyrrolnitrin solani Stipanovic (1980)
Pyrrolnitrin, R. solani and Pyricularia Damping off and Homma et al.
Burkholderia cepacia
pseudane oryzae rice blast (1989)
Phytophthora
Zwittermicin A Bacillus cereus UW85 medicaginis and P. Damping off Smith et al. (1993)
aphanidermatum

Lytic enzymes and other byproducts of microbial life

Diverse microorganisms secrete and excrete other metabolites that can interfere with

pathogen growth and/or activities. Many microorganisms produce and release lytic

enzymes that can hydrolyze a wide variety of polymeric compounds, including chitin,
proteins, cellulose, hemicellulose, and DNA. Expression and secretion of these enzymes by
different microbes can sometimes result in the suppression of plant pathogen activities
directly. For example, control of Sclerotium rolfsii by Serratia marcescens appeared to be
mediated by chitinase expression (Ordentlich et al. 1988). And, a b-1,3-glucanase
contributes significantly to biocontrol activities of Lysobacter enzymogenes strain C3
(Palumbo et al. 2005). While they may stress and/or lyse cell walls of living organisms,
these enzymes generally act to decompose plant residues and nonliving organic matter.
Currently, it is unclear how much of the lytic enzyme activity that can be detected in the
natural environment represents specific responses to microbe-microbe interactions. It
seems more likely that such activities are largely indicative of the need to degrade complex
polymers in order to obtain carbon nutrition. Nonetheless, microbes that show a
preference for colonizing and lysing plant pathogens might be classified as biocontrol
agents. Lysobacter and Myxobacteria are known to produce copious amounts of lytic
enzymes, and some isolates have been shown to be effective at suppressing fungal plant
pathogens (Kobayashi and El-Barrad 1996, Bull et al. 2002). So, the lines between
competition, hyperparasitism, and antibiosis are generally blurred. Furthermore, some
products of lytic enzyme activity may contribute to indirect disease suppression. For
example, oligosaccharides derived from fungal cell walls are known to be potent inducers of
plant host defenses. Interestingly, Lysobacter enzymogenes strain C3 has been shown to
induce plant host resistance to disease (Kilic-Ekici and Yuen 2003), though the precise
activities leading to this induction are not entirely clear. The quantitative contribution of
any and all of the above compounds to disease suppression is likely to be dependent on the
composition and carbon to nitrogen ratio of the soil organic matter that serves as a food
source for microbial populations in the soil and rhizosphere. However, such activities can be
manipulated so as to result in greater disease suppression. For example, in post-harvest
disease control, addition of chitosan can stimulate microbial degradation of pathogens
similar to that of an applied hyperparasite (Benhamou 2004). Chitosan is a non-toxic and
biodegradable polymer of beta-1,4-glucosamine produced from chitin by alkaline
deacylation. Amendment of plant growth substratum with chitosan suppressed the root rot
caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis-lycopersici in tomato (Lafontaine and
Benhamou 1996). Although the exact mechanism of action of chitosan is not fully
understood, it has been observed that treatment with chitosan increased resistance to
pathogens.
Other microbial byproducts also may contribute to pathogen suppression. Hydrogen
cyanide (HCN) effectively blocks the cytochrome oxidase pathway and is highly toxic to all
aerobic microorganisms at picomolar concentrations. The production of HCN by certain
fluorescent pseudomonads is believed to be involved in the suppression of root
pathogens. P. fluorescens CHA0 produces antibiotics, siderophores and HCN, but
suppression of black rot of tobacco caused by Thielaviopsis basicola appeared to be due
primarily to HCN production (Voisard et al. 1989). Howell et al. (1988) reported that
volatile compounds such as ammonia produced by Enterobacter cloacae were involved in
the suppression of Pythium ultimum-induced damping-off of cotton. While it is clear that
biocontrol microbes can release many different compounds into their surrounding
environment, the types and amounts produced in natural systems in the presence and
absence of plant disease have not been well documented and this remains a frontier for
discovery.

Competition
From a microbial perspective, soils
and living plant surfaces are
frequently nutrient limited
environments. To successfully
colonize the phytosphere, a
microbe must effectively compete
for the available nutrients. On
plant surfaces, host-supplied
nutrients include exudates,
leachates, or senesced tissue.
Additionally, nutrients can be
obtained from waste products of other organisms such as insects (e.g. aphid honeydew on
leaf surface) and the soil. While difficult to prove directly, much indirect evidence suggests
that competition between pathogens and non-pathogens for nutrient resources is
important for limiting disease incidence and severity. In general, soilborne pathogens, such
as species of Fusarium and Pythium, that infect through mycelial contact are more
susceptible to competition from other soil- and plant-associated microbes than those
pathogens that germinate directly on plant surfaces and infect through appressoria and
infection pegs. Genetic work of Anderson et al. (1988) revealed that production of a
particular plant glycoprotein called agglutinin was correlated with potential of P. putida to
colonize the root system. P. putida mutants deficient in this ability exhibited reduced
capacity to colonize the rhizosphere and a corresponding reduction in Fusarium wilt
suppression in cucumber (Tari and Anderson 1988). The most abundant nonpathogenic
plant-associated microbes are generally thought to protect the plant by rapid colonization
and thereby exhausting the limited available substrates so that none are available for
pathogens to grow. For example, effective catabolism of nutrients in the spermosphere has
been identified as a mechanism contributing to the suppression of Pythium
ultimum by Enterobacter cloacae (van Dijk and Nelson 2000, Kageyama and Nelson 2003).
At the same time, these microbes produce metabolites that suppress pathogens. These
microbes colonize the sites where water and carbon-containing nutrients are most readily
available, such as exit points of secondary roots, damaged epidermal cells, and nectaries
and utilize the root mucilage.
Biocontrol based on competition for rare but essential micronutrients, such as iron, has also
been examined. Iron is extremely limited in the rhizosphere, depending on soil pH. In highly
oxidized and aerated soil, iron is present in
ferric form (Lindsay 1979), which is
insoluble in water (pH 7.4) and the
concentration may be as low as 10-18 M.
This concentration is too low to support
the growth of microorganisms, which
generally need concentrations
approaching 10-6 M. To survive in such an
environment, organisms were found to secrete iron-binding ligands called siderophores
having high affinity to sequester iron from the micro-environment. Almost all
microorganisms produce siderophores, of either the catechol type or hydroxamate type
(Neilands 1981). Kloepper et al. (1980) were the first to demonstrate the importance of
siderophore production as a mechanism of biological control of Erwinia carotovora by
several plant-growth-promoting Pseudomonas fluorescens strains A1, BK1, TL3B1 and B10.
And, a direct correlation was established in vitro between siderophore synthesis in
fluorescent pseudomonads and their capacity to inhibit germination of chlamydospores
of F. oxysporum (Elad and Baker 1985, Sneh et al. 1984). As with the antibiotics, mutants
incapable of producing some siderophores, such as pyoverdine, were reduced in their
capacity to suppress different plant pathogens (Keel et al. 1989, Loper and Buyer 1991).
The increased efficiency in iron uptake of the commensal microorganisms is thought to be a
contributing factor to their ability to aggressively colonize plant roots and an aid to the
displacement of the deleterious organisms from potential sites of infection.
Induction of host resistance
Plants actively respond to a variety of environmental stimuli, including gravity, light,
temperature, physical stress, water and nutrient availability. Plants also respond to a
variety of chemical stimuli produced by soil- and plant-associated microbes. Such stimuli
can either induce or condition plant host defenses through biochemical changes that
enhance resistance against subsequent infection by a variety of pathogens. Induction of
host defenses can be local and/or systemic in nature, depending on the type, source, and
amount of stimuli. Recently, phytopathologists have begun to characterize the
determinants and pathways of induced resistance stimulated by biological control agents
and other non-pathogenic microbes. The first of these pathways, termed systemic acquired
resistance (SAR), is mediated by salicylic acid (SA), a compound which is frequently
produced following pathogen infection and typically leads to the expression of
pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins. These PR proteins include a variety of enzymes some
of which may act directly to lyse invading cells, reinforce cell wall boundaries to resist
infections, or induce localized cell death. A second phenotype, first referred to as induced
systemic resistance (ISR), is mediated by jasmonic acid (JA) and/or ethylene, which are
produced following applications of some nonpathogenic rhizobacteria. Interestingly, the
SA- and JA- dependent defense pathways can be mutually antagonistic, and some bacterial
pathogens take advantage of this to overcome the SAR. For example, pathogenic strains
of Pseudomonassyringae produce coronatine, which is similar to JA, to overcome the SA-
mediated pathway (He et al. 2004). Because the various host-resistance pathways can be
activated to varying degrees by different microbes and insect feeding, it is plausible that
multiple stimuli are constantly being received and processed by the plant. Thus, the
magnitude and duration of host defense induction will likely vary over time. Only if
induction can be controlled, i.e. by overwhelming or synergistically interacting with
endogenous signals, will host resistance be increased.
 ARACHNIDS
Arachnids

Taxonomy

Arachnids, members of the class

Arachnida, are arthropods. This
phylum is characterized by members
having a segmented body covered in a
jointed, chitinous exoskeleton. They
possess a complex nervous system
with a dorsal brain, and have an open
circulatory system. One of the major
subdivisions of Arthropoda is the
subphylum Chelicerata, which
encompasses Merostomata
(horseshoe crabs), Pycnogonida (sea
spiders), and Arachnida. Chelicerates are so named for chelicerae , a modified pair of
appendages that serve as jaws. Chelicerates also posess
a cephalothorax and pedipalps, and lack antennae.

Arachnida is divided into 11 orders:

 Acharina -- mites and ticks -- have a single body segment and lack spinnerets
 Amblypygi -- whipspiders or tailless whipscorpions -- have a long, whip-like first
pair of legs
 Araneae -- spiders -- have four pairs of legs, have two distinct body segments
(the cephalothorax and abdomen), have poisonous fangs on their chelicerae,
generally have 8 eyes (though some have 6 and a small number of species have
fewer), have spinnerets , and do not have tails
 Opiliones -- harvestmen -- similar to spiders but have a single body segment,
 two eyes, and lack spinnerets
 Palpigradi -- microwhipscorpions -- are small (> 2mm) and have a relatively
long multi-segmented tail
 Pseudoscorpionida -- pseudoscorpions -- have large front pincers (which often
contain poison glands) and lack a tail
 Ricinulida -- ricinuleids -- resemble ticks but have a moveable covering over
their head and mouthparts
 Schizomida -- schizomids -- are small (> 6mm) and eyeless, and have a short tail
 Scorpionida -- scorpions -- have pincers and a long tail with a stinger at the end
 Solpugida -- windscorpions -- have large jaws, lack a tail, and use
their pedipalps and first pair of legs as feelers
 Uropygida -- whipscorpions -- have pincers and a tail but lack a stinger

Life Cycle

The spider life cycle has four stages: egg, larvae, nymph, and adult. Spiders nymphs
go through several stages of molting. Each stage looks similar to an adult spider,
although the markings and coloration are often different. Male spiders do not use
penises to mate. Instead, they coat their palps with sperm, and search for the
female. In most species, the males court the females, often with elaborate rituals.
The female stores the sperm until the conditions are right for her to release her eggs.

Spider eggs are laid in a cocoon by the mother. Many species leave the eggs after
laying them, although some guard them, or even carry them around. The eggs hatch
into larvae, which remain inside the cocoon, receiving nourishment from the yolk.
After about two weeks, the larvae molt into spiderlings, which leave the egg sac.
They go through many molts--some as few as five, some as many as 40--before
reaching sexual maturity after their final molt.

Nearly all spiders produce silk. Most of them use this silk to create webs. These webs
are varied in shape and construction. One of the most recognizable are orb webs,
which consist of crossing strands meeting in the middle and a continuous thread
spiraling outward. There are also many other styles, such as cobwebs which are an
irregular mesh of silk, or funnel webs which have a flat sheet of silk with a small
funnel retreat where the spider waits for prey. Most spiders use their web to catch
insects. Some spiders do not build snares for prey at all, but instead actively hunt
their prey. Spiders that do not build webs to feed may still build silken retreats, in
which they take shelter.
Once the prey is caught, a spider will using their chelicerae to pierce it and inject
poison into the wound. Then, the spider regurgitates digestive juices into its prey to
digest it. Finally, powerful muscles in the spider's stomach suck the liquefied tissue
into the spider's body. It is strained by filters in the mouth, then further digested by
enzymes in the midgut.

Sexual Dimorphism

Spiders are sexually dimorphic. Male spiders are fairly easy to identify with a hand
lens because their palps are larger and contain a swollen end, which often appears
fuzzy. Female spiders are usually bigger. In some species the females may be more
than five times the size of the males. Females usually have more rounded abdomens
and may have different color patterns than males. Sex is usually impossible to
determine in juveniles.
Identification

Without a great deal of

experience or at least a hand
lens, it is extremely difficult to
identify spiders. Coloration
patterns are highly variable
within a genus, and
sometimes even within a species. One of the most important clues to look for is the
eye pattern. If you are using this site for identification purposes, you should be aware
that many of the specimens on this site were preserved in alcohol before being
photographed. This alters their coloration, and can make patterns indiscernible. The
alternative to preserving the spiders, however, is having them shrivel up and become
even harder to identify. It is often not possible for the amateur enthusiast to identify
a spider to species. Some genera have dozens of species, many of which are only
distinguishable by minute characteristics of on the genetalia or on the claws on the
ends of their legs.
 MEDICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF TICKS
Ticks are important to human and veterinary medicine for a variety of reasons:

 as vectors of bacterial, protozoal, rickaettsial, spirochaetal and viral diseases of

humans, domestic stock and companion animals.
 as ectoparasites with irritating bites causing extensive harm to their hosts due to
blood loss, damage to the skin and anorexia leading to reduction in growth.
 as agents of 'tick paralysis' in man and animals, probably due to the secretion of
toxic substances in their saliva.
 in exacerbating the lesions caused by Dermatophilosus
congolensis (dermatophilosis) in cattle, goats and sheep; this is caused by
immunosuppressive effects of the tick feeding.
 in predisposing their hosts to other arthropod infestations such as the
screwworm fly, Cochliomyia hominovorax.

Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, the brown Engorged female of Hyalomma sp. feeding

ear tick, feeding on the ear of a calf. This on the skin between the spines of a
African tick transmits Theileria hedgehog.
parva infections, Anaplasma
centrale and Babesia bigemina which
cause East Coast fever, anaplasmosis and
babesiosis respectively in cattle.
Amblyomma Crusty lesions of dermatophilosis.
variegatum feeding in the
groin of a cow; the presence
of this tick exacerbates the
crusty skin lesions caused
by Dermatophilus congolensis.
 POGONOPHORA AND VESTIMENTI FERA
1. Introduction
This is the intriguing tale of how the previously recognised phyla Pogonophora and
Vestimentifera became reduced to a family level taxon, Siboglinidae, within Annelida. The
common name for the group as a whole is pogonophores (beard worms) and the two major
subgroups will be referred to here as frenulates and vestimentiferans.

For those unfamiliar with the group previously referred to as frenulates (= Frenulata), they
are long and extremely thin tube-living animals. The tubes range from 0.1–3 mm in
diameter and can reach over a meter in length. With a few exceptions they are marine
deep-water species, occurring down to near 10 000 m depth. Anteriorly the animals are
provided with one or more palps that stick out from the tube.

Vestimentiferans (= Vestimentifera), or “giant tube worms” also generally live in the deep-
sea, but are associated with hydrothermal vents or cold seeps. Generally, they are much
stouter than frenulates, they have a tube that is attached with one end to the substratum,
and they have a much larger crown of palps. They are also provided with a vestimentum
which is an anterior body region provided with a pair of large flaps.

Neither frenulates nor vestimentiferans have a mouth or gut as adults and rely on
symbiotic, chemoautotrophic bacteria that are situated in the trunk. The blood of both
groups contains hemoglobin and the palps serve for the uptake of oxygen and sulfide,
thiosulfate or methane (depending on the taxa). These are transported to the bacteria and
in return the host obtains nutrition from the bacteria or it digests them. The more recently
discovered Osedax and the unusual Sclerolinum.
2. The early history
We will start this story in 1914 when the French biologist Maurice Caullery described a long
slender tube-living worm that had been collected in Indonesia during the
Dutch Siboga expedition around 1900.
He named it Siboglinum and placed it in the likewise new family Siboglinidae. A species
name was not given at that time and it was not until 1944 that he named it S. weberi. One
unusual feature for a non-parasitic animal was the complete lack of a digestive tract.
Caullery did not refer Siboglinidae to any higher ranked taxon, but compared it to
deuterostomes such as pterobranchs and enteropneusts.
Twenty years after Caullery's first paper the Russian polychaete taxonomist
Uschakov described another gutless animal, Lamellisabella zachsi from the Sea of Okhotsk
and placed it in a new subfamily Lamellisabellinae within sabellid polychaetes (feather-
duster worms). Uschakov made no references to Caullery's earlier publication. Johansson, a
Swedish specialist on sabellid polychaetes, disagreed with Uschakov regarding the
polychaete affinity of Lamellisabella. Based on anatomical studies he concluded that
Uschakov had misinterpreted the dorsal side for the ventral and referred the animal to a
new class that he named Pogonophora. In 1944 Beklemishev in a text-book  then raised
Pogonophora to the rank of phylum among Deuterostomia, listed next to Hemichordata.
A few years later Ivanov  described a second species of Lamellisabella. Still no connection
had been made at this time between Caullery's Siboglinum and Uschakov's Lamellisabella,
and the disagreements regarding the relationships of Pogonophora were based solely on
latter taxon. However, in 1951 Ivanov  compared Lamellisabella with Siboglinum and
concluded that the two taxa were close relatives and referred also the latter genus to
Pogonophora. In the coming decade a large number of pogonophores were described by
Ivanov and in 1963 he published the extensive monograph “Pogonophora”. By then the
group had come to encompass 70 species in 14 genera (all of which, except
for Sclerolinum, we now view as frenulates), and were by most authors treated as a group
of deuterostomes with a dorsal nerve cord, radial cleavage and a tripartite coelom.
Although most contemporary authors agreed with Johansson's and Ivanov's treatments,
there were some early opponents. Hartman in the early 1950s, argued that they were
polychaetes, although not necessarily monophyletic, and Livanov and Porfireva, that they
were closely related to the polychaete Owenia fusiformis. Ivanov's, together with
Jägersten's , rejection of Hartman's anatomical arguments (now largely considered correct;
her conclusion regarding frenulate polyphyly notwithstanding) make interesting reading.
In 1964 Webb published a series of studies,  with the introduction of new pogonophore
taxa from Norway, including the description of the larval development and, notably, the
posterior end of the animals. Whereas previous studies had described the posterior part as
ending in a blunt point, Webb showed that there actually was an additional and hitherto
unknown part which was annulled and provided with segmentally arranged chaetae a body
region now referred to as the opisthosoma. Since the animals are fragile and this part
serves as an anchoring device, it is easily detached and remains in the tube when the
animals are removed, which explains why all previous authors had overlooked it.
During the years that followed a number of authors started to question the deuterostome
affinity of pogonophores and Ivanov's interpretations, and here the embryology, origin of
the coelom, position of the nerve cord and the structure of the chaetae had a central place.
Following Ivanov, the worms were said to have a dorsal brain and nerve cord, which is the
classic deuterostome arrangement, whereas in protostomes (such as annelids) the brain is
dorsal and joins the nerve cord by circumpharyngeal connectives which, as the name
implies, form a ring around the pharynx. In the study of sections the position of the brain
and the nerve cord is typically assessed with the pharynx and gut as reference, and this, of
course, is complicated in pogonophores by the fact that the animals lack gut. Based on
embryological studies and the development of the early larvae, Nørrevang  suggested a
ventral nerve cord and that Uschakov's original dorso-ventral orientation of the animals
was incorrect. Nørrevang further showed that the animals are segmented with new
segments added from the posterior end, and that the coelomic sacs arise by schizocoely,
not enterocoely. He also suggested that Ivanov's interpretations of the larval development
in fact had them back to front, all of which Ivanov strongly rejected. Later embryological
studies by, e.g., Callsen-Cencic and Flügel  have corroborated Nørrevang's observations.
More details on the other anatomical arguments are reviewed by Rouse and Fauchald and
Rouse.
Following this the consensus gradually shifted such that pogonophores changed from being
viewed as deuterostomes with a dorsal nerve cord with a tripartite coelom, to protostomes
with a ventral nerve cord and a segmented and chaetigerous posterior end. Not all authors,
however, agreed on this interpretation, including Ivanov  and Malakhov et al. 

3. The vestimentiferans
In 1969 Webb described an animal from deep water off southern California that shared a
number of features with previously described pogonophores, but also differed in many
respects. The tube was exceptionally thick with a diameter approaching 1 cm, the animal
had a complex crown and an operculum to close the tube and the anterior part was
provided with two prominent lateral flaps. Webb named the new animal Lamellibrachia
barhami and referred it to the new taxon Vestimentifera, nested within Pogonophora.
Following the amazing discovery and exploration of hydrothermal vents in the Galapagos
Rift with submersibles in 1977, a number of vestimentiferans or “giant tube worms” were
discovered and photographed, forming veritable gardens surrounding the smokers
where Riftia pachyptila, the first described species can reach the impressive length of more
than 1.5 m. A number of additional species were subsequently described by Jones, Jones
argued that frenulates and vestimentiferans belonged to different groups, and that
vestimentiferans were closer to, but not part of, annelids. Accordingly, he raised
Vestimentifera to the rank of phylum. He also provided a full classification of
Vestimentifera and managed to apply all basic supraspecific Linnean ranks, i.e. phylum,
class, order, family and genus, for the classification of the nine known vestimentiferan
species.

Sometime later, Southward and Jones and Gardiner, in the same year, described the early
development of vestimentiferans, showing that early larvae have both a mouth and gut.
This allowed for an unequivocal designation of the dorso-ventral orientation of the animal
and showed that the nerve cord is ventral. Further vestimentiferans have been described
and today the group includes fifteen species in nine genera. It appears to be confined to
hydrothermal vents and cold seep areas (the first described one, Lamellibrachia barhami,
is now believed to have been collected in a cold seep area).

4. Towards more explicit phylogenies

In 1993 Kojima published the first molecular phylogeny including a vestimentiferan
(Lamellibrachia), in these early days necessarily with only a small selection of taxa and a
single gene (elongation factor-1•), but nevertheless indicating that the vestimentiferans
indeed were nested among the annelids.
In 1995 Bartolomaeus suggested that the
chaetal structure of both frenulates and
vestimentiferans were so similar to those of
polychaetes such as terebellids and sabellids
that they must be closely related and so
suggested bringing pogonophores inside
Annelida. In the same year Rouse and
Fauchald carried out a morphology-based
phylogenetic analysis in order to assess the
position and monophyly of annelids. The results
indicated that pogonophorans and
vestimentiferans were a clade supported by
eight morphological synapomorphies and
nested within the annelids. Rouse and Fauchald
also suggested that the two groups should
possibly be united as a single, family level taxon
within polychaetes (suggesting erroneously the
family group name should be Lamellisabellidae,
but later correcting this suggestion to
Siboglinidae). In a subsequent study also
morphology-based and using polychaete families as terminals, they demonstrated that
frenulates and vestimentiferans are nested in a group including sabellids (in agreement
with Uschakov's original allocation of Lamellisabella as mentioned above and to that of
Bartolomaeus and oweniids). For this taxon they applied Caullery's original family name
Siboglinidae. This measure in one stroke created junior synonyms of the 12 previously used
family names among the frenulates and vestimentiferans, which likely approaches a
taxonomic record.
McHugh in the same year published a molecular analysis based on elongation factor-1•
with several polychaetes and clitellates together with other terminals. The two
vestimentiferans Ridgeia and Lamellibrachia also came out as nested among polychaetes
and McHugh likewise suggested that Caullery's family name should be applied. Yet another
study from the same year by Black based on COI, showed vestimentiferans as nested within
frenulates (rather than being sister taxa), and with the single included polychaete as sister
taxon to these. Halanych et al.  in the following year carried out an 18S rDNA based analysis
including four frenulates and seven vestimentiferans indicating that these groups are sister
taxa, and also that they are nested within annelids.
Rouse carried out a morphology-based phylogenetic analysis of siboglinids, and revised the
taxonomy of the group. He identified three main groups, Frenulata and Vestimentifera, as
illustrated in, and Monilifera. Sclerolinum had previously been treated as a frenulate, but
was removed from this group by Ivanov and placed in its own taxon, Monilifera, equal in
rank to Frenulata and Vestimentifera. Rouse  applied the name Monilifera in a broader
sense to group Vestimentifera with Sclerolinum. The position of Sclerolinum as sister to the
vestimentiferans was also demonstrated with 18S rDNA data by Halanych.  though
Schulze  instead suggested that Sclerolinum was sister group to Frenulata. A more recent
molecular study by Rouse et al.  support the placement of Sclerolinum with Vestimentifera.

Rousset et al.  published phylogenetic analyses based on combined morphological data with
18S rRNA and 28S rRNA in order to assess the sister group relationship of Siboglinidae
within the annelids. Among a selection of 16 canalipalpate polychaetes and outgroups, the
Siboglinidae came out as sisters to oweniids in contrast to earlier studies  which had
advocated sabellid or terebelliform relationships for them (with the early aforementioned
exception of Livanov and Porfireva. A less serious nomenclatural issue in this story is Brusca
and Brusca's introduction in their text book “Invertebrates” of the name Pogonophoridae
for frenulates and vestimentiferans. Apart from being a junior synonym of a large number
of family names, it is also a nomen nudum in not being based on any existing generic name.
5. Osedax
In 2004 Rouse describes two new species of a remarkably odd annelid group, found on the
bones of a dead gray whale in nearly 3000 m depth off the Californian coast. The
community that forms around a whale-fall is complex in spatial and temporal structure.
Similar to vent habitats, sampling at whale fall sites requires a direct manned submarine or
a video-controlled remotely operated vehicle. The experience of seeing the red plumes
characteristic of some of these new forms later named Osedax, covering the whale-bones,
may have been just as thrilling and confusing as when the first tubeworms were found at
the vents. The two first described species, Osedax rubiplumus and O. frankpressi, were
very abundant and each had four pinnule-bearing palps and a long oviduct on a trunk
enclosed in a transparent mucous tube and extending out of the bone tissue. Reaching into
the bone were “roots” extending from an ovisac that was filled with oocytes. The “roots”
were packed with symbiotic bacteria. Associated with the trunk but attached to mucous
tube of these 2–7 centimetre-sized females of Osedax were dwarf males that were several
orders of magnitude smaller. There was little in terms of morphology that indicated a
polychaete affinity of these animals, although the microscopic males actually are provided
with a few and very tiny chaetae on the posterior part of the body. Molecular evidence,
however, was unequivocal, and Osedax is sister to Monilifera (Sclerolinum plus
vestimentiferans).
 In 2005 Glover described a third species from
an experimentally sunk minke whale at shelf
depth of 125 m in Skagerrak in the eastern
North Atlantic. Named O. mucofloris, the
new species was later found also at a pilot
whale carcass implanted near the type
locality, but as shallow as 34 m depth. The
known geographical range for Osedax was
extended in 2006 to the western Pacific
when a fourth new species was described
from sperm whales sunk at 200 m depth off
southern Japan. A fifth species, the third
from Monterey Bay, has now also been
described. In addition to these five described
species, five additional ones are known and
awaiting formal description from a handful of
experimentally sunk whale and bone
implantations in the Monterey Bay area. An
eleventh species is under description from
material collected at whale-falls off southern
California (Glover et al., in prep). Although
the known range of Osedax species now include both of the major ocean basins, the entire
known morphological diversity of the group can be found at a few whale-falls in a small
area at the continental shelf and slope in Monterey Bay. Morphological characters that
have been used to distinguish females of the different species are related to the palps,
oviduct, trunk and ovisac, as mentioned above and summarized in some detail by
Fujikura and Braby. They include colour of palps, placement and type of pinnules on the
palps, length of and place from where the oviduct extend on the trunk, length of trunk,
shape of and the way on which the root structure extend within the substrate. One species
has only been found in the sediments near whale falls living out of buried remnants from
the whale carcass. The substrate used by the females of some species has also been found
to include cow bones suggesting that also carcasses from other vertebrates could sustain
populations of Osedax. In contrast to other siboglinids, Osedax species lack a trophosome,
the organ that holds the symbiotic bacteria in frenulates and vestimentiferans. Instead the
symbiotic bacteria are housed in the female root structure together with the ovaries. The
organization of the root structure with an ovisac covered with tissue packed with bacteria
and forming a sheet as seen in O. frankpressi, is less obvious in other species where
bacteria-containing tissue appear to be more integrated with ovaries (e.g. O. mucofloris).
Research on the nature of Osedax-bacteria symbiosis  have revealed several fascinating
features contrasting those found in most other symbiotic relationships between bacteria
and marine invertebrates. While chemoautotrophic sulphur-oxidizing bacteria are found in
almost all other cases, the most common endosymbionts in known Osedax taxa belong to
Oceanospirales, a group of heterotrophic bacteria often associated with degradation of
complex organic compounds. Analyses of the genetic diversity of bacteria assemblages
associated to Osedax worm have further shown high levels of heterogeneity, similar to that
found in shipworm symbionts but unprecedented in taxa such as other siboglinids, gutless
oligochaetes and mussels. The remarkable diversity of Osedax species identified from a very
restricted sample suggests that more research of large organic falls and other ephemeral
habitats is required for us to understand the extent and evolution of siboglinid annelids.
The lesson of this intriguing tale is one of humbleness and the difficulties in tracing
evolution from ancient signs that are difficult to interpret. Through the course of their
taxonomic history these animals have been turned upside down and back to front, moved
from deuterostomes to protostomes, discovered to be incomplete, raised to several phyla
and then sunk into a family of polychaetes. It serves a reminder that we all are likely to
make mistakes, and that strength is shown in recognizing and admitting error when
evidence point us in new directions. Whatever the future, we certainly have not seen the
end of this story.
 BRYOZOAMS AND THEIR MEANING

Scientific Name
Freshwater species in the phylum Bryozoa
Family
Various families in phylum Bryozoa (most freshwater bryozoans are in the class
Phylactolaemata)
Description
Bryozoans are microscopic aquatic
invertebrates that live in colonies. The colonies
of different species take different forms,
building exoskeletons (outer protective
structures) similar to those of corals. Most
colonies are attached to a structure such as a
rock or submerged branch. Freshwater
bryozoans' exoskeletons are gelatinous (like
jelly) or chitinous (like the "shells" of insects).
Therefore, some
colonies take the
form of rounded, jellylike masses, while others resemble antlers
or mosses (bryophyte means “moss animal”), or trace delicately
like vines across rocks, or create furry-looking colonies. The
species that creates the round, jellylike masses most often seen in
Missouri is Pectinatella magnifica.
With enough magnification, you can see tiny individual bryozoans (zooids). Each zooid is
attached to a surface at its base. Its body has an outer sleevelike structure (a cystid) and a
mass of organs (a polypide) that moves within it. An opening at the top of the cystid
permits the polypide to slide outward toward the water, exposing a headlike structure
(lophophore) crowned with tentacles, which filter food from water. At the slightest
disturbance, the polypide and tentacles retract instantly.
Size
Varies by species. Colonies are usually no more than 2–4 inches long or high, but some can
be 12 inches or wider. Viewing individual zooids requires a hand lens.

Habitat and Conservation

Worldwide, bryozoans are found on every continent except Antarctica. Although most
bryozoans are marine, one class (Phylactolaemata) lives only in freshwater. About 20
freshwater species occur on our continent. These usually prefer the rather quiet waters of
lakes, ponds, and swamps, but some live in streams. Most bryozoan colonies are sessile
(attached to some object, such as a rock, dock support, or tree branch), and most form in
spring and die away in winter. Colonies reach their largest size in late summer and fall,
which is when most people notice them.

Food
Each zooid's tiny, mucous-coated tentacles trap diatoms
and other microscopic organisms, which are swept to the
mouth via cilia (tiny hairs) that line the tentacles. The
mouth is at the base of the tentacles. The digestive tract is
shaped like a U, with the anus just below the ring of
tentacles. In nearly all freshwater bryozoans, the
lophophore (headlike structure that bears the
tentacles) is horseshoe-shaped.
Status
It’s not clear how bryozoans are related to other invertebrates. Bryozoans are not closely
related to other groups and probably evolved from a marine worm that became adapted to
a sessile existence. Fossil bryozoans first appear in Cambrian rocks, rather late in the fossil
record. They probably existed earlier, however, in soft forms that did not secrete calcarious
exoskeletons that would leave fossil evidence. Bryozoans are common fossils in Missouri;
many look lacy, others screwlike.

Life Cycle
Bryozoans can reproduce in several ways. Zooids can “clone” themselves by budding, but
they can also create eggs and sperm and reproduce sexually. Larval forms undergo
complete metamorphosis. Within their bodies, freshwater bryozoans form hard, round
statoblasts, which function like seeds. In winter or during drought, the colonies die, but the
dissolving dead zooids free the statoblasts, which can disperse widely. These endure until
conditions permit new growth. Each statoblast can create a new colony.

Human Connections
Freshwater bryozoans are harmless, though they occasionally clog water pipes and sewage
treatment equipment. Others are parasitized by certain species of myxozoan invertebrates,
which cause proliferative kidney disease in salmon and their relatives.

Ecosystem Connections
Bryozoans eat microscopic organisms and are eaten by several larger aquatic predators,
including fish and insects. Snails graze on them, too. Like mussels and other filter feeders,
bryozoans gradually cleanse the water as they feed. Also, their presence usually indicates
good water quality.
v
VERTEBRATE
ertebrate, also called Craniata, any animal of the subphylum Vertebrata,
the predominant subphylum of the phylum Chordata. They have backbones, from
which they derive their name. The vertebrates are also characterized by a
muscular system consisting primarily of bilaterally paired masses and a central nervous
system partly enclosed within the backbone.

The subphylum is one of the best known of all groups of animals. Its members include the
classes Agnatha, Chondrichthyes, and Osteichthyes (all
fishes); Amphibia (amphibians); Reptilia (reptiles); Aves (birds); and Mammalia (mammals).

General features
Although the vertebral column is perhaps the most obvious vertebrate feature, it was not
present in the first vertebrates, which probably had only a notochord. The vertebrate has a
distinct head, with a differentiated tubular brain and three pairs of sense organs (nasal,
optic, and otic). The body is divided into trunk and tail regions. The presence of pharyngeal
slits with gills indicates a relatively high metabolic rate. A well-developed notochord
enclosed in perichordal connective tissue, with a tubular spinal cord in a connective tissue
canal above it, is flanked by a number of segmented muscle masses. A
sensory ganglion develops on the dorsal root of the spinal nerve, and segmental autonomic
ganglia grow below the notochord. The trunk region is filled with a large, bilateral body
cavity (coelom) with contained viscera, and this coelom extends anteriorly into
the visceral arches. A digestive system consists of an esophagus extending from the
pharynx to the stomach and a gut from the stomach to the anus. A distinct heart,
anteroventral to the liver, is enclosed in a pericardial sac. A basic pattern of closed
circulatory vessels is largely preserved in most living forms. Unique, bilateral kidneys lie
retroperitoneally (dorsal to the main body cavity) and serve blood maintenance and
excretory functions. Reproductive organs are formed from tissue adjacent to the kidneys;
this original close association is attested by the tubular connections seen in males of living
forms. The ducts of the excretory organs open through the body wall into a cloacal
chamber, as does the anus of the digestive tract. Reproductive cells are shed through
nearby abdominal pores or through special ducts. A muscular tail continues the axial
musculature of the trunk.

Approximately 45,000 living species constitute the vertebrates. Species of several classes

are found from the high Arctic or Antarctic to the tropics around the Earth; they are missing
only from interior Antarctica and Greenland and from the North Polar ice pack. In size,
vertebrates range from minute fishes to elephants and whales (of up to 100 tons), the
largest animals ever to have existed. Vertebrates are adapted to life underground, on the
surface, and in the air. They feed upon plants, invertebrate animals, and one another.
Vertebrate faunas are important to humans for food and recreation.

Natural history
In order to give a broad and comparative view of their life histories, the vertebrates are
subdivided here into major groups based on morphology: the cyclostomes (jawless fishes),
the chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes), the teleostomes (bony fishes), and the tetrapods.

The cyclostomes
The cyclostomes include two classes of living, jawless fishes (agnathous)—
Petromyzontiformes (lamprey eels) and Myxiniformes (hagfishes). The hagfishes are totally
marine, often living in deep waters associated with muddy bottoms. The lampreys may be
marine as adults but spawn in fresh waters, where the larvae spend some time before
metamorphosing to the adult. Some lampreys live entirely in fresh water and may change
only slightly in habit as a result of metamorphosis. Without lateral fins, lampreys swim by
undulations of the body and can control direction only for short distances.

The living agnaths are predatory,

the lampreys being well known
for attacking salmonoid fishes.
The lamprey attaches to its prey
using its round, suctorial mouth,
and it rasps a hole through the
outer tissues using a tongue
armed with keratinized teeth. It
suctions off bits of tissue, blood,
and body fluids. The hagfishes
feed somewhat similarly, but on a variety of prey—invertebrates (worms and soft-bodied
forms) and dead fishes.
The lampreys produce small eggs, which develop directly into larvae that burrow into the
muddy bottom of the stream. With its mouth at the surface of the mud, the larva filter
feeds until large enough to metamorphose and swim off as a small adult. In contrast, the
hagfishes produce relatively large encapsulated, yolky eggs up to two centimetres in length.
When laid, these eggs attach to any available object by terminal hooks. The encased egg
develops more or less directly into a miniature adult.
The chondrichthyes
The sharks, rays, and chimaerids are
usually marine, but some sharks have
entered fresh waters (the Amazon) or even
live there permanently (Lake Nicaragua).
In size, sharks range from the whale shark,
nearly 10 metres in length, to rather small
species, three centimetres in length. They
usually weigh 25 to 200 kilograms (55 to
440 pounds). Sharks are predatory
animals. Some large shark species (basking
and whale sharks) filter feed on small
crustaceans. Herbivorous sharks are unknown. Sharks swim by undulations of the tail, but
rays “fly” through the water by undulations of the pectoral fins. Most species occur in near-
shore waters, but some range widely throughout the oceans. A few are found in deep
water.

A few sharks produce live young (viviparous) after internal fertilization. The posterior angle

of the male’s pelvic fins are modified into a clasper, which acts as an intromittent organ in
copulating with the female. Most sharks lay large yolky, encapsulated eggs with hooks for
attachment. The young develop directly and begin life as miniature adults. The young that
develop in the mother’s uterus obtain nutrients from the large yolk sac until they are born
alive. In a few cases, the uterine wall secretes nutrients.

The teleostome, or osteichthyian, fishes (those having an internal bony skeleton) can be
divided into two groups: the subclasses Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes)
and Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fishes). The latter group includes the lungfishes, which live
in marshes, ponds, or streams, and are frequent air breathers. They lay fairly large eggs,
with a limited amount of yolk, that are enclosed in jelly coats like those of an amphibian.
The eggs develop into small fishes that feed on live prey. The larvae of the
African lungfish have external gills to supplement oxygen intake.
A
The teleostomes
ctinopterygian fishes are the
common bony fishes of modern
aquatic environments. They range
in size from fishes that are only millimetres
in size to those two or more metres (6.6 or
more feet) in length, weighing 500 kilograms
or more. Large species (sturgeons) are found
in fresh waters (several other large species
are found in the Amazon) as well as in
marine environments. The diet may include
plants, animals, and carrion. Most species are midwater swimmers, but many spend much
time lying on the bottom. Tail, pectoral, and even dorsal fins are used in swimming.
Reproduction in this group is by way of large numbers of small eggs, which produce small
larvae or develop directly to the adult.
The Tetrapods
The tetrapods live primarily on land and are rather similar in habit. Members include
the amphibians, amphibiansreptiles, birds, and mammals. Amphibians are widespread in
the warmer parts of the continents, being absent only in the far north and in the Antarctic.
Three orders are recognized: Candata (the salamanders), the frogs and toads (Anura, or
Salientia), and the Apoda or Gymnophiona (caecilians). Modification takes many forms,
from the moist glandular skin (some scale remnants persist in apodans) to the loss of many
of the bones of the skull. Like their ancestors, amphibians are cold-blooded and tend to be
aquatic or limited to moist surroundings. Salamanders are seemingly the least modified in
body form. They do not actively pursue prey and at best are only marginal swimmers. In
swimming or crawling, the salamander’s body and tail undulate. Frogs and toads hop using
hind-limb propulsion and the forelimbs as body props. This dominance of the hind limb in
locomotion is best seen in swimming when the forelimbs are drawn back against the body.
In contrast to the salamanders and frogs, the burrowing, wormlike apodans are without
limbs.
Amphibians usually trap food using a tongue that can be shot out of the mouth, or they use
the mouth itself to grasp and ingest food. There is great variation in foods; only
the larvae of frogs and toads appear to be plant feeders, a specialization that is reflected in
the highly modified jaws and guts of the tadpoles.

Amphibians have retained a simple egg cell with a gelatinous cover. The eggs are laid in
ponds, streams, or even in damp places high in trees, usually in great numbers. Fertilized
eggs develop into free-swimming larvae, which then metamorphose to adults, but in highly
specialized forms.

The class Reptilia retains many of the structural characteristics of the ancestral amphibian.

While most reptiles are carnivorous, feeding on other organisms, a few are herbivorous
(e.g., tortoises). As cold-blooded animals, reptiles tend to be limited to temperate and
tropical areas, but, where found, they are relatively common, although not as large
or conspicuous as birds or mammals. Most reptiles are terrestrial, but a few are aquatic. As
basic tetrapods, reptiles move about by creeping or swimming in a fashion similar to
amphibians. Some reptiles, however, can lift the body from the ground and run rapidly
either in a quadrupedal or bipedal fashion. Reptiles lay relatively large, shelled eggs. In a
few instances, the eggs and young are cared for by the female; in others, the young are
born alive (ovovivipary).

Birds are warm-blooded, and, although most are capable of flight, others are sedentary and
some are flightless. Like their relatives the reptiles, birds lay shelled eggs that differ largely
in the amount of calcification (hardening) of the shell. The young are usually cared for in a
nest until they are capable of flight and self-feeding, but some birds hatch in a well-
developed state that allows them to begin feeding immediately or even take flight. The
megapods lay their eggs in mounds of rotting vegetation, which supplies the heat
for incubation. (Nesting activities similar to those of some birds are seen in the
crocodilians.)

The mammals range in size from tiny shrews or small bats weighing only a few grams to the
largest known animals, the whales. Most mammals are terrestrial, feeding on
both animal and vegetable matter, but a few are partially aquatic or entirely so, as in the
case of the whales or porpoises. Mammals move about in a great variety of ways:
burrowing, bipedal or tetrapedal running, flying, or swimming. Reproduction in mammals is
usually viviparous, the young developing in the uterus, where nutritive materials are made
available through an allantoic placenta or, in a few cases, a yolk sac. The fertilized egg
develops directly into the adult. The monotremes (platypus and echidna) differ from other
mammals in that they lay eggs which hatch, and the relatively undeveloped young are
carried in a pouch or kept in a nest; the growing young lap up a milk nutrient fluid exuded
from the belly of the mother.

FORM AND FUNCTION

External features
The evolution of the notochord, dorsal nerve tube, and pharyngeal slits
in chordate structure suggests improved swimming capability and probably greater ability
to capture prey. Specialization in the vertebrate for the active capture of larger prey is
evident both in the structure of the mouth and in the relatively simple structure of the
pharynx, with its strong gill development. Specialization for feeding is again seen in the two
basic groups of vertebrates, the agnathans and gnathostomes. Swimming adaptations are
also numerous and involve variations both in body form and in medial fins and the two
pairs of lateral fins.

Internal features
The skeletal system
Support and protection are provided
by the exoskeletal and endoskeletal
divisions of the skeletal system.
The exoskeleton, when present, is
basically protective but functions in
tooth support in the mouth region.
The endoskeleton protects
the brain and spinal cord and assists
primarily with locomotion in the
trunk and tail regions. The endoskeleton begins as cartilage and may remain so or may
develop into bone. The cartilaginous endoskeleton, found in the shark or chimaerid, is
usually calcified so as to be stiffer and stronger. Bone is distinctive but highly variable; some
types of bone contain cells, others do not, or the bone may be laminar, spongy, or arranged
in sheathing layers around blood channels.

Tissues and muscles
Tissue development in the
vertebrate is unique in its
complexity; tissues in the strict
sense (defined as a mass or sheet
of similar cells with a similar
function), however, do not exist.
The simplest situation is seen in
the epidermis, but even here
there is a layered system in which
different cell types provide
different functions (such as
protection and secretion). The
stratified epithelium of the
vertebrate is highly characteristic of that group (a similar one is seen in only
one invertebrate group, the class Chaetognatha).

Other tissues of the vertebrate are more complex than the epithelium. For example,
skeletal muscle consists not only of striated muscle fibres but also of connective tissue,
which binds it together and attaches it by way of tendons. This contractible tissue includes
nerves and blood vessels and their contained blood. Skeletal muscles thus appear as simple
organs, just as do the smooth muscles in the wall of the gut or the iris muscles of the eye.
Such unique histological complexity runs through the entire body of the vertebrate.

Nervous system and organs of sensation

The dorsal position, tubular structure, and epidermal origin of the central nervous
system are definitive of the chordates, although some may see similarities with the
hemichordates. The sensory structures are distinctive of the chordates and include the
paired nasal, optic, and otic organs (along with the strongly differentiated head).

The nasal vesicle is variously open to the environment, and its sensory cells, as chemical
receptors, are not unlike those in the taste buds of the mouth. The eye is the most
complex organ of the head and is a lateral outpocketing of the anterior end of
the brain tube. Later it acquires a lens of epidermal origin. The act of focusing the eye
(accommodation) shows extensive adaptive variation among the different groups of
vertebrates.

The otic vesicle starts from a simple sac formed by the invagination of an ectodermal
placode. These developmental changes also include the changes of innervation. Whereas
the original structure was basically an equilibrium adaptation, other functions, such as an
awareness of movement or the sensation of the proximity of prey, developed.

The lateral-line system of canals and sensory organs is a unique vertebrate feature. The
elements of this system are found on the head as well as the body. This system is related to
the ear and presumably at its origin served a similar function. This system is lost in
terrestrial vertebrate forms.

The digestive system

The digestive system of the vertebrate is distinctive in its structure but not in its function.
The mouth and pharynx can be considered as parts of this system; the latter as an
expanded cavity in the head is unmatched in any other group. The stomach and gut have
been discussed above.

Presumably the original condition of the digestive glands was that of a ventral diverticulum
which may have received the food mass into its cavity. This diverticulum, matched by the
diverticulum seen in the amphioxus or the “intestine” of the tunicate, produced the
secretions (bilelike and enzymes) of both liver and pancreas. Through time, the liver
gradually differentiated from the pancreas. The size and separation of the liver from the
gut suggest its separate blood and metabolic activities. The most obvious by-product of the
liver, bile, necessitated the formation of a gall bladder and a duct connection with the gut.
The pancreas, in contrast, continued to produce digestive enzymes, but its secretory cells
were no longer in direct contact with the food mass. Because the pancreas was only a
partial source of intestinal digestive enzymes, it was sometimes reduced in size and
enclosed in the gut wall itself (agnaths) or dispersed as tiny bits of tissue in the mesentary
supporting the gut (actinopterygians).
The excretory system
The excretory system is unique in its
nephrons, which filter the blood in the
glomeruli and remove a variety of
wastes from the body through
selective secretion and reabsorption.
In the shark or
the coelacanth Latimeria, urea is used
to raise the osmotic pressure of the
blood to that of the marine habitat,
thus saving these organisms
considerable metabolic energy.
The large intestine (sometimes
centred in a rectal gland) acts as an auxiliary excretory organ, as do also the gills of fishes or
the sweat glands of mammals.

Respiration and gas exchange

Respiration, like excretion, involves specialized body structures, such as lungs or gills, but
also can involve other areas, such as the skin itself. Respiration involves exchange of gases
both between the body of the organism and the environment and between the blood
system and the body tissues. It also involves cellular respiration where oxygen is used
and carbon dioxide is produced. There is nothing characteristic of the vertebrate in this
functional area; even the hemoglobin of the blood is suggested in the respiratory pigments
of other animals.
The circulatory system
The circulatory system of vertebrates is closed in that fluids course through vessels, but
there is free movement of cells in and out of blood. Some leukocyte (white blood cell)
movement out of the capillaries and fluid leakage are observed in all tissues. Blood tissues
are distinctive in the range of specialized cells, although these vary in detail among animals.
The immune function of the blood is best developed in the vertebrate.

The endocrine system

The endocrine system is characterized by its separate organs. The occurrence of a pituitary
or a thyroid gland is suggestive of the evolutionary change and specialization that took
place within this group. The relatively unspecialized nature of some parts of this system is
seen in certain scattered cells in the gut wall or even the clumps of islet cells of the
pancreas.
 ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION ON EARTH
Animal Kingdom
Scientists predict that only 15% of species are known to man from the estimated 8.7 million
species. That leaves almost 85% species yet to be discovered. Only about 953,434 species of
animals have been catalogued in the Animal Kingdom. Let us study this classification of
animals.

Classification of Animals and Plants

There are millions of living organisms in this
world. There are some which are even yet to be
discovered. These living organisms that are
known to man, very broadly include animals,
plants, microorganisms etc. All of them show
great diversity. Yet, there are some
characteristics that are similar between groups
of organisms and this is what binds them
together.

Classification of animals helps us to understand their characteristics, as well as their

differences with other organisms. The best-known organisms are the animals. In scientific
terminology, they are grouped under the Kingdom Animalia, better known as the Animal
Kingdom. Let us learn more about this famous Kingdom!

Animal Kingdom

Kingdom Animalia consists of

organisms that range from the simplest
of the animal forms to the most
complex. At one end of this
classification of animals, you have the
microscopic organisms. And at the
other end, you see animals that you
probably come across in your daily life. You and your friends, for example, are members of the
Animal Kingdom. Your pet dog, bird, cat or even those pesky insects that you find in the
gardens are all part of this gigantic kingdom.

Scientifically speaking, all organisms that belong to this Kingdom are Eukaryotic

organisms. They are all multicellular, with many cells present. The cells do not have cell walls
in them. Another important feature is that they have a heterotrophic mode of nutrition, which
means that they cannot make their own food.

The Different Phyla

Classification of animals is termed as Kingdom Animalia. It is further divided into different
phyla. These are nothing but divisions in which animals/organisms with the same
characteristics are included under them. Apart from the primary distinguishing features of the
Animal Kingdom (Eukaryotic, Multicellular, without a cell wall and heterotrophic); each
phylum has organisms that have common characteristics. In the classification of animals chart,
they move from the simplest to the most complex.

The different phyla in the classification of animals are as follows:

 Phylum Porifera

 Phylum Coelenterata

 Phylum Platyhelminthes

 Phylum Nematoda

 Phylum Annelida

 Phylum Arthropoda

 Phylum Mollusca

 Phylum Echinodermata

 Phylum Protochordata

 Phylum Vertebrata
Let us now look at some important features of each Phylum.
Phylum Porifera
These are the simplest multicellular animals, found mainly in marine habitats. These
organisms have pores all over the body. They have a canal system that helps in circulating
water and food particles and oxygen. The body design shows minimal differentiation and
division of tissues. Commonly called as Sponges, some of the examples are Spongilla, Sycon
etc.

Phylum Coelenterata

These organisms show more body differentiation. They live in water. The body has a sac-like
cavity, with a single opening for ingestion an egestion. These animals have two germ layers
and hence are called diploblastic. You can see these animals living solitarily or n colonies.
Examples include Jellyfish, Sea Anemone, and Hydra.

Phylum Platyhelminthes
These are commonly called flatworms. Their bodies are flattened dorsoventrally. They are the
first triploblastic animals, with three germ layers. The body is also bilaterally symmetrical, with
both the left and right halves of the body having the same design. Flatworms can be either
parasitic or free living. A few examples are Planaria, Liver Fluke, and Tapeworm.

Phylum Nematoda
The bilateral symmetry and triploblastic nature continue in these animals. The body, however,
is more cylindrical and not flattened.  The body cavity is not a true coelom. And hence it is
called a pseudo coelom. Tissues are present, but organs are absent. These organisms show a
complete alimentary canal which is straight. Most of these organisms belonging to this
phylum are parasitic worms, which cause diseases. Examples are Ascaris, Wucheria.

Phylum Annelida
Annelids are found in different habitats, such as land, fresh water, and even marine mater.
They have a bilaterally symmetrical body with three germ layers (Triploblastic). A
distinguishing feature here is that they have a true body cavity. The body is also segmented
with some organ differentiation seen. Examples are Earthworms, Leeches.
Phylum Arthropoda
They make up the largest group in the animal kingdom. Most of the insects are included in
this phylum. “Arthropoda” means jointed legs. The bodies of these animals are divided into
head, thorax, and abdomen. Apart from the jointed legs, they also have a pair of compound
eyes. Another distinguishing feature of these animals is the presence of an open circulatory
system. Examples are butterfly housefly, spiders, mosquitoes, crabs etc.

Phylum Mollusca
The bilateral symmetry and the triploblastic nature of the body layers are seen here too.
Molluscans form a very diverse group and form an important part of the ecosystem. These
animals can be seen aquatic habitats. They can be either marine or freshwater species. The
body does not show much segmentation and the coelomic cavity is also reduced. The body is
typically divided into anterior head, ventral muscular foot, and a dorsal visceral mass. The foot
helps in the locomotion of the animals. Examples are Snails, Mussels, and Octopus.
Phylum Echinodermata
Moving on with the classification of animals we come to Phylum Echinodermata. Echinoderms
are animals with spiny skin. They live exclusively in a marine habitat. They are free-living
animals. The larvae show bilateral symmetry whereas the adults show radial symmetry. These
animals are triploblastic and have a coelomic cavity. They have a peculiar water driven tube
system that helps them in moving around.  They also have a hard exoskeleton that is made up
of calcium carbonate. Examples are Starfish, Sea cucumber, Sea Urchin.

Phylum Protochordata
The protochordate animals are bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic. They have a coelom.
A new body feature that is seen in these animals is the presence of notochord at some stage
in their life cycle. Due to this very presence of a notochord, they are called as chordates.
However, it is sometimes rudimentary. They are exclusively marine animals. Examples include
Herdmania, Balanoglossus.
Phylum Vertebrata
These are the advanced group of animals,
showing some really advanced features of
a proper digestive system, circulatory
system etc. There is a complex
differentiation of body tissues and organs.
These animals have a true vertebral
column with an internal skeleton. All
chordates have the following features:

 Notochord

 Dorsal Nerve Cord

 Post-anal tail

 Pharyngeal slits
Phylum Vertebrata is classified into five classes. They are:

1. Pisces

2. Amphibia

3. Reptilia

4. Aves

5. Mammalia
Class Pisces

These are exclusively aquatic animals, commonly called as Fish. Their skin is covered by scaly
plates. The body is streamlined. A muscular tail helps in the movement. Respiration occurs
through gills. The heart is present with two chambers. Examples are Tuna, Rohu, Anglerfish,
and Electric ray.

Class Amphibia

Amphibians can live both on land and in water. They have mucus glands in the skin. The heart
is three chambered, with respiration occurring through gills or lungs. They are egg-laying
animals, with a distinctive head and trunk. Examples are Frogs, Toads, and Salamander.

Class Reptilia

Reptilians are cold-blooded animals, which have scales on their body. They breathe through
lungs. In most of these animals, the heart is three chambered, with the exception of
crocodiles, which have a four-chambered heart.  Examples are Snakes, turtles, Crocodiles etc.
Class Aves

They are warm-blooded animals with the body being covered by feathers. The forelimbs are
modified into wings. They have a four-chambered heart. They breathe through lungs. And
they lay eggs. All birds are classified under this class. Examples are Parrot, Crow, and Ostrich.

Class Mammalia

Mammals are warm-blooded with a four-chambered heart. They have mammary glands. Their
skin has sweat and oil glands. They give birth to young ones. Respiration occurs through lungs.
Examples are human beings, gorilla, and cow.
 ANTHROPOGENESIS
A STUDY OF THE ORIGIN OF MAN
1. The problem of the origin of man cannot be solved by experiment or observation. The
appearance of man on earth is a fact of the past of which no report or witness could reach
us. The factual data which we have at our disposal are comparisons of man of today with
animals, supplemented by extremely rare, imperfect and damaged fragments of fossils of
prehistoric man and remains of his stone implements. But they are silent with regard to the
forces which have caused the evolution of animal to man.

Where direct empirical data are lacking and indirect ones are so few, a far stronger
appeal than is needed in experimental science has to be made to the mental equipment of
the scientist. Whereas in the case of plenty of empirical facts that can be increased at will,
no more is necessary than arranging and combining them and from them deducing new
problems and making new experiments, the scarcity of such facts causes theoretical
sdiscussion to play a more important part. What matters here is the logical combination of
differing data, the seeking for connexion between what lies far apart, the making of
conclusions, and the careful weighing of probabilities.

Here we meet with the difficulty – which cannot be solved but can only be pointed out –
that most authors who have dealt with the origin of man, were specialised scholars who
approached the problem from one of its many aspects. It may have been that of biology, or
anatomy, or neurology, or that of prehistory or ethnology, or that of animal psychology, or
linguistics, or philosophy. When, then, there was insufficient acquaintance with the other
aspects of the problem, or with important aspects of human life, explanations could only
be unsatisfactory. It is not a problem of biology: the biological laws which govern animal
life, have with man largely receded into the background. It is not a problem of ethnology:
the lowest races which ethnology has made known to us are already a highly developed
human species as compared with Early Man. It is not a problem of prehistorical
archaeology or palaeontology, as only so very few hard, imperishable remains of what
then lived could be preserved. It is not a problem of comparative psychology, which cannot
remove or bridge the deep cleft existing between man and the nearest animals.

A fundamental difficulty is also that it is modern man who is compared with the animal;
we use ourselves as the direct and best known object of comparison. This derives from the
initial thought that man as such has not changed basically, and that man of the 19th or
20th century with all his habits, ways of thinking, and characteristics may be counted as the
normal, natural human being. Consequently, for purposes of comparison, modern man,
with his highly developed individualism is placed in comparison beside the animal, whereas
original man was entirely a community being. Further for preference the scholar himself is
taken for this purpose, who is an intellectual specialised in mental work, and chiefly
concerned with abstractions, whereas man has always been first and foremost a practical
being, working with his body and his hands. In this way the problem must inevitably
present itself in a distorted form. What matters is not the origin of modern man; the
development from primitive to modern man, however much of it still awaits research, is
generally known as a gradual, natural and comprehensible evolution without any
enigmatical breaks. The riddle is the origin of primitive man; the real problem is to
understand the transition from animal to primitive man.

2. The problem of anthropogenesis has gone through various aspects. Originally the
difference between man and animal was considered to be so fundamental, that each was
counted as belonging to an entirely different world, without any relationship. This found its
expression in the doctrine of the separate creation of man, gifted with reason and
possessed of an immortal soul. As biology developed, the bodily similarity of man and
animal became more apparent, and Linnaeus classified man in the animal kingdom as a
normal species, Homo sapiens, belonging to the class of mammals and, with the apes,
forming the order of Primates. Darwin’s theory of man’s descent from animal ancestors
brought about a complete break with the traditional doctrine. A great number of biological
studies since then have proved the essential similarity of man and animal as well as refuted
any fundamental difference. This was most difficult in the field of mental powers; but in
this respect too it has repeatedly been pointed out in Darwinistic publications that the
animal also thinks and shows intelligence that between the mind of animal and man there
are no essential differences but only differences of degree, and that it is but a question of
more or less.

Thus the problem of the origin of man disappeared, not so much as if it were solved but
rather stripped of its character as a special problem, the case not differing from the origin
of any animal species from another. Thus, however, the balance had swung too far the
other way. There are essential and profound differences, which are not so absolute that
they form an unbridgeable cleft separating two worlds, but are so large and so fundamental
that one may speak of a difference of quality. Quantitative differences, if only they become
large enough, grow into differences of quality. An analogon, a trace, a beginning of every
specifically human characteristic is present in the animal world – by which it is rendered
possible that by a natural development man could descend from the animal. However
these traces had to grow into something entirely new and different, and this stamps
anthropogenesis as a special scientific problem.

3. There are three main characteristics which differentiate between man and animal.
Firstly, there is abstract thinking. Although animals do show a certain measure of
intelligence, and though mental processes do take place with them which have their seat in
highly developed brains, the capacity for abstract thought is only found in man. This is the
thinking in concepts which has elevated him to so high a level of theoretical knowledge and
science. Secondly there is speech, there is the use of language. Although animals do
produce sounds intended for mutual information, with man alone these sounds have
significance as names, and thus are the basis of a high spiritual culture. Thirdly there is the
use of tools made by himself. Even though animals do make use of dead things from their
natural surroundings as aids to their own support, with man this has become an habitual
use of implements specially made for a purpose and according to a preconceived plan.
These implements are the basis of an ever growing technique, and therefore of our entire
material civilization. One would add as a fourth characteristic, from Aristotle’s designation
of man as a zoön politikon, that man lives in social connection. However important this
characteristic may be, it does not differentiate man from all animals. Many other animal
species live in groups, they form communities, and the characteristic has been inherited by
man from the animal world. Similarly it is not permissible to cite the rapid evolution of man
in contradistinction to the constancy of other species as a difference; this is not so much a
characteristic itself but rather a quality of each of the aforementioned characteristics.
 Evolution
In biology, evolution is the change in heritable characteristics of
biological populations over successive generations. Evolution occurs when evolutionary
processes such as natural selection (including sexual selection) and genetic drift act on
genetic variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more or less common within
a population over successive generations. The process of evolution has given rise
to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation.

The theory of evolution by natural selection was conceived independently by Charles

Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the mid-19th century as an explanation for why
organisms are adapted to their physical and biological environments. The theory was first
set out in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species. Evolution by natural selection is
established by observable facts about living organisms: (1) more offspring are often
produced than can possibly survive; (2) traits vary among individuals with respect to
their morphology, physiology, and behaviour; (3) different traits confer different rates of
survival and reproduction (differential fitness); and (4) traits can be passed from generation
to generation (heritability of fitness).
 In successive generations, members of a population are therefore more likely to be
replaced by the offspring of parents with favourable characteristics for that environment.

In the early 20th century, competing ideas of evolution were refuted and evolution was

combined with Mendelian inheritance and population genetics to give rise to modern
evolutionary theory. In this synthesis the basis for heredity is in DNA molecules that pass
information from generation to generation. The processes that change DNA in a population
include natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and gene flow. All life on Earth—
including humanity—shares a last universal common ancestor (LUCA), which lived
approximately 3.5–3.8 billion years ago. The fossil record includes a progression from
early biogenic graphite to microbial mat fossils to fossilised multicellular organisms.
Existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped by repeated formations of new species
(speciation), changes within species (anagenesis), and loss of species (extinction)
throughout the evolutionary history of life on Earth. Morphological and biochemical traits
tend to be more similar among species that share a more recent common ancestor, which
historically was used to reconstruct phylogenetic trees, although direct comparison of
genetic sequences is a more common method today.
Evolutionary biologists have continued to study various aspects of evolution by forming
and testing hypotheses as well as constructing theories based on evidence from the field or
laboratory and on data generated by the methods of mathematical and theoretical
biology. Their discoveries have influenced not just the development of biology but also
other fields including agriculture, medicine, and computer science.

Heredity
DNA structure. Bases are in the centre, surrounded by phosphate–sugar chains in a double
helix.

Evolution in organisms occurs through changes in heritable characteristics—the inherited

characteristics of an organism. In humans, for example, eye colour is an inherited
characteristic and an individual might inherit the "brown-eye trait" from one of their
parents. Inherited traits are controlled by genes and the complete set of genes within an
organism's genome (genetic material) is called its genotype.
The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an
organism is called its phenotype. Some of these traits come from the interaction of its
genotype with the environment while others are neutral.

Some observable characteristics are not inherited. For example, suntanned skin comes

from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not
passed on to people's children. The phenotype is the ability of the skin to tan when exposed
to sunlight. However, some people tan more easily than others, due to differences in
genotypic variation; a striking example are people with the inherited trait of albinism, who
do not tan at all and are very sensitive to sunburn.
Heritable characteristics are passed from one generation to the next via DNA,
a molecule that encodes genetic information. DNA is a long biopolymer composed of four
types of bases. The sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule specifies the genetic
information, in a manner similar to a sequence of letters spelling out a sentence. Before a
cell divides, the DNA is copied, so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA
sequence. Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes;
different genes have different sequences of bases. Within cells, each long strand of DNA is
called a chromosome. The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is
known as a locus. If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different
forms of this sequence are called alleles. DNA sequences can change through mutations,
producing new alleles. If a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait
that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism. However, while this simple
correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are
influenced by multiple genes in a quantitative or epistatic manner.
Evolution can occur if there is genetic variation within a population. Variation comes from
mutations in the genome, reshuffling of genes through sexual reproduction and migration
between populations (gene flow). Despite the constant introduction of new variation
through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is very similar among all
individuals of that species. However, discoveries in the field of evolutionary developmental
biology have demonstrated that even relatively small differences in genotype can lead to
dramatic differences in phenotype both within and between species.

An individual organism's phenotype results from both its genotype and the influence of the
environment it has lived in. The modern evolutionary synthesis defines evolution as the
change over time in this genetic variation. The frequency of one particular allele will
become more or less prevalent relative to other forms of that gene. Variation disappears
when a new allele reaches the point of fixation—when it either disappears from the
population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely.

Mutation
Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a cell's genome and are the ultimate source
of genetic variation in all organisms. When mutations occur, they may alter the product of
a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning, or have no effect.
About half of the mutations in the coding regions of protein-coding genes are deleterious -
the other half are neutral. A small percentage of the total mutations in this region confer a
fitness benefit. Some of the mutations in other parts of the genome are deleterious but the
vast majority are neutral. A few are beneficial.
Mutations can involve large sections of a chromosome becoming duplicated (usually
by genetic recombination), which can introduce extra copies of a gene into a genome. Extra
copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to
evolve. This is important because most new genes evolve within gene families from pre-
existing genes that share common ancestors. For example, the human eye uses four genes
to make structures that sense light: three for colour vision and one for night vision; all four
are descended from a single ancestral gene.

New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and
acquires a new function. This process is easier once a gene has been duplicated because it
increases the redundancy of the system; one gene in the pair can acquire a new function
while the other copy continues to perform its original function. Other types of mutations
can even generate entirely new genes from previously noncoding DNA, a phenomenon
termed de novo gene birth.
The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated,
with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions
(exon shuffling). When new genes are assembled from shuffling pre-existing
parts, domains act as modules with simple independent functions, which can be mixed
together to produce new combinations with new and complex functions. For
example, polyketide synthases are large enzymes that make antibiotics; they contain up to
100 independent domains that each catalyse one step in the overall process, like a step in
an assembly line.
One example of mutation is wild boar piglets. They are camouflage colored and show a
characteristic pattern of dark and light longitudinal stripes. However, mutations
in melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) disrupt the pattern. The majority of pig breeds carry
MC1R mutations disrupting wild-type color and different mutations causing dominant black
color of the pigs.

Sex and recombination

In asexual organisms, genes are inherited together, or linked, as they cannot mix with
genes of other organisms during reproduction. In contrast, the offspring of sexual
organisms contain random mixtures
of their parents' chromosomes that
are produced through independent
assortment. In a related process
called homologous recombination,
sexual organisms exchange DNA
between two matching
chromosomes. Recombination and
reassortment do not alter allele
frequencies, but instead change
which alleles are associated with
each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles. Sex usually increases
genetic variation and may increase the rate of evolution.
The two-fold cost of sex was first described by John Maynard Smith. The first cost is that in
sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young. This cost does not
apply to hermaphroditic species, like most plants and many invertebrates. The second cost
is that any individual who reproduces sexually can only pass on 50% of its genes to any
individual offspring, with even less passed on as each new generation passes. Yet sexual
reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and
multicellular organisms. The Red Queen hypothesis has been used to explain the
significance of sexual reproduction as a means to enable continual evolution and
adaptation in response to coevolution with other species in an ever-changing
environment. Another hypothesis is that sexual reproduction is primarily an adaptation for
promoting accurate recombinational repair of damage in germline DNA, and that increased
diversity is a byproduct of this process that may sometimes be adaptively beneficial.

Gene flow
Gene flow is the exchange of genes between populations and between species. It can
therefore be a source of variation that is new to a population or to a species. Gene flow can
be caused by the movement of individuals between separate populations of organisms, as
might be caused by the movement of mice between inland and coastal populations, or the
movement of pollen between heavy-metal-tolerant and heavy-metal-sensitive populations
of grasses.

Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal

gene transfer. Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genetic material from one
organism to another organism that is not its offspring; this is most common
among bacteria. In medicine, this contributes to the spread of antibiotic resistance, as
when one bacteria acquires resistance genes it can rapidly transfer them to other species.
Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces
cerevisiae and the adzuki bean weevil Callosobruchus chinensis has occurred. An example
of larger-scale transfers are the eukaryotic bdelloid rotifers, which have received a range of
genes from bacteria, fungi and plants. Viruses can also carry DNA between organisms,
allowing transfer of genes even across biological domains.
Large-scale gene transfer has also occurred between the ancestors of eukaryotic cells and
bacteria, during the acquisition of chloroplasts and mitochondria. It is possible that
eukaryotes themselves originated from horizontal gene transfers between bacteria
and archaea.

Epigenetics
Some heritable changes cannot be explained by changes to the sequence of nucleotides in
the DNA. These phenomena are classed as epigenetic inheritance systems. DNA
methylation marking chromatin, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by RNA
interference and the three-dimensional conformation of proteins (such as prions) are
areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic
level. Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions in genetic networks and
communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that may underlay some of the
mechanics in developmental plasticity and canalisation. Heritability may also occur at even
larger scales. For example, ecological inheritance through the process of niche
construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their
environment. This generates a legacy of effects that modify and feed back into the selection
regime of subsequent generations. Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not
under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of cultural traits
and symbiogenesis.

Evolutionary forces
From a neo-Darwinian perspective, evolution occurs when there are changes in the
frequencies of alleles within a population of interbreeding organisms, for example, the
allele for black colour in a population of moths becoming more common. Mechanisms that
can lead to changes in allele frequencies include natural selection, genetic drift, and
mutation bias.

Natural selection
Evolution by natural selection is the process by which traits that enhance survival and
reproduction become more common in successive generations of a population. It embodies
three principles: Variation exists within populations of organisms with respect to
morphology, physiology and behaviour (phenotypic variation).

 Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness).
 These traits can be passed from generation to generation (heritability of fitness).
More offspring are produced than can possibly survive, and these conditions produce
competition between organisms for survival and reproduction. Consequently, organisms
with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors are more likely to pass on
their traits to the next generation than those with traits that do not confer an advantage.
This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and
preserves traits that are seemingly fitted for the functional roles they perform.
Consequences of selection include nonrandom mating and genetic hitchhiking.
The central concept of natural selection is the evolutionary fitness of an organism. Fitness
is measured by an organism's ability to survive and reproduce, which determines the size of
its genetic contribution to the next generation. However, fitness is not the same as the total
number of offspring: instead fitness is indicated by the proportion of subsequent
generations that carry an organism's genes. For example, if an organism could survive well
and reproduce rapidly, but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive, this
organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have
low fitness.

If an allele increases fitness more than the other alleles of that gene, then with each
generation this allele has a higher probability of becoming common within the population.
These traits are said to be "selected for." Examples of traits that can increase fitness are
enhanced survival and increased fecundity. Conversely, the lower fitness caused by having
a less beneficial or deleterious allele results in this allele likely becoming rarer—they are
"selected against." Importantly, the fitness of an allele is not a fixed characteristic; if the
environment changes, previously neutral or harmful traits may become beneficial and
previously beneficial traits become harmful. However, even if the direction of selection
does reverse in this way, traits that were lost in the past may not re-evolve in an identical
form. However, a re-activation of dormant genes, as long as they have not been eliminated
from the genome and were only suppressed perhaps for hundreds of generations, can lead
to the re-occurrence of traits thought to be lost like hindlegs in dolphins, teeth in chickens,
wings in wingless stick insects, tails and additional nipples in humans etc. "Throwbacks"
such as these are known as atavisms.
Natural selection within a population for a trait that can vary across a range of values, such
as height, can be categorised into three different types. The first is directional selection,
which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time—for example, organisms slowly
getting taller. Secondly, disruptive selection is selection for extreme trait values and often
results in two different values becoming most common, with selection against the average
value. This would be when either short or tall organisms had an advantage, but not those of
medium height. Finally, in stabilising selection there is selection against extreme trait
values on both ends, which causes a decrease in variance around the average value and
less diversity. This would, for example, cause organisms to eventually have a similar height.
Natural selection most generally makes nature the measure against which individuals and
individual traits, are more or less likely to survive. "Nature" in this sense refers to
an ecosystem, that is, a system in which organisms interact with every other
element, physical as well as biological, in their local environment. Eugene Odum, a founder
of ecology, defined an ecosystem as: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms...in a given
area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly
defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (i.e., exchange of materials
between living and nonliving parts) within the system...." Each population within an
ecosystem occupies a distinct niche, or position, with distinct relationships to other parts of
the system. These relationships involve the life history of the organism, its position in
the food chain and its geographic range. This broad understanding of nature enables
scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection.
Natural selection can act at different levels of organisation, such as genes, cells, individual
organisms, groups of organisms and species. Selection can act at multiple levels
simultaneously. An example of selection occurring below the level of the individual
organism are genes called transposons, which can replicate and spread throughout a
genome. Selection at a level above the individual, such as group selection, may allow the
evolution of cooperation.
Genetic drift
Genetic drift is the random fluctuation of allele frequencies within a population from one
generation to the next. When selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele
frequencies are equally likely to drift upward or downward in each successive generation
because the alleles are subject to sampling error. This drift halts when an allele eventually
becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population or by replacing the other alleles
entirely. Genetic drift may therefore eliminate some alleles from a population due to
chance alone. Even in the absence of selective forces, genetic drift can cause two separate
populations that begin with the same genetic structure to drift apart into two divergent
populations with different sets of alleles.
According to the neutral theory of molecular evolution most evolutionary changes are the
result of the fixation of neutral mutations by genetic drift. In this model, most genetic
changes in a population are thus the result of constant mutation pressure and genetic
drift. This form of the neutral theory has been debated since it does not seem to fit some
genetic variation seen in nature. A better-supported version of this model is the nearly
neutral theory, according to which a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small
population is not necessarily neutral in a large population. Other theories propose that
genetic drift is dwarfed by other stochastic forces in evolution, such as genetic hitchhiking,
also known as genetic draft. Another concept is constructive neutral evolution (CNE),
which explains that complex systems can emerge and spread into a population through
neutral transitions due to the principles of excess capacity, presuppression, and ratcheting,
and it has been applied in areas ranging from the origins of the spliceosome to the complex
interdependence of microbial communities.

The time it takes a neutral allele to become fixed by genetic drift depends on population
size; fixation is more rapid in smaller populations. The number of individuals in a population
is not critical, but instead a measure known as the effective population size. The effective
population is usually smaller than the total population since it takes into account factors
such as the level of inbreeding and the stage of the lifecycle in which the population is the
smallest. The effective population size may not be the same for every gene in the same
population.
It is usually difficult to measure the relative importance of selection and neutral processes,
including drift. The comparative importance of adaptive and non-adaptive forces in driving
evolutionary change is an area of current research.

Mutation bias
Mutation bias is usually conceived as a difference in expected rates for two different kinds
of mutation, e.g., transition-transversion bias, GC-AT bias, deletion-insertion bias. This is
related to the idea of developmental bias. Haldane and Fisher argued that, because
mutation is a weak pressure easily overcome by selection, tendencies of mutation would be
ineffectual except under conditions of neutral evolution or extraordinarily high mutation
rates. This opposing-pressures argument was long used to dismiss the possibility of internal
tendencies in evolution, until the molecular era prompted renewed interest in neutral
evolution.
Noboru Sueoka and Ernst Freese proposed that systematic biases in mutation might be
responsible for systematic differences in genomic GC composition between species. The
identification of a GC-biased E. coli mutator strain in 1967, along with the proposal of
the neutral theory, established the plausibility of mutational explanations for molecular
patterns, which are now common in the molecular evolution literature.
For instance, mutation biases are
frequently invoked in models of codon
usage. Such models also include effects
of selection, following the mutation-
selection-drift model, which allows both
for mutation biases and differential
selection based on effects on translation.
Hypotheses of mutation bias have played
an important role in the development of
thinking about the evolution of genome
composition, including
isochores. Different insertion vs. deletion
biases in different taxa can lead to the
evolution of different genome sizes. The hypothesis of Lynch regarding genome size relies
on mutational biases toward increase or decrease in genome size.
However, mutational hypotheses for the evolution of composition suffered a reduction in
scope when it was discovered that (1) GC-biased gene conversion makes an important
contribution to composition in diploid organisms such as mammals and (2) bacterial
genomes frequently have AT-biased mutation.
Contemporary thinking about the role of mutation biases reflects a different theory from
that of Haldane and Fisher. More recent work showed that the original "pressures" theory
assumes that evolution is based on standing variation: when evolution depends on events
of mutation that introduce new alleles, mutational and developmental biases in the
introduction of variation (arrival biases) can impose biases on evolution without requiring
neutral evolution or high mutation rates).
Several studies report that the mutations implicated in adaptation reflect common
mutation biases though others dispute this interpretation.

Genetic hitchhiking
Recombination allows alleles on the same strand of DNA to become separated. However,
the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per
generation). As a result, genes close together on a chromosome may not always be shuffled
away from each other and genes that are close together tend to be inherited together, a
phenomenon known as linkage. This tendency is measured by finding how often two alleles
occur together on a single chromosome compared to expectations, which is called
their linkage disequilibrium. A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called
a haplotype. This can be important when one allele in a particular haplotype is strongly
beneficial: natural selection can drive a selective sweep that will also cause the other
alleles in the haplotype to become more common in the population; this effect is called
genetic hitchhiking or genetic draft. Genetic draft caused by the fact that some neutral
genes are genetically linked to others that are under selection can be partially captured by
an appropriate effective population size.

Sexual selection
Male moor frogs become blue during the height of mating season. Blue reflectance may be
a form of intersexual communication. It is hypothesized that males with brighter blue
coloration may signal greater sexual and genetic fitness.
A special case of natural selection is sexual
selection, which is selection for any trait that
increases mating success by increasing the
attractiveness of an organism to potential
mates. Traits that evolved through sexual
selection are particularly prominent among males
of several animal species. Although sexually
favoured, traits such as cumbersome antlers,
mating calls, large body size and bright colours
often attract predation, which compromises the survival of individual males. This survival
disadvantage is balanced by higher reproductive success in males that show these hard-to-
fake, sexually selected traits.

Adaptation
Adaptation is the process that makes organisms better suited to their habitat. Also, the
term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism's survival. For
example, the adaptation of horses' teeth to the grinding of grass. By using the
term adaptation for the evolutionary process and adaptive trait for the product (the bodily
part or function), the two senses of the word may be distinguished. Adaptations are
produced by natural selection. The following definitions are due to Theodosius Dobzhansky:
1. Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to
live in its habitat or habitats. Adaptedness is the state of being adapted: the degree
to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats.
An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which
enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.
Adaptation may cause either the gain of a new feature, or the loss of an ancestral
feature. An example that shows both types of change is bacterial adaptation to
antibiotic selection, with genetic changes causing antibiotic resistance by both
modifying the target of the drug, or increasing the activity of transporters that pump
the drug out of the cell. Other striking examples are the bacteria Escherichia
coli evolving the ability to use citric acid as a nutrient in a long-term laboratory
experiment, Flavobacterium evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to
grow on the by-products of nylon manufacturing, and the soil
bacterium Sphingobium evolving an entirely new metabolic pathway that degrades
the synthetic pesticide pentachlorophenol. An interesting but still controversial idea
is that some adaptations might increase the ability of organisms to generate genetic
diversity and adapt by natural selection (increasing organisms' evolvability).
A baleen whale skeleton. Letters a and b label flipper bones, which were adapted from
front leg bones, while c indicates vestigial leg bones, both suggesting an adaptation from
land to sea.

Adaptation occurs through the gradual modification of existing structures. Consequently,

structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related
organisms. This is the result of a single ancestral structure being adapted to function in
different ways. The bones within bat wings, for example, are very similar to those
in mice feet and primate hands, due to the descent of all these structures from a common
mammalian ancestor. However, since all living organisms are related to some extent, even
organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity, such
as arthropod, squid and vertebrate eyes, or the limbs and wings of arthropods and
vertebrates, can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly
and function; this is called deep homology.
During evolution, some structures may lose their original function and become vestigial
structures. Such structures may have little or no function in a current species, yet have a
clear function in ancestral species, or other closely related species. Examples
include pseudogenes, the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish, wings
in flightless birds, the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes, and sexual traits in
organisms that reproduce via asexual reproduction. Examples of vestigial structures in
humans include wisdom teeth, the coccyx, the vermiform appendix, and other behavioural
vestiges such as goose bumps and primitive reflexes.
However, many traits that appear to be simple adaptations are in fact exaptations:
structures originally adapted for one function, but which coincidentally became somewhat
useful for some other function in the process. One example is the African lizard Holaspis
guentheri, which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by
looking at its near relatives. However, in this species, the head has become so flattened that
it assists in gliding from tree to tree—an exaptation. Within cells, molecular machines such
as the bacterial flagella and protein sorting machinery evolved by the recruitment of
several pre-existing proteins that previously had different functions. Another example is
the recruitment of enzymes from glycolysis and xenobiotic metabolism to serve as
structural proteins called crystallins within the lenses of organisms' eyes.
An area of current investigation in evolutionary developmental biology is the
developmental basis of adaptations and exaptations. This research addresses the origin and
evolution of embryonic development and how modifications of development and
developmental processes produce novel features. These studies have shown that evolution
can alter development to produce new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that
develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the middle ear in mammals.
It is also possible for structures that have been lost in evolution to reappear due to changes
in developmental genes, such as a mutation in chickens causing embryos to grow teeth
similar to those of crocodiles. It is now becoming clear that most alterations in the form of
organisms are due to changes in a small set of conserved genes.

Co-evolution
Interactions between organisms can produce
both conflict and cooperation. When the
interaction is between pairs of species, such as
a pathogen and a host, or a predator and its
prey, these species can develop matched sets
of adaptations. Here, the evolution of one
species causes adaptations in a second species.
These changes in the second species then, in turn, cause new adaptations in the first
species. This cycle of selection and response is called coevolution. An example is the
production of tetrodotoxin in the rough-skinned newt and the evolution of tetrodotoxin
resistance in its predator, the common garter snake. In this predator-prey pair,
an evolutionary arms race has produced high levels of toxin in the newt and
correspondingly high levels of toxin resistance in the snake.

Cooperation
Not all co-evolved interactions between species involve conflict. Many cases of mutually
beneficial interactions have evolved. For instance, an extreme cooperation exists between
plants and the mycorrhizal fungi that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing
nutrients from the soil. This is a reciprocal relationship as the plants provide the fungi with
sugars from photosynthesis. Here, the fungi actually grow inside plant cells, allowing them
to exchange nutrients with their hosts, while sending signals that suppress the
plant immune system.
Coalitions between organisms of the same
species have also evolved. An extreme case is
the eusociality found in social insects, such
as bees, termites and ants, where sterile insects
feed and guard the small number of organisms
in a colony that are able to reproduce. On an
even smaller scale, the somatic cells that make
up the body of an animal limit their
reproduction so they can maintain a stable
organism, which then supports a small number of the animal's germ cells to produce
offspring. Here, somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to
grow, remain as they are, or die. If cells ignore these signals and multiply inappropriately,
their uncontrolled growth causes cancer. Such cooperation within species may have
evolved through the process of kin selection, which is where one organism acts to help
raise a relative's offspring. This activity is selected for because if the helping individual
contains alleles which promote the helping activity, it is likely that its kin will also contain
these alleles and thus those alleles will be passed on. Other processes that may promote
cooperation include group selection, where cooperation provides benefits to a group of
organisms.

Speciation
There are multiple ways to define the concept of "species." The choice of definition is
dependent on the particularities of the species concerned. For example, some species
concepts apply more readily toward
sexually reproducing organisms while
others lend themselves better toward
asexual organisms. Despite the diversity of
various species concepts, these various
concepts can be placed into one of three
broad philosophical approaches:
interbreeding, ecological and
phylogenetic. The Biological Species
Concept (BSC) is a classic example of the
interbreeding approach. Defined by
evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr in 1942, the BSC states that "species are groups of
actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated
from other such groups." Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like other species
concepts is not without controversy, for example, because genetic recombination among
prokaryotes is not an intrinsic aspect of reproduction; this is called the species
problem. Some researchers have attempted a unifying monistic definition of species, while
others adopt a pluralistic approach and suggest that there may be different ways to
logically interpret the definition of a species.
Barriers to reproduction between two diverging sexual populations are required for the
populations to become new species. Gene flow may slow this process by spreading the new
genetic variants also to the other populations. Depending on how far two species have
diverged since their most recent common ancestor, it may still be possible for them to
produce offspring, as with horses and donkeys mating to produce mules. Such hybrids are
generally infertile. In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids
will be selected against and the species will remain distinct. However, viable hybrids are
occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate
between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype. The importance of
hybridisation in producing new species of animals is unclear, although cases have been
seen in many types of animals, with the gray tree frog being a particularly well-studied
example.
Speciation has been observed multiple times under both controlled laboratory
conditions and in nature. In sexually reproducing organisms, speciation results from
reproductive isolation followed by genealogical divergence. There are four primary
geographic modes of speciation. The most common in animals is allopatric speciation,
which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by habitat
fragmentation or migration. Selection under these conditions can produce very rapid
changes in the appearance and behaviour of organisms. As selection and drift act
independently on populations isolated from the rest of their species, separation may
eventually produce organisms that cannot interbreed.
The second mode of speciation is peripatric speciation, which occurs when small
populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment. This differs from
allopatric speciation in that the isolated populations are numerically much smaller than the
parental population. Here, the founder effect causes rapid speciation after an increase
in inbreeding increases selection on homozygotes, leading to rapid genetic change. The
third mode is parapatric speciation. This is similar to peripatric speciation in that a small
population enters a new habitat, but differs in that there is no physical separation between
these two populations. Instead, speciation results from the evolution of mechanisms that
reduce gene flow between the two populations Generally this occurs when there has been
a drastic change in the environment within the parental species' habitat. One example is
the grass Anthoxanthum odoratum, which can undergo parapatric speciation in response
to localised metal pollution from mines. Here, plants evolve that have resistance to high
levels of metals in the soil. Selection against interbreeding with the metal-sensitive parental
population produced a gradual change in the flowering time of the metal-resistant plants,
which eventually produced complete reproductive isolation. Selection against hybrids
between the two populations may cause reinforcement, which is the evolution of traits
that promote mating within a species, as well as character displacement, which is when
two species become more distinct in appearance.
Geographical isolation of finches on the Galápagos Islands produced over a dozen new
species.

Finally, in sympatric speciation species diverge without geographic isolation or changes in

habitat. This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic
differences between parts of a population. Generally, sympatric speciation in animals
requires the evolution of both genetic differences and nonrandom mating, to allow
reproductive isolation to evolve.
One type of sympatric speciation involves crossbreeding of two related species to produce
a new hybrid species. This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile.
This is because during meiosis the homologous chromosomes from each parent are from
different species and cannot successfully pair. However, it is more common in plants
because plants often double their number of chromosomes, to form polyploids. This allows
the chromosomes from each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis, since
each parent's chromosomes are represented by a pair already. An example of such a
speciation event is when the plant species Arabidopsis thaliana and Arabidopsis
arenosa crossbred to give the new species Arabidopsis suecica. This happened about
20,000 years ago, and the speciation process has been repeated in the laboratory, which
allows the study of the genetic mechanisms involved in this process. Indeed, chromosome
doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation, as half the
doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms.
Speciation events are important in the theory of punctuated equilibrium, which accounts
for the pattern in the fossil record of short "bursts" of evolution interspersed with relatively
long periods of stasis, where species remain relatively unchanged. In this theory, speciation
and rapid evolution are linked, with natural selection and genetic drift acting most strongly
on organisms undergoing speciation in novel habitats or small populations. As a result, the
periods of stasis in the fossil record correspond to the parental population and the
organisms undergoing speciation and rapid evolution are found in small populations or
geographically restricted habitats and therefore rarely being preserved as fossils
Extinction
Extinction is the disappearance of an entire
species. Extinction is not an unusual event,
as species regularly appear through
speciation and disappear through
extinction. Nearly all animal and plant
species that have lived on Earth are now
extinct, and extinction appears to be the
ultimate fate of all species. These
extinctions have happened continuously throughout the history of life, although the rate of
extinction spikes in occasional mass extinction events. The Cretaceous–Paleogene
extinction event, during which the non-avian dinosaurs became extinct, is the most well-
known, but the earlier Permian–Triassic extinction event was even more severe, with
approximately 96% of all marine species driven to extinction. The Holocene extinction
event is an ongoing mass extinction associated with humanity's expansion across the globe
over the past few thousand years. Present-day extinction rates are 100–1000 times greater
than the background rate and up to 30% of current species may be extinct by the mid 21st
century. Human activities are now the primary cause of the ongoing extinction
event; global warming may further accelerate it in the future. Despite the estimated
extinction of more than 99% of all species that ever lived on Earth, about 1 trillion species
are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of 1% described.
The role of extinction in evolution is not very well understood and may depend on which
type of extinction is considered. The causes of the continuous "low-level" extinction events,
which form the majority of extinctions, may be the result of competition between species
for limited resources (the competitive exclusion principle). If one species can out-compete
another, this could produce species selection, with the fitter species surviving and the other
species being driven to extinction. The intermittent mass extinctions are also important, but
instead of acting as a selective force, they drastically reduce diversity in a nonspecific
manner and promote bursts of rapid evolution and speciation in survivors.

Applications
Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms. This has
been used for thousands of years in the domestication of plants and animals. More
recently, such selection has become a vital part of genetic engineering, with selectable
markers such as antibiotic resistance genes being used to manipulate DNA. Proteins with
valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection (for
example modified enzymes and new antibodies) in a process called directed evolution.
Understanding the changes that have occurred during an organism's evolution can reveal
the genes needed to construct parts of the body, genes which may be involved in
human genetic disorders. For example, the Mexican tetra is an albino cavefish that lost its
eyesight during evolution. Breeding together different populations of this blind fish
produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in
the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves. This helped identify genes
required for vision and pigmentation.
Evolutionary theory has many applications in medicine. Many human diseases are not
static phenomena, but capable of evolution. Viruses, bacteria, fungi and cancers evolve to
be resistant to host immune defences, as well as to pharmaceutical drugs. These same
problems occur in agriculture with pesticide and herbicide resistance. It is possible that we
are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics and predicting the
evolution and evolvability of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it
is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular
level.
In computer science, simulations of evolution using evolutionary algorithms and artificial
life started in the 1960s and were extended with simulation of artificial selection. Artificial
evolution became a widely recognised optimisation method as a result of the work of Ingo
Rechenberg in the 1960s. He used evolution strategies to solve complex engineering
problems. Genetic algorithms in particular became popular through the writing of John
Henry Holland. Practical applications also include automatic evolution of computer
programmes. Evolutionary algorithms are now used to solve multi-dimensional problems
more efficiently than software produced by human designers and also to optimise the
design of systems.

Origin of life
The Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth
dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a
geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. Microbial mat
fossils have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia. Other early
physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-
old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenlandas well as "remains of biotic
life" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. Commenting on the Australian
findings, Stephen Blair Hedges wrote: "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could
be common in the universe." In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of
355 genes from the last universal common ancestor (LUCA) of all organisms living on Earth.
More than 99% of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth
are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from
10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and
1.6 million documented in a central database to date, leaving at least 80% not yet
described.
Highly energetic chemistry is thought to have produced a self-replicating molecule around
4 billion years ago, and half a billion years later the last common ancestor of all life existed.
The current scientific consensus is that the complex biochemistry that makes up life came
from simpler chemical reactions. The beginning of life may have included self-replicating
molecules such as RNA and the assembly of simple cells.

Common descent
All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene
pool. Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the
product of a long series of speciation and extinction events. The common descent of
organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have
geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation. Second, the diversity
of life is not a set of completely unique organisms, but organisms that share morphological
similarities. Third, vestigial traits with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits.
Fourth, organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested
groups, similar to a family tree.
The hominoids are descendants of a common ancestor.

Due to horizontal gene transfer, this "tree of life" may be more complicated than a simple
branching tree, since some genes have spread independently between distantly related
species. To solve this problem and others, some authors prefer to use the "Coral of life" as
a metaphor or a mathematical model to illustrate the evolution of life. This view dates back
to an idea briefly mentioned by Darwin but later abandoned.
Past species have also left records of their evolutionary history. Fossils, along with the
comparative anatomy of present-day organisms, constitute the morphological, or
anatomical, record. By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species,
palaeontologists can infer the lineages of those species. However, this approach is most
successful for organisms that had hard body parts, such as shells, bones or teeth. Further,
as prokaryotes such as bacteria and archaea share a limited set of common morphologies,
their fossils do not provide information on their ancestry.

More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical
similarities between organisms. For example, all living cells use the same basic set of
nucleotides and amino acids. The development of molecular genetics has revealed the
record of evolution left in organisms' genomes: dating when species diverged through
the molecular clock produced by mutations. For example, these DNA sequence
comparisons have revealed that humans and chimpanzees share 98% of their genomes and
analysing the few areas where they differ helps shed light on when the common ancestor of
these species existed.

Evolution of life
Prokaryotes inhabited the Earth from approximately 3–4 billion years ago. No obvious
changes in morphology or cellular organisation occurred in these organisms over the next
few billion years. The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6 and 2.7 billion years ago. The
next major change in cell structure came when bacteria were engulfed by eukaryotic cells,
in a cooperative association called endosymbiosis. The engulfed bacteria and the host cell
then underwent coevolution, with the bacteria evolving into either mitochondria
or hydrogenosomes. Another engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms led to the
formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants.
The history of life was that of the unicellular eukaryotes, prokaryotes and archaea until
about 610 million years ago when multicellular organisms began to appear in the oceans in
the Ediacaran period. The evolution of multicellularity occurred in multiple independent
events, in organisms as diverse as sponges, brown algae, cyanobacteria, slime
moulds and myxobacteria. In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million
years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have allowed
organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells.
Soon after the emergence of these first multicellular organisms, a remarkable amount of
biological diversity appeared over approximately 10 million years, in an event called
the Cambrian explosion. Here, the majority of types of modern animals appeared in the
fossil record, as well as unique lineages that subsequently became extinct. Various triggers
for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in
the atmosphere from photosynthesis.
About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi colonised the land and were soon followed by
arthropods and other animals. Insects were particularly successful and even today make up
the majority of animal species. Amphibians first appeared around 364 million years ago,
followed by early amniotes and birds around 155 million years ago (both from "reptile"-like
lineages), mammals around b million years ago, Homininae around 10 million years ago
and modern humans around 250,000 years ago. However, despite the evolution of these
large animals, smaller organisms similar to the types that evolved early in this process
continue to be highly successful and dominate the Earth, with the majority of both biomass
and species being prokaryotes.

Charles Darwin Theory of Evolution:

Charles Darwin, an English naturalist of the 19th century made an extensive study of nature
for over 20 years. He collected the observations on animal distribution and the relationship
between the living and extinct animals and finally found that the present living animals
share similarities to some extent not only between them but also with the other species
that existed millions of years ago and among which some have become extinct.

Carles Darwin is known as the father of evolution due to his contribution to the
establishment of the theory of evolution. His theory helped in removing all the
conventional old beliefs which said that the formation of various species was a supernatural
phenomenon or act of the Almighty. Darwin’s evolutionary theory of natural selection gave
a more rational explanation of the formation of new species. As per natural selection,
various species originated from a single species as a result of adaptation to the changing
environment.

The Theory of Evolution

Darwin had the following ideas regarding the theory of natural selection:

 Species keep on evolving or changing with time. As the environment changes, the
requirements of an organism also change and they adapt to the new environment.
 This phenomenon of changing over a period of time as per the natural requirements
is called adaptation.
 As per Darwin’s theory, only the superior changes are naturally selected and the
inferior ones are eliminated. Thus, not all adaptations contribute to progressive
evolution. For example, people living in tropical countries have more melanin in their
bodies to protect them from the sunlight.
 Almost all organisms share common ancestry with some organisms. According to
Darwin, all organisms had one common ancestor at some point in time and kept on
diverging ever since. His evolutionary theories support the convergent theory and
divergent theory of evolution with examples.
 He also studied that the birds of Galapagos Island (Darwin’s finches) developed
different beaks as per the availability of the food. This proved adaptive radiation.
Similarly, he also observed the Australian Marsupials which showed a number of
marsupials emerging from an ancestor.
 According to Charles Darwin, evolution is a very slow and gradual process. He
concluded that evolution took place over a very long period of time. As we talk about
the time period in evolution we usually refer to billions of years. The generation of a
species from another takes a long period of time. It is a very steady process as the
changes and adaptation take a long time to stabilize and give rise to a new species.
 Significance of Protists
The vast majority of living organisms in the world can be broadly classified into six
kingdoms, those being Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Archaea, Bacteria, and Protista. The
Protista kingdom houses the organisms that usually do not fall under any of the other
classifications. They are usually microscopic and are made up of a single cell (unicellular). In
this article, we will learn about the significance of the protists, the different types of
organisms under them, as well as the characteristics that make them a member of this
kingdom.

 Types of Protists 
 The Animal Kingdoms
 Characteristics of Protists
Organisms are broadly classified into six kingdoms- Animalia or the animal kingdom,
Plantae or the plant kingdom, Fungi, Archaea or the archaebacteria, Bacteria or the
eubacteria and the Protista kingdom.

Protists are what are known as eukaryotes- single-cell organisms that are non-primitive and
possess differentiated organelles. Protists are, however, still primitive as it is believed that
protists are the link between plants, animals and fungi and that these three kingdoms
branched out due to evolution from the protists. Thus we see how the significance of the
protists increases.

Types of Protists 

Protists are divided into broadly three

categories- animal-like protists, plant-like
protists and fungi-like protists (also called
the protozoa the algae and the moulds)
How the protist acquires their food forms
the basis of this classification. The protists
can of course be divided based on several
diverse factors like size, shape, the structure
of the nucleus, types of organelles, etc., and
the similarities it shares with other
kingdoms highlight the significance of the
protists. Protists reproduce both sexually
and asexually, and most of them are aquatic
when it comes to their habitat. Some of the protists, however, are parasitic, and thus live
inside the body of their host.
 The Animal Kingdoms

The six animal kingdoms are as follows:

 Archaea : These are primitive single-celled organisms (or prokaryotes) with RNA as their
cell wall helps them to survive in difficult conditions like hot springs. 

 Eubacteria: These organisms are considered to be “true” in nature. They are of various
shapes and sizes and can be found in many diverse places. Although a lot of bacteria
harmlessly live in our bodies, some bacteria can be harmful and cause diseases.

 Fungi: The main difference between fungi and most other kingdoms is that fungi have chitin
inside their cell walls. They can be microscopic, single-celled in nature, or even multicellular
like mushrooms. Fungi release chemicals to break down organic matter around them, which
is then consumed as food.
 Plantae: This, of course. Refers to the plants. Plants are characterized by the fact that they
are usually multicellular, and have a green pigment called chlorophyll, which they use to
synthesize food.

 Animalia: The animal kingdom. The organisms in this group can range from unicellular to
multicellular, and depend on other organisms for nutrition. Animals are further divided into
chordates(animals with a spinal cord) and non-chordates (animals without a spinal cord

 Protista: Protists are unicellular, and share similarities with most of the kingdoms. They
mark the point in evolution where the well-defined nucleus in a unicellular organism was
first seen. This is one of the explanations as to what is special about protists.
 Characteristics of Protists

 Here are some characteristics of protists:

 Protists are eukaryotic, i.e. their cells have a well-differentiated nucleus, as well as other
organelles.  These organelles are membrane-bound, which means that they are separated
from the cell cytoplasm by membranes, and are differentiated as specialized for particular
jobs.
 Protists possess a mitochondrion- a special organelle that has the responsibility of turning
imbibed nutrition into energy for the cell to use.
 Protists are usually aquatic when it comes to habitat. Some of them live in moist soil as
well, and the parasitic protists live in the body of the host.
 The vast majority of protists are unicellular, with a few exceptions. Kelp, for example, is
multicellular and can grow up to a hundred feet tall.
 When it comes to nutrition, protists can be autotrophic (makes their food through
photosynthesis), heterotrophic (depends on other organisms for food) and symbiotic
(exists in synthesis with another organism, providing shelter in exchange for food)
 Protists exhibit special organs for locomotion like cilia or flagella which they use to move
around. A lot of them also have pseudopodium or “false feet” for moving around.
 Protists usually reproduce asexually, but when under stress, or in extremely rare cases,
they participate in sexual reproduction.
 For examples Amoeba proteus, Euglena gracilis, Paramecium aurelia and more.

Importance of Protists

To understand the importance of kingdom Protista, one must look at the various ways in
which they have come to our use. The place they hold in evolutionary history also
emphasizes the significance of the protists, as they form an integral component in
researching the world’s natural history.

 The advent of protists (about two billion years ago) marks the first time a well-defined
nucleus and membrane-bound cell organelles were seen. This hints at the earlier stages of
cells slowly forming multicellular organisms, and then developing into the complex and
advanced human cell.
 Through the process of photosynthesis, plant-like protists or algae  release almost half of
the total amount of oxygen on earth
 Many protists are used in medical research to make medicines for arthritis, blood pressure,
digestion problems, etc.
 They also form a huge part of scientific research. Some protists are used to study the
implementation of chemical signals within the cells for performing different tasks.
Conclusion

We as human beings have to acknowledge the huge amount of help and indirect guidance
we get from other organisms. The huge significance of protists in our lives- an organism
that is so small that it is invisible to us- is a true testimony of this. It is a humbling thought
that humans have lived on the earth with the help of others, no matter how advanced we
become.
 REPRODUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND LIFE CYCLE OF
CRUSTACEANS
The sexes are normally, but not always, separate in crustaceans. Most individual barnacles
have both male and female reproductive organs (simultaneous hermaphroditism), and in
some groups the males, when present, are much smaller than the hermaphrodites. These
“dwarf” males attach themselves to the interior of the mantle cavity of the larger
individuals and fertilize their eggs. Some of the members of the order Notostraca (tadpole
shrimps) are also hermaphrodites; their ovaries contain scattered sperm-producing lobes
among the developing eggs. A change of sex during the life of an individual is a regular
feature in some shrimps. In Pandalus montagui, of the order Decapoda, for example, some
individuals begin life as males but change into functional females after about 13 months.
Isopods of the genus Rhyscotoides show a similar change from male to female as they grow
older.

Characteristic differences in structure or behaviour between the sexes are widespread in

the Crustacea and can be extreme; the males of some groups may be so small that they are
difficult to find on the much larger female. This is especially true in some of the parasitic
copepods. In Gonophysema gullmarensis the male is found in a small pouch in the female
genital tract. In many of the more advanced decapods, such as crabs and lobsters, however,
the males are larger than the females and may have much larger pincers. Another example
of sexual dimorphism is the possession by the male of clasping organs, which are used to
hold the female during mating. Almost any appendage can be found modified for this
purpose. Male appendages also can be modified to aid directly in transferring sperm to the
female. Frequently the sperm are enclosed in a case, or spermatophore. The first and
second abdominal appendages of male decapods are used to transfer spermatophores, as
are the highly modified fifth legs of male copepods of the order Calanoida. These copepods
can accurately place spermatophores near the openings of the female ducts. The contents
of the spermatophores are extruded by a b of special sperm, which force out the sperm
that soon fertilize the eggs.

Normal sexual reproduction involves the fusion of a sperm with an egg, but some

crustaceans are parthenogenetic; that is, they produce eggs that develop without being
fertilized by a sperm. Many branchiopods can do this, as can some ostracods and some
isopods.

Females of some crustacean species release their eggs

freely into the water—for example, certain copepods, such
as Calanus, and some members of the malacostracan
orders Bathynellacea, Anaspidacea, and Euphausiacea.
Some euphausiids and Nebalia (of the malacostracan
order Leptostraca) carry their eggs between the thoracic
limbs. Most decapods carry their eggs attached to the
abdominal appendages; special egg-
containing setae secrete a cement that flows over the eggs
and binds them to the setae. Most of the superorder
Peracarida, some isopods, such as Sphaeroma, many
branchiopods, the Notostraca, and the order Anostraca have a brood pouch on or behind
the limbs that is often formed by the carapace. Those free-living copepods that do not cast
their eggs freely into the water carry them in one or two thin-walled sacs suspended from
the front of the abdomen. Some parasitic copepods produce up to six or eight egg sacs,
while others produce the eggs in long strings, which may coil into a tangled mass.

The most widespread and typical crustacean larva to emerge from the egg is called
a nauplius. The main features of a nauplius are a simple, unsegmented body, three pairs of
appendages (antennules, antennae, and mandibles), and a single, simple, “naupliar” eye.
Nauplius larvae are found in the life cycles of cirripedes, ostracods, branchiopods,
copepods, euphausiids, the decapod peneid prawns, and members of the subclass
Thecostraca. Many of the other groups pass through embryonic stages like the nauplius, or
they have larvae with some similarities to the nauplius.

The most primitive type of development from a nauplius is found in the anostracan fairy
shrimps, where the young animal gradually adds new segments and appendages as it
undergoes a long series of molts. In the free-living copepods the nauplius goes through five
molts and then changes into a copepodid, which resembles the adult except that it does
not have a full complement of limbs. These limbs gradually develop over another five molts;
once the adult form is reached, the copepod does not molt again. The cirripede (barnacle)
nauplius molts several times and then metamorphoses into a cyprid, which has a two-part
carapace enclosing six pairs of trunk limbs that are used for swimming. The cyprid
eventually attaches to a solid object and then metamorphoses into an adult. During this
process, the cyprid’s swimming legs become the filtering appendages of the adult. Larval
ostracods are basically nauplii with a bivalved carapace. The euphausiid nauplius is followed
by a complex series of shrimplike larvae.

The nauplius of the peneid prawns is

followed by a sequence of larval forms
characterized by their methods of
locomotion: the advanced nauplius still
swims with its antennae, the protozoea
also uses its antennae but has developed
a small carapace and some thoracic
limbs, the zoea uses its thoracic limbs for
swimming, and the postlarval stages use
the abdominal appendages. Most
decapods omit the nauplius stage and
hatch as zoeae, which may be heavily ornamented with spines. The crab zoea eventually
changes into a megalops, which resembles a small crab with its tail extended behind it.

Some crustaceans bypass the free-living larval stages, and the young emerging from the
eggs resemble the adults. This occurs within the branchiopod order Anomopoda, as
in Daphnia, in most isopods and amphipods, and in some decapods, including freshwater
crabs and crayfish and some deep-sea and Arctic groups.
Ecology
Crustaceans play many roles in aquatic ecosystems. The planktonic forms—such as the
copepod Calanus and the krill Euphausia—graze on the microscopic plants floating in the
sea and in turn are eaten by fishes, seabirds, and whales. Benthic (bottom-dwelling)
crustaceans are a food source for fish, and some whales feed extensively on benthic
amphipods. Crabs are important predators, and the continuing struggle between them and
their prey prompts the evolution of newer adaptations: the massive and often highly
ornamented shells of many marine mollusks are thought to be a protective response to the
predatory activities of crabs; in turn the crabs develop larger and more powerful pincers.

Crustaceans also can be parasites, and some copepod species in particular parasitize other
aquatic animals ranging from whales to sea anemones. The larger crustaceans are often
parasitized by smaller crustaceans; for example, there are parasitic isopods that dwell in
the gill chambers of decapod prawns. Freshwater crustaceans can serve as intermediate
hosts for the lung fluke, Paragonimus (a b, phylum Platyhelminthes).
Crustaceans Characteristics
The majority of crustaceans are free-living, but others are sessile or parasitic.

The majority of people eat with their maxillae and mandibles. The walking legs, which have
adapted chelipeds, may be used to aid in prey capture. Some crustaceans filter microscopic
plankton or even bacteria from the water, while others are predators and scavenge
nutrients from detritus.

The vast majority of crustaceans are dioecious. Fertilization is accomplished through a

variety of processes. Some crustaceans produce miniature adults, while others go through a
larval stage known as a nauplius.

They are insect relatives.

Insects and crustacea would be phyla if the Arthropods were considered a superphylum
(see List of animal phyla). The group has a long fossil record that dates back to the
Cambrian period.

The majority of crustaceans are aquatic, mostly marine. Some people have permanently
relocated to the property. Crabs and woodlice are examples of land-based crustaceans.
Crustacea vary in size from 0.1mm parasites to the Japanese spider crab, which has a leg
span of up to 14 feet (4.3 metres) and weighs 44 pounds (20 kg). The North Atlantic lobster
will grow to be over 40 pounds in weight.

Most crustaceans are mobile, but after their larval stage, some become sessile.

Barnacles are crustaceans that stick themselves to seashore rocks. Fish lice and tongue
worms, for example, are parasitic. While most Crustacea have different sexes, others are
hermaphroditic. Eventually, their eggs hatch into larvae.
 Cultural Diversity – Defined

Cultural diversity is synonymous with multiculturalism. Multiculturalism is defined by

the Encyclopedia Britannica as, “the view that cultures, races, and ethnicities, particularly
those of minority groups, deserve special acknowledgment of their differences within a
dominant political culture.”

The importance of cultural diversity can be interpreted on the basis of these related
actions:

 Recognizing that there is a large amount of cultures that exist

 Respecting each other’s differences

 Acknowledging that all cultural expressions are valid

 Valuing what cultures have to bring to the table

 Empowering diverse groups to contribute

 Celebrating differences, not just tolerating them

So, what are some examples of cultural diversity?

Cultural diversity looks like this:

 In A Workplace: Having a multilingual team, having a diverse range of ages working

together, having policies that are vocally against discrimination, etc.
 In A School Setting: Having students from all over the world (like at the University of the
People), being accepting of all religious practices and traditions that students part take in,
supporting students to share their cultures with one another, etc.

The Importance Of Cultural Diversity In Education

Cultural diversity is important in every setting in life, but it can be even more pivotal when
it happens within education. Students around the world have the right to equal access of
quality education, and as such, there are many upsides that come along with it when
institutions believe in the power of diversity.

Cultural diversity in education helps to support:

1. Deep Learning
Learning happens within the curriculum and outside of it. With a diverse student
population, students have the privilege of gaining more understanding about people and
backgrounds from all over. This also contributes to diversity of thought and perspectives
that make learning more interesting and dynamic.

2. Confidence And Growth

When students participate with people from varied cultures, it provides them with more
confidence in dealing with things outside of their comfort zones. It can build strength of
character, pride, and confidence.

3. Preparation For The Future

If a workplace has done the necessary work, it’s bound to be culturally diverse. Attending a
culturally diverse institute of education will prepare students for their future in a
workplace.

4. More Empathy
Interacting with people who have diverse practices, beliefs, life experiences, and culture
promotes empathy. While you can never fully understand someone’s life without being
them, you can learn, listen, and understand.
 Benefits Of Cultural Diversity

The world is naturally multicultural. Approaching cultural diversity with a mindset and
actions that embrace this fact leads to many benefits, like:

 Compassion: Communication and understanding of differences leads to increased

compassion instead of judgment.

 Innovation: Varied perspectives and lens of looking at the world lend to innovative

thinking.

 Productivity: People who come together and bring their own style of working together tend
to support a more productive team.

 New Opportunities: The diversity opens the door to new opportunities and the blending of
ideas which would otherwise have been homogeneous.

 Problem-Solving: Challenges are layered, so having people with different backgrounds can

lead to better problem-solving with richness of opinions.

How To Support Cultural Diversity

Individuals and institutions alike have the agency to support cultural diversity. If you’re
unsure how you can take action to do so, consider these ideas:

 Interact with people outside of your culture

 Be open-minded to listen and let go of judgment

 If you see anyone who is being culturally insensitive, speak out against it

 Accept that differences are beneficial and not harmful

 Don’t force your beliefs on people with opposing views

 Advocate to hire people or work with people who are not within your same culture

 Travel the world as much as you can to take part in cultures and understand them from the
source

 Read literature and learn from different cultures

 Absorb media and art from around the world

 Learn a new language and communicate in a friend’s native language rather than your own
Cultural Diversity Is Worth Celebrating

The world is filled with people who have different beliefs, religions, traditions, and ways of
living. It is within our differences that we can find beauty. Both in educational and
professional environments, cultural diversity benefits everyone. It paves the way to better
problem-solving, more empathy and compassion, deepened learning, and approaches the
world from various perspectives.
 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT

INTRODUCTION

The human mind limitation is in processing and retrieval of large data. The process of
learning requires the integration of knowledge and experience which is acquired along the
years. In the era of silicone chips vast amounts of patient data can be accessed, acquired,
and stored for processing. Harnessing these enormous data banks and transforming them
to gain experience is the mainstay of AI. Computer software through the application of
algorithms thus can gain far more experience in a significantly shorter amount of time than
human subjects can acquire in their lifetime. Artificial intelligence (AI) is defined as the
capability of a machine to imitate intelligent human behavior in general. AI or also called as
machine intelligence is defined as “a branch of computer science mimicking the human
mind and its process.” The term AI was first coined 60 years ago by Alan Mathison during a
Turing test, which stated that if a human mind could not distinguish between machine’s

responses from being a machine or a human, then the machine could be considered
intelligent.Although the idea of AI was proposed by Turing in 1950, but the definition of AI
is still not clear till date. Although no one is clear about the concept of AI but we only know
that AI is a type of computer science which is multidisciplinary in theory and practice. In the
medical field, AI has therapeutic modality in the fields of medical diagnosis, treatment, risk
prediction, clinical care, and drug discovery. In the year 1980s and 1990s there was a surge
in the field of AI, in particular related to healthcare and its techniques such as artificial
neural networks, Bayesian networks, and hybrid intelligent systems. In the year 2016, there
was a chunk of research in AI in healthcare applications compared with other sectors. Over
the next few decades, various algorithms were generated for mathematical problems and
geometrical equations. With exponential rise in computer capability in terms of processing
strength and storage capacity the software giants used artificial intelligence algorithms for
understanding the consumer behavior, futuristic computer vision, natural language
processing, and robotics for helping medical experts for better performance. The various
applications of AI in medical therapeutics include natural language processing also including
content extraction, machine learning especially deep learning, machine translation activity,
question answering with text generation, visual applications including image recognition in
the field of diagnostics, machine vision, Speech and Robotics and also monitoring of
adverse drug events of the drugs, biological products, devices, and other therapeutics.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, MACHINE LEARNING, AND DEEP LEARNING

According to Arthur Samuel the term “machine learning” is the “the ability to learn without
being explicitly programmed.” The algorithms in machine learning use self-training methods
instead of coding language to complete its tasks and can study data directly. Machine
learning technology helps in many ways to modern society such as from search suggestions,
email spam filters, online shopping suggestions, pattern recognition in smartphones, and
speech recognition in smartphones, etc. Machine learning technology has the ability to
perform comprehensive analysis even with a large amount of nonlinear data and is so a
favorable option in medical decision-making. Machine learning is classified into two main
broad categories as supervised and unsupervised. This is based upon the type of task
performed as

 Supervised learning means algorithm working with labelled training data. It involves the
categorization of data and programming of the relationship between input and output
data.
 Unsupervised learning means the algorithm identifies hidden patterns in a stack of data
and its various outcomes.

In the field of medicine both supervised and unsupervised learning are performed. The
example includes as in case of medical imaging when we have labelled observations then
the observations are paired to associated features with patients such as age, sex, or other
clinical variables like associated chronic illnesses like diabetes, respiratory diseases,
rheumatoid arthritis, hypertension, etc.

VARIOUS ALGORITHMS IN AI
By using machine learning several types of classification methods or algorithms can be
applied for final image analysis. Among these the commonly used methods are the artificial
neural network, k-nearest neighbor, support vector machine, decision trees, regression
analysis classifiers, Bayesian network, random forest, discriminant analysis, etc. The
salient points of these networks are as follows:

 Neural networks: Artificial neural networks algorithms are a subset of machine learning

designed to recognize neural patterns similar
to human neural network and it is structured
as one input layer of neurons with one or more
“hidden layers” and one outmost layer. The
input data are processed through a large
number of highly interconnected elements
called as neurons or nodes. Deep learning is a
subtype of artificial neural network with
stacked neural networks containing of one
input and one output layer with >1 as hidden layer. Deep learning algorithms require
advanced computation and very large data. Deep neural networks can be divided
further into normal (one-dimensional) or convoluted (two or three dimensions)
networks. Convolutional neural network (CNN) is very useful for medical image analysis
in extracting patterns or structures from images. Convolutions are nothing else but a
type of mathematic operations required for pixel data in finding or filtering
patterns. CNN is further composed of three different types of layers or building blocks
as convolution, pooling, and fully connected layers. The convolution and pooling layers
are required for feature extraction and the fully connected layer maps the extracted
features into final output. Through each input image a series of convolution layers pass
with filters. As an example, once the first layer has recognized a feature like an edge, it
is then shifted to the second layer which in itself trains to recognize more complex
structural patterns like a corner in an image. The next layer called as the pooling or
down sampling layer is then used to decrease the spatial dimensions for gaining
computational performance. Since the model is repeatedly performed the individual
convolutions begin to identify a specific portion of the image for further analysis.
Finally, a hundred of these classifiers can be linked together to identify more complex
structures within each image. Another, support vector machine (SVM) is a regression
algorithm for data classification in two subclasses that are used for machine learning for
maximizing the predictive accuracy but avoiding overfitting of generated data. However,
SVM is a better indicative of accuracy as compared to sophisticated neural networks for
image analysis. The SVM classifier is constructed by projecting training data into a
higher dimensional space known as a hyperplane, which maximizes the separation
between the classes.
 Natural language processing (NLP): NLP is a practical machine learning program used to
understand and manipulate natural
language text or speech. NLP is used for extracting information from unstructured data,
for example, electronic health records like general physical examination, clinical
laboratory data, operative notes, and discharge summaries or the information from
various sources like medical journals, medical bulletins, etc. Easy data entry in
electronic health records drastically decreases the time of patient record filling time,
decreases the burnout, and focuses the medical personals to provide better patient
care. The NLP processing aims for turning texts to machine-readable structured data for
further analysis by other machine learning techniques.
 Computer vision: It is the
field in radiology that aims at
designing systems mimicking the
human intelligence. This field
constitutes the various areas such as
artificial intelligence, deep learning,
pattern recognition, machine
learning, digital image processing,
and scientific computing. The
applications of computer vision in medical field include diagnosis of lesion or cells
classification and tumor identification and grading, 2D/3D radiological segmentation, 3D
human organ reconstruction for CT, MRI, or ultrasound, vision-guided robotics surgery
or robotics and human robot interactions. The computer vision further comprises the
followings topics as follows:
o – Machine learning: One of the
most popular technologies of AI is
called machine learning, which
enables algorithms to understand
and learn data. In fact, machine
learning is usually synonymous
with AI. Additionally, the key of
machine learning is to find the
regular pattern behind an
observed data and build a model
based on that data. Therefore,
the machine can use this model
to predict and determine future data. Besides, machine learning can be categorized
into supervised learning, unsupervised learning, and reinforcement learning,
depending on the amount and type of supervision that the algorithms receive
during training.
o – Three classic genres of machine learning: Supervised learning plays an important
role not only in the operation of many biological networks but also plays an
important role in the operation of artificial neural networks. Moreover, supervised
learning has been widely applied and can solve any problem. In supervised learning,
manually set labels help the machine achieve the desired results. Therefore,
supervised learning is applicable to medical diagnosis and treatment, and has clear
clinical guiding significance. In contrast, the unsupervised learning data set does not
have a given label, which means that the machine must find the label itself.
Furthermore, unsupervised learning algorithms have been successfully implemented
in problems such as CVD (Cardiovascular disease) epidemiology, diagnosis and
treatment, and cardiovascular image analysis. Humans propose a goal and then
require AI to achieve this goal through supervised and unsupervised learning. After
that, there is a feedback
mechanism, often described as
a “reward mechanism.” The
only aim of reinforcement
learning is not to achieve the
pre-set goal, but also to
maximize the reward for the
model during the learning
process. This reinforcement
learning is very useful in
intensive care units (ICU) for better management of critical patients and to decide
when to put of the patients from mechanical ventilation to machine-controlled
ventilators.
o – The next step of machine learning-deep
learning: Deep learning is a subset of machine
learning that can be described as the next
generation of machine learning. It is a
computational method that enables the
algorithm to automatically program and learns
from big data. The purpose of deep learning is
to train the artificial neural network, which is
composed of artificial neurons, or nodes. So
far, it has made significant breakthroughs in the processing of image, video, voice,
and audio data. In general, deep learning is very powerful and is especially suitable
for medical imaging or radiology. When considering AI or machine learning, it is not
known what practical medical value these systems have.
o – AI: Networks and tools: AI utilizes several functioning methods domains, e.g.,
knowledge representation, reasoning, solution search, and machine learning (ML).
ML by using algorithms can recognize various patterns within a set of data, and this
data the subtype of ML called as deep learning (DL) engages further artificial neural
networks (ANNs). ANN constitutes of a set of interconnected sophisticated
computing elements which utilizes “perception analogous similar to human
biological neurons and thus simulates the transmission of electrical impulses in
the human brain.” ANNs by using a set of nodes receive a separate set of inputs and
algorithms that then converts the nodes to output and hence solves the problems.
ANNs are further classified into various types such as convolutional neural networks
(CNNs), multilayer perceptron (MLP) networks, and recurrent neural networks
(RNNs). These neural networks utilize supervised or unsupervised training
procedures in healthcare data analysis. MLP network is very useful in process
identification, pattern recognition, optimization aids, and this network is used by
supervised training methods that operate in a single direction only, and is used as
universal pattern classifiers. RNNs
networks are a type of closed-loop
with a capability to memorize and
store information similar to
Boltzmann constants and Hopfield
networks. Several tools have been
developed based on these
networks which are crucial to the
core architecture of AI systems.
One such tool is the International
business machine (IBM) Watson supercomputer (IBM, New York, USA). This tool
was designed for assisting the physician for analysis of a patient’s medical
information and then correlating this output information with an abundant
database and thus suggesting the treatment strategies for cancer therapy. CNNs
have a series of dynamic systems with local connections having usage for image and
video processing, complex brain functions, medical system modelling, pattern
recognition, and sophisticated signal processing. Thus the above-mentioned system
is useful for the rapid detection and appropriate treatment of diseases including
cancer treatment. While this comprehensive term encompasses many forms of
computer science, in medicine one can focus mainly on the following terms:
 - Image processing: A mathematical process that enhances an image for the
purpose of clarity, retrieval of specific information, or pattern measurements.
Basically, the input is a picture and the output is a better-defined picture for a
specific applied purpose.
 - Artificial neural network (ANN): A mathematical model based on nonlinear
statistical data modelling tools where complex relationships occur between
inputs and the output. This process imitates the human brain in processing
several types of data and creating patterns for use in a decision-making process
through neural networks. Basically, in ANN the input is entered into a set of
algorithms and their output is re-entered to a different set of algorithms in order
to reach the final output.

 - Convolutional neural network (CNN): A specific type of ANN typically based on

deep learning algorithms with several hidden layers to analyze data. The
relationships between layers are complex (hence the term convolutional) and
multiple hidden layers exist in each CNN.
IBM RESEARCH

In 2011, IBMs computer system Watson beat the two highest ranked
players on the classic television game show “Jeopardy!” in which
answers are given first and the contestants must determine the
questions. Following this success, IBM research took the challenge to
modify the Deep QA technology toward medicine. The driving force for this adaptation was
the high medical and medication error rates, as well as the high cost, and low productivity
in this area. The concept was to collect information, organize it, and provide insights to
improve clinical decision-making. The first task of gathering evidence proved to be a huge
challenge having different vocabularies and coding systems used by different sources which
must be harmonized and transformed into usable evidence in the clinical setting. Once this
was achieved, data of patients could be gathered and stored according to their symptoms,
lab tests, findings, patient history, family history, demographics, current medications, and
many others. One option then is to use this clinical content management database,
together with specialized advanced analytics and compare it to the patient in question.
When this patient is classified with similar databased patients, a diagnosis could be
suggested as well as treatment protocols, outcomes and prognosis, all based on evidence-
based medicine such as RCTs (randomized controlled studies), best practice guidelines,
electronic medical records (EMRs), public health records, etc. In such a method Bakkar et
al. were able to identify five additional RNA-binding proteins that are altered in ALS
(Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) and eventually improve diagnosis of this disease. Similarly,
other machine learning-based studies demonstrate the benefits of incorporating AI into
EMRs, improving diagnosis rates of patients. As the case with hyperparathyroidism, a
significantly underdiagnosed condition due to under recognition, with only 50% of patients
referred for the necessary surgery. Despite showing great promise in the field of AI in
medicine, IBMs Watson decision support system was recently called into question. As with
any medical device, it is not uncommon during the clinical trial period to make changes and
adjustments in order to further develop the product. Clinical decision-making support
systems like Watson are still in a relatively early stage of clinical trials and with experience,
alterations will need to be made. Such alterations should include transparency so that the
user can understand the basis of the recommendation. Additionally, it is of importance to
remember that these systems are support systems and not meant to replace physicians or
their knowledge, but rather to augment it.

Role of AI in Medical Therapeutics in Human Diseases

 AI in oncology: Breast cancer diagnosis and staging are areas in which AI application
may actually prove to provide better results than human readings. In a study by
Bejnordi et al., using a training set of 129 slides (49 with metastases to lymph nodes
and 80 without), when compared with 11 pathologies, the algorithm actually achieved
better diagnostic
performance. Additionally,
the pathologists required
30 hours for assessment of
all 129 slides, while the
running time of the
algorithm was presumed to
be negligible. In the
detection of lung cancer, AI
algorithms have been shown to be more effective than a human. In a 2,186, whole-slide
images histopathology study on lung adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma
patients, Yu et al. demonstrated the higher accuracy of AI than manual diagnosis. Their
results suggest that AI can accurately predict the prognosis of lung cancer patients and
thereby improve patient care via determination of oncological treatment. In
dermatology the diagnosis and classification of skin lesions is primarily based on visual
images; therefore AI has shown promise.
 AI in cardiology: The application of ML and AI results in faster interpretation and
diagnosis in many areas of
cardiology especially myocardial
infarction, ventricular arrhythmia,
myopathies, etc.
Electrocardiogram readings are
automatically interpreted,
echocardiography with 3D mode
cardiac imaging automatically
provides measurements of cardiac
function, SPECT imaging can
automatically determine cardiac perfusion, and cardiac CT angiography can determine
calcification of the coronary vessels. Cardiac MRI can perform automatic segmentation
 as well as measure perfusion and blood flow. The integration of AI into EMR has been
shown to be effective in the reduction of mortality via early detection of heart failure.
This is due to the ability of AI to perform a longitudinal evaluation of data to find
patterns and thereby determine predictors for heart failure. When including AI in the
decision-making process as to which interventional procedure patients with angina
should undergo either a coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) or percutaneous cardiac
intervention AI by using patients’ EMRs can have a better predictive score for resulting
in reduced mortality.
 Artificial intelligence in psychiatry: Psychiatric disorders are one of the leading causes
of disability worldwide, affecting individuals from an early age. They represent a major
burden to the affected individuals in terms of years of life lost to disability or death. The
“Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)” 2013 has helped the
doctors to diagnose psychiatric disorders based on dimensions rather than categories
and thus making it simple to understand. However, despite introducing new and
improved sets of diagnostic criteria, the DSM-5 not helpful in practical scenario because
it lacks ability to identifying false positives and distinguishing risk from disorder. AI in
psychiatry is a broad term that involves the use of advanced computerized techniques
such as automated language processing and machine learning algorithms for assessing a
patient’s mental state beyond what could be measured with self-reports and clinical
observations. Although still in its
infancy, AI has already revolutionized
mental healthcare and has profoundly
influenced the way clinicians detect,
predict, and treat psychiatric
disorders. Latent semantic analysis
(LSA) is very useful for psychiatrist due
to its automated high-dimensional tool
useful in the analysis of speech transcripts. LSA is a computational technique in natural
language processing for concept-based text analysis. LSA represents a semantic
knowledge based on analysis of a wide array of words present in natural discourse that
unravels the relationship between words and passage meanings. Thus, AI has a huge
potential in healthcare system as it is useful in complementing human clinical ratings in
neuropsychological disorders, reduces false-negative and false-positive diagnosis rates.
 AI in radiology: AI is gaining popularity in medicine, with the widest application being in
the field of radiology. This is due in part to the remarkable progress in image-
recognition tasks, which in recent years has seen growth in the amount of sufficient
digital data accumulation and availability as well as significant computational power.
Combined with the increase in access to radiological exams, the resultant increased
workload for radiologists and a shortage of trained experienced radiologists, AI, and its
 capabilities has been driven to the frontlines in medicine. Multiple groups have
developed image processing and computer vision algorithms to enable faster diagnosis,
enhance visualization of pathologies, alert emergency situations, and assist in the
critical manpower deficiency problem. The development, however, should not be with
the intent to replace the human radiologist, rather to augment and provide applications
which highlight information that would otherwise not be obtained by human vision, or
provide knowledge not widely available in a shorter amount of time. A platform that
highlights intracranial bleeding for radiologists is already CE approved and was
developed by MaxQ-AI Ltd. (Tel Aviv, Israel). This start-up company from Israel is
focusing on real-time decision support tools to improve clinical outcomes in acute
medical scenarios. They process three-dimensional CT data, detect intracranial
bleeding, and highlight the bleeding area for the reader. Taking this concept one step
further, Viz.ai Inc, a spinoff company from Stanford University, San Francisco, is aiming
to decrease the time to treatment once a CT scan was performed. This FDA-approved
platform can detect large vessel occlusion (LVO) in the brain causing stokes. The system
can analyze the images, and when there is a suspected LVO, a text message alert is sent
to the radiologist/neurologist bypassing the usual workflow of manual image
postprocessing, manual read, and ED patient care. Current capabilities include
automatic detection of liver, lung, cardiovascular, and bone disease. For example,
automatic detection of vertebral fractures is performed using a set of algorithms which
run on the chest and abdomen CT scans. The spinal column is segmented and sagittal
patches are extracted using CNN, followed by a prediction of the presence of vertebral
fracture. Similar algorithms exist for detection of calcium in the coronary arteries from
noncontrast chest CT scans which predicts cardiovascular events and mortality, as well
as algorithms detecting osteoporosis which calculate bone mineral density similar to the
DEXA score (Dual energy x-ray absorptiometry). Using deep learning for diagnosis has
been proven to be as good as if not better than human performance in some areas such
as lymph node metastasis detection and mammography malignancy detection.
Detection of meningiomas in MRIs shows great potential and value for the application
of AI.
 AI in gastroenterology: Diagnosis and treatment in gastroenterology are based on
flexible endoscopic images of
the stomach duodenum and
colon. Early detection of
cancers is a key factor for
patient care and screening
regimens are implemented
worldwide. In order to improve
detection in a clinical exam that
 lasts a few minutes only and is performed numerous times a day, an AI-based system
was developed. The CADx system (Computer-aided diagnosis system) alerts the
endoscopist to abnormal findings on the screen by highlighting the area of abnormality.
After focusing on the abnormality and switching to NBI (narrow band imaging) view, the
CADx system can define the endoscopic images further to a real-time suggested
diagnosis. The CADx system was shown to detect early gastric and colonic cancers in
endoscopy. It was demonstrated to have a 96.3% precision in the detection of early
gastric cancers with a sensitivity of 96% and specificity of 95%.
 AI in ophthalmology: Diabetic retinopathy (DR) affects 38% of the 400 million people
worldwide who suffer from diabetes. This condition affects the tiny blood vessels which
supply the retina and may cause hemorrhage or retinal detachment, leading to reduced
vision and blindness. The American Academy of Ophthalmology recommends screening
of this huge patient population to diagnose DR in its early stage. The application of AI
and deep learning for the detection of diabetic retinopathy has been proven to be
effective for earlier diagnosis. One may conclude from this study that deep learning has
significant potential in the field of ophthalmology in the detection of diabetic
retinopathy and macular edema from retinal images.

 AI in surgery: While computer science has already entered the operating room in the
form of robotic assisted surgery, it is not associated with artificial intelligence. Indeed,
the technology available today augments the surgeon’s vision (3D cameras, near infra-
red imaging) and mechanical capabilities (intuitive instrument articulation, tremor
elimination and movement scaling), but it fails to translate into improved patient
outcome. However, consensus documents from the “Society of American
Gastrointestinal and Endoscopic Surgeons (SAGES) and European Association for
Endoscopic Surgery (EAES)” regarding
robotic assisted surgery showed no
improvement in patient outcome when
 comparing standard laparoscopic surgery to robotic assisted surgery. So, it can be made
out that the expectations are high from AI in patient care. Artificial intelligence can be
applied in the operating rooms in many forms as anesthesia support, improving
operating room workflow for more efficient time management and improved patient
safety, as well as surgical instrumentation monitoring.

Cloud-based AI
The concept of cloud-based AI is an idea of providing artificial intelligence as a fee-for-
service allowing the customer access to continuously updated algorithms. Another
advantage is availability of service regardless of hardware used allowing for
interoperability. Several companies have developed cloud-based AI platforms to assist in a
variety of medical applications. Companies such as Zebra Medical Vision Ltd., Arterys Inc.
(San Francisco, California, USA), and VIDA Diagnostics Inc. (Coralville, Iowa, USA) provide
cloud-based AI services to assist in the analysis of lung diseases, cardiac imaging processing,
liver imaging, and bone health.

FUTURE OF AI IN CLINICAL RESEARCH/HEALTHCARE

AI is still in stage of infancy and can never replace a doctor for patient diagnosis and
treatment but the big question is how can machine learning be better than man intelligence
for healthcare therapeutics? AI is based on various inputs that acknowledge the
information retrieved to imitate human knowledge into AI and this can help both medical
specialists and patients by various ways as under:

 Proving the research facility for examination, representation, and classifying of data
procured.
 Proving various tools in diagnostic, therapeutical, medicinal programming.
 By idealizing various novel devices to bolster choice making and research.
 Offering a future logical restorative group and hence expanding a combination of
insightful AI devices for medicinal applications that could enhance the effectiveness of
medications and decreases the patient expenditure.
 Offering an advanced understanding and calculations in the field of radiology is
considered as a key part of MRI diagnosis as latter is helpful in figuring out tomography
frameworks.
 AI has changed the field of surgical mechanical technology where it has helped the
robotic surgery to perform robotic surgical procedures with expanding effectiveness.

Artificial Intelligence Limitations

Artificial intelligence applications are useful but have limitations as well.
 Deep learning neural networks demand a large amount of information which is a
drawback for diseases having low prevalence or where data are widespread across
different populations.
 The heterogeneity and complexity of medical information data across various medical
institutions can lead to over fitting models.
 The quality of data retrieved is dependent on the accuracy of the input data being
entered and the infrastructure available for data sharing.
 Algorithms in AI can underperform in disease conditions when there is no information
on new side effects of drugs or treatment resistance.
 Since detailed history, laboratory examination, and thorough clinical examination along
with relevant investigations are the bases of diagnosis and treatment of diseases. So a
holistic diagnosis with knowledge component of doctors cannot be replaced by AI.
 This is an important limitation of artificial intelligence in modern therapeutics.

CONCLUSION
Any new technology hass its inherent advantages and disadvantages. The success of such
technology depends on the various benefits it provides to the vast majority of the general
population and also to the treating doctor. AI technology cannot replace medical
professionals but their role is going to have a change in the era of artificial intelligence. In
spite of the limitations of AI a gradual increase in efficiency of AI models for doctors and
healthcare may become the essential feature of medical care in the future.