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Differential and Integral Calculus Vol. I
Differential and Integral Calculus Vol. I
PISKUNOV
differential
and
intégral
calculus
yo
ÆHOOEPEHUHAJIbHOE H HHTErPAJIbHOE
HCHHCJIEHHfl
TOM I
DIFFERENTIAL
AND
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS
VOL. I.
MI R PUBLISHERS MOSCOW
First published 1964
Second printing 1966
Third printing 1969
Second édition 1974
Fourth printing 1981
Ha ühzauückom H3bute
1.6 FUNCTION
In the study of natural phenomena and the solution of technical
and mathematical problems, one finds it necessary to consider the
variation of one quantity as dépendent on the variation of another.
1.6 Function 17
X h *2 *n
$
y yi y2 yn
t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
T 0 —i —2 —2 - 0 .5 1 3 3.5 4
/(x + C) = /(*). The least such number is called the period of the
function; it will henceforward be designated as 21.
From the définition it follows directly that # = sinx is a periodic
function with period 2Jt: sin* = sin(x + 2n). The period of cosx
Let us now see how the polar and rectangular Cartesian coordi
nates are related. Let the origin of the rectangular coordinate
system coïncide with the pôle, and the positive direction of the
x-axis, with the polar axis. From Fig. 24 it follows directly that
x = pcos<p, t/ = psin<p
and, conversely, that
p = | f x ' + tf, tan <p = “7
1.10 Polar Coordinate System 27
0 n ji
An n An 2ji 3ji 4ji
9 ~2 4 2
T
The corresponding curve is shown in Fig. 26. It is called the spiral of Archi-
medes.
Example 3. p = 2acos<p.
This is the équation of a circle of radius a, the centre of which is at the
point po = a, qp= 0 (Fig. 27). Let us Write the équation of this circle in rect
angular coordinates. Substituting p = V'x2-\- y 2t cos rn= ■■■ into the gi-
V ^T 7 *
ven équation, we get
x
V x 2+ y 2 2a
y x2 + y 2
or
x2+ y 2— 2ax = 0
Exercises on Chapter 1
3. <P(*) = + + Write the expressions < p ( ^ ) and ^ 7 ) ' Ans' ‘• ' ( t ) " 1
I—x 1 _3x+5
“ ~3 + 5jc* <p(x) x— 1
4. \|3(jc)= Y x 2+ 4. Write the expressions t|? (2jc) and (0). Ans. i|)(2jc) =
= 2 J/jc2 + 1, \|)(0) = 2.
5. / (0) = tan 6. Verify the équation / (20) = t •
6. q) (x) — log yq~“ • Verify the équation <p (a) + <p (6) — <p
7. f(x) = logjc; cp (jc) = x3. Write the expressions:
(a) /[<p(2)|. Ans. 3 log 2. (b) / [<p (a)]. Ans. 3 log a.
(c) q>[/(a)). Ans. [loga]3.
8. Find the natural domain of définition of the function y = 2jc2+ l .
Ans. — oo < x < + oo.
9. Find the natural domains of définition of the functions: (a) ]^ 1— x2.
Ans. — 1 ^ j c * ^ + 1 . (b) Ÿ~3 + x + \ / 7 — x. Ans. —3 ^ j c ^ 7 . (c) \ / x + a —
— J / x — b. Ans. —oo < jc < + o o . (d) ? . Ans. x 7= a. (e)arcsin2 jc. Ans.
— 1 < x < 1. (f) y = \ogx. Ans. x > 0. (g) y = ax (a> 0). Ans. —00 < x< + 00 .
Construct the graphs of the functions:
10. y = —3 x + 5 . 11. y = + x 2 + 1 . 12. y = 3 — 2x2. 1?. y = x2+ 2x— 1.
For any e, ail subséquent values of the variable beginning with n, where
-î- < e, or n > — , will satisfy the inequality \xn— 1 | < e, and the proof is
/î ^
complété. It will be noted here that the variable quantity decreases as it
approaches the limit.
Example 2. The variable x takes on the successive values
1 1 logT
2" > T ’ nlog2 >logT or n > T ^ 2 ’
ail subséquent values of x will satisfy the relation \ x n— 1| < e. It will be no
ted here that the values of the variable are greater than or less than the limit,
and the variable approaches its limit by “oscillating about it”.
Note I. As was pointed out in Sec. 1.3, a constant quantity c
is frequently regarded as a variable whose values are ail the same:
.v —c.
Obviously, the limit of a constant is equal to the constant
itself, since we always hâve the inequality |.v—c| = |c —c| = 0 < e
for any e.
Note 2 . From the définition of a limit it follows that a vari
able cannot hâve two 1imits. Indeed, if lim x = a and limx =
= b (a < b ), then x must satisfy, at one and the same time, two
inequalities:
\x —a | < e and \x — b | < e
for an arbitrarily small e; but this is impossible if e < - ~^- a-
(Fig. 29).
Fig. 29 Fig. 30
Note 3. One should not think that every variable has a limit.
Let the variable * take on the following successive values (Fig. 30):
. _ j_ « j_ . j_ - 1 _L
A'i — g » X2— 1 ^ » X3 --- g » • • •* * 2*ifc* '^2/f+i 22*+1
2.2 The Litnit of a Function 31
For k sufficiently large, the value xik and ail subséquent values
with even labels will differ from unity by as small a number
as we please, while the next value x*k+l and ail subséquent
values of x with odd labels will differ from zéro by as small
a number as we please. Consequently, the variable x does not
approach a limit.
In the définition of a limit it is stated that if the variable
approaches the limit a, then a is a constant. But the word “appro
aches” is used also to describe another type of variation of a
variable, as will be seen from the following définition.
Définition 2 . A variable x approaches infinity if for every
preassigned positive number M it is possible to indicate a value
of x such that, beginning with this value, ail subséquent values
of the variable satisfy the inequality |x | > M.
If the variable x approaches infinity, it is called an infinitely
large variable and we write x —*-<».
Example 3. The variable x takes on the values
*i = — I, x2 = 2, x3 = —3, . . . . *„ = (—1)"», . . .
This is an infinitely large variable quantity, since for an arbitrary Ai > 0 ail
values of the variable, beginning with a certain one, are greater than M in
absolute value.
or f( x ) —>-b as x —
If f(x)->-b as x —-a, this is illustrated on the graph of the
function y = f(x) as follows (Fig. 31). Since from the inequality
\ x —a | < 6 there follows the ine
quality \ f ( x) — b\ < e, this means
that for ail points x that are not
more distant from the point a than
6 , the points M of the graph of
the function y — f(x) lie within a
band of width 2 e bounded by the
Unes y = b—e and y —b + z.
Note 1. We may also define the
limit of the function f (x) as x —*a
as follows.
Let a variable x assume values
such (that is, ordered in such fashion) that if
|x * —a | > |x**—a\
then x** is the subséquent value and x* is the preceding value;
but if
|x * —a | = | x**—a | and x* < x**
then x** is the subséquent value and x* is the preceding value.
In other words, of two points on a number scale, the subséquent
one is that which is doser to the point a; at equal distances, the
subséquent one is that which is to the right of the point a.
Let a variable quantity x ordered in this fashion approach the
limit a [x—>-a or limx = a ].
Let us further consider the variable y ~ f ( x ) . We shall here and
henceforward consider that of the two values of a function, the
*Here we mean the values of x that satisfy the inequality | x — a | < 6
and belong to the domain of définition of the function. We will encounter
similar circumstances in the future. For instance, when considering the beha-
viour of a function as x —*-oo, it may happen that the function is defined
only for positive intégral values of x. And so in this case x —* -» , assuming
only positive intégral values. We shall not specify this when it cornes up
later on.
2.2 The Limit of a Function 33
6
Thus, given any e, for ail values of x satisfying the inequality | * — 2 | < y =
= 6, the value of thè function 3* + l will differ from 7 by less than e. And
this means that 7 is the limit of the function as x —*- 2.
Note 3. For a function to hâve a limit as x —►a, it is not ne-
cessary that the function be defined at the point x = a. When
finding the limit we consider the values of the function in the
neighbourhood of the point a that are different from a; this is
clearly illustrated in the following case,
xt_4 jfi_4
Example 2. We shall prove that lim ------—= 4. Here, the function ------r-
X —► 2 X — ^ X— ^
is not defined for x = 2.
34 Ch. 2. Limit. Continua y of a Function
or
| x—2 1 < e (2 )
or
lim = 1
X -* CD
<e (3)
lim / (ai) = b
X-* - «
or f ( x ) -*■ oo as ai—*a.
If / ( ai) approaches infinity as ai—►a and, in the process, assumes
only positive or only négative values, the appropriate notation is
lim / (ai) = + oo or lim / (ai) = — oo.
x ■* a x ~+a
provided
M > 0 we hâve
provided
For example,
lim = + oo, üm x3= — oo and the like.
X -*■ 00 X - * - 00
0
Fig. 36
Example 4. The function y = sin -i- defined for ail values of x, except
x = 0 , does not approach either a finite limit or infinity as x —1- 0 . The graph
of this function is shown in Fig. 37.
the variable y may be represented in the form of a sum of the limit 1 and an
infinitésimal a, which in this case is ; that is,
y = l+ a
|a (* )| < y
2.4 Infinitésimal s and Their Basic Properties 41
\a z \ < I T M = b
which means that az is an infinitésimal. The proof is similar for
the case x —>-oo. Two corollaries follow from this theorem.
Corollary 1 . If lim a = 0, lim (5 = 0, then limap = 0 because P (x)
is a bounded quantity. This holds for any finite number of factors.
Corollary 2 . If lim a = 0 and c = const, then limca = 0.
Theorem 5. The quotient 2~(X)y obtained by dividing the infinitesi-
mal a(x) by a function whose limit differs from zéro is an infini
tésimal,
42 Ch. 2. Limit. Continuity of a Function
Here, we made use of the already proved theorem for the limit of a fraction
because the limit of the denominator differs from zéro as x -*1. If the limit of
the denominator is zéro, the theorem for the limit of a fraction is not appli
cable, and spécial considérations hâve to be invoked.
Example 4. Find lim î- — I .
x 2 X —2
Here the denominator and numerator approach zéro as and, consequ
ently, Theorem 3 is inapplicable. Perform the following identical transformation:
x2— 4 _(x — 2) ( x + 2 )
=x+2
x— 2 ~ x —2
44 Ch. 2. Limit. Continuity of a Function
The transformation holds for ail values of jc different from 2 . Andso, having
in view the définition of a limit, we can Write
v 2 __ 4 ( x - 2 ) (x + 2)
lim ----- —= lim lim (jc+ 2 ) = 4
JC - 2 X 2 X •+■ 2 jc— 2 X — 2
X
Example 5. Find lim ----- r . As jc -+ 1 the denominator approaches zéro but
x -► î x — I
the numerator does not (it approaches unity). Thus, the limit of the reciprocal
is zéro:
lim (je— 1 )
X — 1__________ 0
lira f u i 0
X - 1 JC lim jc 1
X — 1
11 m - * -r==oo
1 X— \
Proof. Assume that b < 0, then | y —b\~^\b\-, that is, the diffé
rence modulus | y —b | is greater than the positive number |6 | and,
hence, does not approach zéro as x —>-a. But then y does not
approach b as x —*a\ this contradicts the statement of the theorem.
Thus, the assumption that b < 0 leads to a contradiction. Conse-
quently, b^s 0.
In similar fashion we can prove that if y ^ O then lim ÿ ^ O .
Theorem 6. If the inequality v~ ^u holds between corresponding
values of two functions u = u (x) and v = v (x)
which approach limits as x —*a (or as x —- oo),
then lim o ^ lim u .
Proof. It is given that v —u ^ Q . Hence,
by Theorem 5, lim(u—u ) ^ 0 or limo—
— lim u ^ O , and so lim lim u.
Example 6 . Prove that !lm simc = 0.
X -* 0
From Fig. 42 jt follows that if CM = 1 , x > 0 ,
then j4C = sinjc, AB = x » sin x < x. Obviously, when
je < 0 we will hâve | sin jc | < | jc |. By Theorems 5 and Fig.42
6 , it follows, from these inequalities, that lim sin jc =
jc-*■o
= 0.
x
Example 7. Prove that lim sin
JC -*> o *
x I x
Indeed, sin -75- < | sin jc |. Consequently, lim sin — = 0 .
* \ x -> 0
Example 8. Prove th a t lim c o s jc = 1; n o te th a t
JC -* 0
x
cos jc = 1 — 2 sin 2 —
therefore,
lim cos x = lim ( 1 — 2 sin 2 * ^ = 1 — 2 lim sin2-^ -= 1 — 0 = 1 .
JC -*■ 0 JC 0 \ * ) X *+ 0 *
Hence, the variable 2i!l£ lies between two quantities that hâve
the same limit (unity). Thus by Theorçm 4 of the preceding
section,
lim — = 1
Examples.
, tanx .. sin x 1 .. sin je , 1 1
1. lim ------= lim ------ • -------= l i m ------- lim ------ = 1 - —= 1.
X -* 0 *X * --»K«).
X X COSX x_ 0 X X^ 0 c o s x 1
sin kx .. . s i n k x . . . sin(Æ*) . , ,
2 . lim = lim k — t— = kl\m . = k - l = k (^ = const).
*-►0 X -+ 0 X~*Q
(kx-*- o)
\" X )
x
, 2 sin 2 — sin Y
0 1 — co s* ..2
3 . lim -------------- lim = lîm --------- s i n ~ = l ' 0 = 0 .
x x -*o x 2
( 1 + ^)"
where n is an increasing variable that takes on the values 1,
2, 3...........
Theorem 1. The variable ^ 1 ~ , as n —*■<», has a limit bet
ween the numbers 2 and 3.
48 Ch. 2. Limit. Continuity of a Function
j «(«—1)(«—2)...[n—(n—l)] ^ I ^
( 1 + tt) - l + l + r 2 ( l —1 ) + T i i ( 1 —“î ) ! 1 - t )
( 1+ t )’ < i + i + t + f + - - - 2« —1
.+[2 - ( i n <3
27 . The Number e 49
lim
/!-*•+00 K ^r .
Um (l+ * )
n-ï + cc \ n-\- 1 J
Hence, by Theorem 4, Sec. 2.5,
lim
X-+ +00 (\ l + T )*/X = t
(4 )
lim (1 + a ) “ =e
« ■-*-0
2.8 Natural Logarithms 51
Examples:
1 \n +&
( 1) lim ( 1+ — J = lim
ri-* ct> \ nj *
= lim
n -* cd
(2) lim ( i + 4 ) 3* = Um (
X -* C
D\ XJ X -* C'.?.('+7 );K)*('4 r
D\
= lim • lim f l + — 'l • lim f l - f — ^ =e-e-e = e3.
X -* a» \ XJ JClira
X —
— 00 !\
►oo
► X J X J
“ A . ( 1+ ) r ■A™. ( 1+ 7 ) , - * ‘ -1-'*•
Note. The exponential function e* plays a very important rôle
in mathematics, mechanics (oscillation theory), electrical and radio
for any way that Ax may approach zéro (Figs. 49a and 496).
Fig. 49
Ax
It has been shown that lim sin-7r = 0 (Example 7, Sec. 2.5). The function
Ax-*0 *
cos l is bounded. Therefore, lim Ay = 0.
\ 2 / Ax->0
Note, as a corollary, that the theorem holds true for any finite
number of terms.
Using the properties of limits, we caft also prove the following
theorems:
(a) The product of two continuous functions is a continuous
function.
(b) The quotient of two continuous functions is a continuous func
tion if the denominator does not vanish at the point under consi
dération.
(c) I f u = <p(x) is continuous at x = x0 and f(u) is continuous at
the point u0= <p(x0), then the composite function f [cp (x)] is con
tinuous at the point x0.
Using these theorems, we can prove the following theorem.
Theorem 2. Every elementary function is continuous at every
point at which it is defined.*
Example 3. The function y = xt is continuous at every point x0 and
therefore
lim xi = x l
x-* xa
lim ** = 3 * = 9
x-*3
If lim f(x) = f(b), it is said that the function f{x) at the point
x-*b-0
x = b is coniinuous on the left.
If the function f(x) is continuous at each point of the interval
(a, b) and is continuous at the end points of the interval, on the
right and left, respectively, then we say that the function f(x)
is continuous over the closed interval [a, b].
Example 7. The function y —x* is continuous in any closed interval [a, £>].
This follows from Example 1.
If at some point x — x0 at least one of the conditions of conti
nuity is not fulfilled for the function y = f(x), that is, if l orx = x0
the function is not defined or there does not exist a limit lim f(x)
or Ym f (x) =£ f (x0) in the arbitrary approach of x -*■x0, although
X -+ X q
the expressions on the right and left exist, then at x = x0 the
function y = f(x) is discontinuons. In this case, the point x = x0
is called the point of discontinuity of the function.
Example 8 . The function y = — is discontinuous at * = 0. Indeed, the func
tion is not defined at jc = 0 .
lim — = - f oo, lim — = — o©
jc-*.0 + o x x-*0- o x
y-f(x)
yf(x) -1
Fig. 51
the function is not defined at * = 0. We hâve thus established the fact that
the function / ( * ) = - — j- is discontinuous at x = 0^(Fig. 51).
Example 11. The earlier examined function (Example 4, Sec. 2.3) i/ = sin (l/x )
is discontinuous at x = 0.
MPi
there is no extreme right point;
consequently, there is no least
and no greatest value of the fun
ction y = x.)
M Theorem 2. Let the function
y = f(x) be continuous on the inter
val [a, b] and at the end points of
this interval let it take on values of
Fig. 52 different signs; then between the
points a and b there will be at
least one point x = c, at which the function becomes zéro:
f(c) = 0, a < c < b
This theorem has a simple geometrical meaning. The graph of a
continuous function y = f(x) joining the points Afx [a, f(a)] and
Mt [b, f (6)], where / (a) < 0 and f ( b) > 0
or f (a) > 0 and f (b) < 0, cuts the x-axis
in at least one point (Fig. 53).
Fig. 54
lim 4 == lim ^ = 1
jc-,0 « *-o x-’
Définition 4. If the ratio of two infinitesimals approaches
unity, that is, if lim |^ = l, the infinitesimals P and a are called
équivalent infinitesimals and we write a ~ p.
Example 5. Let a = x and p = sin x, where x -►0. The infinitesimals a and
P are équivalent, since
v sin x .
lim ------- = 1
x-*0 x
Example 6 . Let a = *, p = ln (1 + * ) , where x -►0. The infinitesimals a and
P are équivalent, since
lim ln ( ' + * > = ,
Proof. Indeed,
Um = lim ( ! _ I ) = ! - H ç , 1 = j_ j = °
lim
>—oc
= üm lim
x2
x-+0 P *+** x-+0 \ + x 2
x4-1 1
Example 8 . For x —►oo the infinitesimals a = and p = — are équivalent
Exercises on Chapter 2
1.
jc-*1 x ~r *
• Ans • 4- 2. 11m [2sin
n
x — c o s x + c o t x ). Artt. 2.
62 C h. 2. L im it. C o n t i n u i t y o f a F u n c t io n
1» = 1,
2» — l* = 3 . 1 * + 3 - l + l,
3 » _ 2 s = 3 - 2 2+ 3 - 2 + 1 ,
( n + 1 ) 3— n 3= 3 n 2+ 3 n + l
A d d in g th e le ft a n d r i g h t s id e s , w e g e t
w hence
n(w+l)(2n + l)
l 2+ 22 + . . . + n 2=
Ans. -i- as x —>>+ oo, — o» as x —►— oo. 31. lim - --* ■. Ans. 1 .
2 1 x -*>o tan x
. 9x •
. . sin 2 — 1
32. lim Sin X . Ans. 4. 33. lim — ’45— . Ans. 11 . 34. lim
.0 X * -*>0 x X -*■ + o Y i- COS X
i4n*. — . 44. lim f l + - — ) Ans. e. 45. lim {n[In ( n + 1)— lnn]}. y4ns. 1 .
e n -+ <x> \ n J /J -►oo
48. lim (l + cosx)ssec*. j4/»s. e3. 47. lim *n ^ . Ans. a . 48. lim f ir
71 *- 0 *C 2-00 \2 jc + 1 /
X~*~2
Ans.e. 49. lim (l+ 3 ta n 2*)cot§ * . Ans. &. 50. lim (c o s — Ans. 1.
x-*0 m -+ oo \ m J
e * x __ $ x
54. im n \.a n — l ] .
lim Ans. ln a. 55. lim ---------------. Ans. a — 6 .
n -►qo x . K
e*x_$x
56. lim-:------------ :—3 - . Ans. 1 .
x ^ o s in a * — sin px
61. Choose from among the same infinitesimals (as x — >-0) such that are
équivalent to the infinitésimal x : 2 sin x, ~ - t a n 2 *, x —3x2t Ÿ 2 *2+ * 3, ln (l+ * ),
62. Check to see that as x —►1, the infinitesimals 1— Jt and 1— j/^ x areof
1 _x
the same order. Are they équivalent? Ans. lim -------- — = 3; hence, these infi-
i - / l
nitesimals are of the same order, but they are not équivalent.
CHAPTER 3
s= T §t*
Solution. At time t we hâve s = -^-g/2; at time / + A/ we get
g t M + — « A/2
As
By définition we hav.
Fig. 58 Fig. 59
If, in the unbounded approach of the point Aft (along the curve)
to the point Mu from either si de, the sécant tends to occupy the
position of a definite straight line M0T, this line is called the
tangent to the curve at the point Af„ (the concept “tends to
occupy” will be explained later on).
Let us consider the function f (x) and the correspondis curve
» = f(x)
in a rectangular coordinate System (Fig. 59). At a certain value
of x the function has the value y = f (x). Corresponding to these values
of x and y on the curve we hâve the point M0(x, y). Let us increase
the argument x by Ax. Corresponding to the new value of the
argument, x + Ax, we hâve an increased value of the function,
y + Ay = f(x + Ax). The corresponding point on the curve will be
Af,(x + Ax, y+Ay). Draw the sécant Àf()Af, and dénoté by <p the
angle formed by the sécant and the positive x-axis. Form the
ratio From Fig. 59 it follows immediately that
( 1)
70 Ch. 3. Dérivative and Differential
Hence,
/' (x) = tan a (2)
which means that the value of the déri
vative f' (x), for a giveti value of the ar-
gument x, is equal to the tangent of the angle formed with the
positive x-axis by the line tangent to the graph of the function
f(x) at the correspotiding point M0(x,y).
Example. Find the tangents of the angles of inclination of the tangent line
to the curve y — x 2 at the points Af, (— 1 , 1) (Fig. 60).
Solution. On the basis of Example 1, Sec. 3.2, we hâve y ’ = 2x; hence,
ta n a , = y ' \ i = 1, ta n a 2 = i/'
r~
then
^ = /'( * o ) + Y .
lim
/(1 + A x )-/(1 )
lim
(1 + Ax)— 1 ii Ax ,
lim — = 1
A*-»o Ax Ajc-^0 Ax AX 0 Ax
Thus, this limit dépends on the sign of Ax, and this means that the function
has no dérivative* at the point x = l . Geometrically, this is in accord with
the fact that at the point x = I the given “curve” does not hâve a definite tan
gent line.
Now the continuity of the function at the point x = l follows from the fact
that
Ay = Ax when Ax < 0,
Ay = 2Ax when Ax > 0
* The définition of a dérivative requires that the ratio ~ should (as Ax-*0)
npproach one and the same limit regardless of the way in which Ax approaches
zéro.
72 Ch, 3. Dérivative and Differential
Therefore,
Ay = i / X x
Find the limit of the ratio of the incrément of the function to the incre-
ment of the argument:
lim
Ay lim
VT* lim ■ 1___= -foo
A x -0 Ax Ax- o Ax Ax2
Thus, the ratio of the incrément of the function to the incrément of the argu
ment at the point x = 0 approaches infinity as Ax 0 (hence there is no limit).
Consequently, this function is not différentiable at the point x = 0. The tangent
Tl
to the curve at this point forms, with the x-axis, an angle , which means
that it coincides with the y-axis.
(3) îorm the ratio of the incrément in the function to the in
crément in the argument:
_f (*+A.*)—
Aÿ_ / (t)
A*- A*
â * -0 A *-0 ÛAC
Here and in the following sections, we shall apply this general
method for evaluating the dérivatives of certain elementary func-
tions.
Theorem. The dérivative of the function y = xn, where n is a
positive integer, is equal to nxn~1; that is,
if y = xn, then y' — nx"~1 (I)
Proof. We hâve the function
y = xn
(1) If x receives an incrément Ax, then
y + Ay = (x + Ax)n
(2 ) Applying Newton’s binomial theorem, we get
Ay = (* + Ax)n—xn =
= x n + j X n- 1Ax + n{" ~ l)xn- 2(Ax)i + . .. +(Ax)n—xn
or
Ay = nxtt~l Ax+ /l(|t~ l) xn~2 (A*)* + . . . + ( Ax)n
(3) We find the ratio
^ - nx"-1+ n l)-xn~ 8 A x + . . . +{Ax)n~1
x coïncides with this line and, consequently, forms with the positive jc-axis an
angle, whose tangent is 1 .
Note that formula (I) also holds true when n is fractional or
négative. (This will be proved in Sec. 3.12).
Example 3. y = Y x .
Let us represent the function in the form of a power:
l
Then by formula (I), taking into considération what we hâve just said, we get
' 1 T"1
y = y x
or
y'= —
y 2 Vx
Example 4. y = — .
xy x
Represent y in the form of a power function:
3
Then
3
2x2y x
But since
lim 1 •
Ax-+o
we get
y '= lim cos(x + ^ ) = COS JC
AX-+ 0 \ •'
A jc Ax ■sin (* + ^ )
T
Ajc
y’ = lim ^ | = lim - j r ~ sin (*+¥) (*+t)
A jc -* o a x A x-+ o
2
and, consequently,
y '= Km =0
Ax 0 ax
that is,
y' = o
The latter resuit has a simple géométrie interprétation. The
graph of the function # = C is a straight line parallel to the x-axis.
Obviously, the tangent to the graph at any one of its points
coïncides with this straight line and, therefore, forms with the
x-axis an angle whose tangent y' is zéro.
Theorem 2 . A constant factor may be taken outside the dériva
tive sign, i.e.,
if y = Cu(x) (C —const), then y' = Cu' (x). (V)
Proof. Reasoning as in the proof of the preceding theorem, we
hâve
y = Cu (x)
y + Ay = Cu(x + Ax)
Ay = Cu (x-(- Ax)—Cu (x) = C [u (x +Ax) — u (x)]
Ay _r u (x + At) — u {x)
Â*~"ü Âv
U [X + ôiX) — U (X)
y’ lim ^ r ~ C lim Ax
i.e., y =Cu' (x)
A x ->■ 0 a x A x -t-0
Example 1. y = 3-
3 a
, = 3 (TL y = 3 G - i y = 3 ( - i > 2X
or
3
2x V J
3.7 Dérivatives of Sottie Expressions 77
Ay Aw
yf = A*lim
-►0 Ax lim
AA
T Ax A*lim
-► 0 li,n 0 Âx
Ajc
or
y’ = u' (x)+v' (x) + w’ (x)
1
bxample 2 . y = 3x4
VT
1
= 3-4^
and so
y' = \2x*
= L ^ ) v+u V m, ^Ax +
Ax - litnAu lim^
Ax Ax - Ax
(since u and v are independent of Ax).
Let us consider the last term on the right-hand side:
lim Au lim -r-
A x -> 0 A x -►0
„ , _ ir COS X .|
Example 6 . If y = —— , then
, . / _ ( c o s *)#_ s\n x
y - 7 — — —
Ay
We dénoté the quantity — by a. Obviously, a —>-0 for the
given x, and as Ajc—>-0. Consequently,
^ = 7 loga ( l + « ) “
But, as we know from Sec. 2.7,
i
lim (1 + a ) “ = e
a-* ao
But if the expression under the sign of the logarithm approaches
the number e, then the logarithm of this expression approaches
loga e (in virtue of the continuity of the logarithmic function).
We therefore finally get
y ’ = Axlim
-►0 X
a x7 = alim
-► 0 T
* log“( 1 + a ^ = T
x log«e
Hence,
• y ur = co su t uv' = 3v2,
O5 ' —
vx= ^
Hence, formula (XIII) has been proved for any value of x=£ 0.
(For x = 0 the function ln |* | is not defined.)
3.II An Implicit Function and I ts Différentiation 85
and, therefore,
y'x = eu- 2 x = e*l - 2 x
Example 2. y = ^ a r c s in — ^ .
1 — 2Oarcsin--------
• 1 —1..
y' = 2 arcsin
(t)’- X X Y X* — 1
V - i
(2) The function # = arccos*.
As before, we consider the function
x = cos ÿ (2 )
and construct its graph with the «/-axis ex-
tending upwards (Fig. 72). This function is
defined on the infinité interval — oo <
i / < + o o . On the interval O ^ y ^ n , the
function x = cos y is decreasing and has an
inverse that we dénoté
y = arccos x
This function is defined on the interval
— 1 < * < 1 . The values of the function
fill the interval n ^ y ^ s O . In Fig. 72, the
function t/ = arccos* is depicted by the heavy line.
Theorem 2 . The dérivative of the function arccos x i s ------ ■
1 1 V l —x*’
i. e.,
if y = arccos x, theny' = — y ^ a. (XVIII)
Hence
âk = -V = COS2 y
Xu
but
COS2 y = sec25—y = t1t+ ; tan2
a
— s—
y
sin*y
Hence
1 I
yx = sin2y = 1-f-cot2 y
But
cot y = x
Therefore
yx l+x*
Trigonométrie functions:
ÿ = sin;t, y = cosx
y —cos*, y r —— sinx
y = tanx, y' COS2 X
1
1
y = cot x, y' -. sina x
y = arccot x, */' = —
Exponential function:
y = ax, y' — ax lna
in particular,
ÿ= «/'=«*
Logarithmic function:
l/ = logflx,
in particular,
ÿ = lnx, y' = y
Vertical displacement of the falling load due to the force of gravity will be
expressed by the formula
Hence the distance of the load from the ground at any instant will be
St2
y= y o“ 2"
The two équations
x = v0t
y= y o— s*
2
are the parametric équations of the trajectory. To eliminate the parameter t 9
we find the value t = — from the first équation and substitute it into the second
üo
équation. Then we get the équation of the trajectory in the form
y= x2
This is the équation of a parabola with vertex at the point M (0, y 0)> the
^-axis serving as the axis of symmetry of the parabola.
We détermine the length of OC. Dénoté the abscissa of C by X y and note
that the ordinate of this point is y = 0. Putting these values into the preceding
formula, we get
0= y » - f i x t
whence
X = v0 2JÙL
x2-\-y2 = r2
100 Ch. 3. Dérivative and Differential
( 1)
Set
x —a cos t ( 2')
Putting this expression into équation (1) and performing the necessary mani
pulations, we get
y = b s in t (2”)
The équations
*=afccos!’
y = b s m t, I
(2)
an angle t . If a is the radius of the rolling circle, it will be seen from Fig. 78
that
x = O P = OB — PB
3.17 The Equations of Sortie Curves in Parametric Foim 101
The équations
x = a ( t — sin t)
y = a ( 1 — cos t) }• (3)
are the parametric équations of the cycloid. As t varies between 0 and 2 ji, the
point M will descrihe one arch of the cycloid.
Eliminating the parameter t from the latter équations, w^get x as a function
of y directly. In the interval the function y = a ( 1— cos t) has an
Inverse:
, a—y
t — arccos----- -
Substituting the expression for t into the first of équations (3), we get
a—y . f a—y \
x = a arccos------ =— a sin a rccos -
a [ a J
x —a arccos—— - ~ V ^ 2 a y — y 2 when O ^ x ^ n a
a
x = 2jia— arccos ~ ~ ~ ~ Ÿ 2 a y — ÿ 2^
Raising the tenus of both équations to the power 2/3 and adding, we get the
following relationship between x and y:
_2_ 2_ 2_
x 3 + y 3 = a 3 (cos3 1 -(-sin2 f)
102 Ch. 3. Dérivative and Differential
or
_2_ _2_ _2_
* 3 + y 3 =<»3 ®
Later on (Sec. 5.12) it will be shown that this
curve is of the form shown in Fig. 79. It can
be obtained as the trajectory of a certain point
on the circumference of a circle of radius a/4
rolling (without sliding) upon another circle of
radius a (the smaller circle always remains in-
side the larger one, see Fig. 79).
Note 2 . It will be noted that équations
(4) and équation (5) define more than one fonc
tion y = f(x ). They define two continuous func-
tions on the interval — a < ; * < : + a. One takes
Fig. 79 on nonnegative values, the other nonpositive
values.
Let us assume that these functions hâve dérivatives and that the
function * = <p(0 has an inverse, / = <D(x), which also has a
dérivative. Then the function y = f(x) defined by the parametric
équations may be regarded as a composite function:
y = ♦ ( /), t*=<b(x)
t being the intermediate argument.
By the rule for differentiating a composite function we get
y'x=y'A=\ i>; (/) o; (*) (2)
From the theorem for the différentiation of an inverse function,
it follows that
<d; w =
<P<(0
Putting this expression into (2), we hâve
V‘ = £ H Î
y* <p' (o
or
16=4- (XXI)
Xt
3.18 Dérivative of a Function Représentai Parametrically 103
Find the dérivative (1) for any value of t\ (2) for / = -£-.
Solution.
(a sin t)' _ a c o s t
(i) y*= = — cot /;
(a cos t)' — a sin t
u —I
yx ——Lr
xt
But
x't = a ( 1 — cos /), y t —a sin /
Consequently,
0 . t t
. , 2 sin — cos —
asm/ 2
- ^ - = c o t | = tan ( y - - )
a ( 1 — cos t)
2 sin 2
Hence, the slope of the tangent to a cycloid at every point is equal to tan
fy — , where / is the value of the parameter corresponding to this point.
But this means that the angle a of inclination of the tangent to the x-axis is
equal to y —y (for values of / lying between — ji and ji) *.
sinhx = —"2C'
( 1)
cosh x — -*~^e j
The functions sinhx, coshx, tanhx are obviously defined for ail
values of x. But the function coth* is defined everywhere, except
at the point x = 0. The graphs of the hyperbolic functions are
given in Figs. 80, 81, 82.
From the définitions of the functions sinh* and coshx [formu
las (1)] there follow relationships similar to those between the
appropriate trigonométrie functions:
cosh2x —sinh2x = l (2)
cosh (a + b) = cosh a cosh b -f sinh a sinh b (3)
sinh (a + b) = sinh a cosh b -f- cosh a sinh b (3')
Indeed,
cosh2x — sinh*x = *)*—
_ e2* + 2 + e - 2*—e*x + 2—e~*x ,
4 ~ 1
we get
ea-\-e^a eb + e ~ b , ea—e - aeb—e - b
cosh a cosh b + sinh a sinli b 2 2 1 2 2
ea + b _*_e - a + b_ ^ea-b_^_e - a-&_|_ga + b__e- a +b__ea - 6_j_g-a-fc
od+b a-b
■cosh (a + b)
we get
x3+ y3= cos3t + sin81
or
x3 y3 = \ (the équation of the circle)
Similarly, the équations
x = cosh t
y = sinh/
are the parametric équations o! the hyperbola.
Indeed, squaring these équations termwise and subtracting the
second from the first, we get
x3—y3= cosh21—sinh* t
Since, on the basis of formula (2), the expression on the right
is equal to unity, we hâve
x3— y3= 1
which is the équation of the hyperbola.
Let us consider a circle with the équation x3+ y3= 1 (Fig. 83).
In the équations x = cos/, y = sin/, the parameter t is numerically
y
Fig. 83 Fig. 84
r w - î
Hence, the dérivative / ' (x) may be regarded as the ratio of the
differential of the function to the differential of the independent
variable.
Let us retum to expression (1), which, taking (2) into account,
may be rewritten thus:
Ay = dy + aAx (3)
Thus, the incrément of a function differs from the differential of
a function by an infinitésimal of higher order than Ax. If /' ( x ) # 0 ,
then aAx is an infinitésimal of higher order than dy and
«Ax
lim lim = 1 + lim — = 1
A*-+0 ùix 0 /' (x) A* A*->0 / W
For this reason, in approximate calculations one sometimes uses
the approximate équation
Ay » dy (4)
or, in expanded form,
f (x + Ax) — f (x) « P (x) Ax (5)
thus reducing the amount of computation.
Example 1 . Find the differential dy and the incrément of the function
y=x2:
(1) for arbitrary values of x and Ax,
(2 ) for x = 2 0 , A x = 0 . 1 .
Solution. (1) Ay = (x + A x )a—xa = 2xA *+A *2,
dy — (x2)' Ax = 2xAx.
2 V jc
V 1+ <* « 1 + Y a
The problem of finding the differential of a function is équiva
lent to that of finding the dérivative, since, by multiplying the
latter into the differential of the argument we get the differential
of the function. Consequently, most theorems and formulas per-
taining to dérivatives are also valid for differentials. Let us illust-
rate this.
The differential of the sum of two différentiable functions u and
v is equal to the sum of the different ials of these functions
d(u + v) ~ d u + dv
110 Ch. 3. Dérivative and Differential
* Assuming that the function f(x) has a finite dérivative at the point x,
we get* o n .
112 Ch. 3. Dérivative and Differentiat
One should not think that the incrément Ay is always gréa ter
than dy. For instance, in Fig. 87,
Ay — M^N, dy — N T, and Ay < d y
In similar fashion we can also dérivé the formulas for the dé
rivatives of any order of certain other elementary functions. The
reader himself can find the formulas for dérivatives of the nth
order of the functions y = xk, y — cosx, y = \n x .
The rules given in theorems 2 and 3, Sec. 3.7, are readily gene-
ralized to the case of dérivatives of any order.
In this case we hâve obvious formulas:
(u + = «(n) + u(n>, (Cu)<"> + Cu{tt)
Let us dérivé a formula (called the Leibniz rule, or Leibniz for
mula) that will enable us to calculate the nth dérivative of the
product of two functions u(x) v{x). To obtain this formula, let
us first find several dérivatives and then establish the general rule
for finding the dérivative of any order:
y = uv
y' = u'v + uv’
y" — u'v -f u'v' + u'v' + uv”— u"v -f 2u'v' + uv"
y ‘" = u'"v _ „"v' - 2u V + 2u'v" + u'v" -f uv'"
= u"v + 3u"v' -f 3u'v" + uv"'
yW - uivv + 4u 'V -f- -(- 4u'v'" -f uv,v
H 2081
114 Ch. 3. Dérivative and Differential
The rule for forming dérivatives holds for the dérivative of any
order and obviously consists in the following.
The expression (u + v)n is expanded by the binomial theorem,
and in the expansion obtained the exponents of the powers of u
and v are replaced by indices that are the orders of the dériva
tives, and the zéro powers («° = o#= l ) in the end terms of the
expansion are replaced by the functions themselves (that is, “dé
rivatives of zéro order”):
or
yin) —eax [anx*-\-2nan~1x-{-n (n— 1) a"- 2 ]
3.24
DERIVATIVES (OF VARIOUS ORDERS)
OF IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
AND OF FUNCTIONS REPRESENTED PARAMETRICALLY
1. An example will illustrate the finding of dérivatives of diffe
rent orders of implicit functions.
Let an implicit function y of x be defined by the équation
y2 |<2
V H » - - 1 - 0 0 )
n i r m ' "
dt _ 1
dx dx
dt
% = b c ° s t, g = _ & s in <
dy_ 6 cos t
— cot /
dx~~ —a sin / a
d2y ( —a sin /) ( — 6 sin /) — (b cos t ) ( —a cos /) b 1
dx2~ ( —a s in / ) 3 a2 sin3/
f= § = ^ + » 0 (4)
or
n” /',<*.)
Hence, the équation of a nor
mal to a curve y = /(x) at a point M (xlt yf) is of the form
Example 1. Write the équations of the tangent and the normal to the curve
y = x3 at the point. M ( l , 1).
Solution. Since y ' = Sx2, the slope of the tangent is (y')x=i = 3.
Therefore, the équation of the tangent is
y — l = 3 ( x — I) or y = 3x— 2
y - l = - ± ( x - 1)
or
1 . 4
' 3 *+3
the ellipse
x = a cos /, y — b sin t ( 1)
at the point M (xl$ y x) for which t = -2- (Fig. 90).
122 Ch. 3. Dérivative and Differential
or
y--
Ÿ 2 V %)
j/"
fo c+ a y — ab Ÿ" 2 = 0
The équation of the normal is
b a ( a \
y—
or
(ax— by) Y 2 — a2 + b2 = 0
The lengths of the subtangent and subnormal are
St =
V 2 a
__b_ T T
a
6*
»^2 ( «) a V 2
The lengths of the tangent and the normal are
b
T=
fi = —!=- KV + 6»
V2
N=
y i V *+( — ay 2
or
dp cir.
_L_
tan<p: dp (3)
rns A—n sin A
Exercises on Chapter 3
Find the dérivatives of the following functions using the définition of
a dérivative:
1. y = x2. Ans. 3x2. 2. y = — . Ans. — ^ . 3 . y — Y~x* Ans. — .
* 9 X x2 * V * 2 Y X
4. y= • A ns. — . 5. y = sin2 x. Ans. 2 s in x c o s x . 6. y = 2x2 — x.
Y X 2x Y X
Ans. 4x— \.
Détermine the tangents of the angles of inclination of the tangent line to
the curves:
7. y = x3. (a) When x = \ . Ans. 3. (b)Whenjt = — 1. Ans. 3. Make a drawing.
8 . y= (a) When * = 4 * • Ans. — 4. (b) When x = 1. Ans. — 1. Make a drawing.
x
' ' 2
1
9. t /= Y * when x — 2. Ans. - —,___
2Y 2
Find the dérivatives of the following functions:
1 0 . y — jc 4 + 3 x 2 — 6 . Ans. y ' = 4x3+ 6x. 11. y = 6x9— X2.
Ans. y ' = \Sx2— 2x. 12. y — X L- -X—-—x. Ans. y '
5*4 2x
- 1.
9 a-\~b a — b a+ b a —b
**—*2+ l „ , 3x2— 2x
13. y = -------r-i— . Ans. y ’ = ----- =---- 14. y = 2ax? — c.
b
5 3
Ans. y' = 6fljt2 —~ . 15. y = 6x 2 -\-4x 2 -\-2x. Ans. y ’ = 2\x 2 + 10* 2 + 2 .
»• *»• , - * * - * ? . -w .
y ’ = 8x(2x* — 3). 3 1 . j/ = (*2 + a 2)5. Ans. y=10*(jt2+ a 2)4. 32. y = y x2-\-a2.
Exercises on Chapter 3 126
1
/' 1 + _ \ J \ ] . 39. y = sin* x
2 Ÿ x + V x + V x [ 2V x + V x \ 2V x
Ans. y '= s in 2x. 40. y = 2 s in jc + c o s 3 jc . Ans. y f = 2 cos x — 3 s in 3 jc . 4 1. y =
s in jc
— inn(ax-\-b). Ans . y ' = 42. y = (. Ans. y'z
(ax + à) cos2 ’ l+ c o s jc * ' ‘ ,w * * “ 1 + c o s J C
a s i n 2 jc
Ans. y ' = s in 2 t (3 cos2 / — s in 2 / ) . 4 7. y = a l^ c o s 2 jc . >4ns. y '
Y cos 2 jc
. « <D m * . « cP CP ta
.nn -£ -f* c o t7T
22
43. r = û sin 3 | - . Ans. = a sin2 -£• co s-g -. 49. y = ---------------------
, , 2 ( jc cos jc+ sin jc) . . jc . , n . « jc jc
Ans. y = ------ «—^-5 ------- . 50. y = a sin4 - ^ . Ans. y' = 2a sin3 cos -y
* jc2 sin2 jc 2 2 2
51 y = y t a n 2 jc. Ans. y ' = tan jc sec2 jc. 52. y = lncosjc. Ans. y' = — tanjc
2
53. y = ln tan x. sln 2X •
Ans. y ' = m 54# i/ = ln sin2 jc. Ans. y' = 2cotjc
„ tan jc— 1 - , , ec i s f 1 + sin jc
55. y = -------------. i4n«. y = s in jc + c o s jc. 56. y = ln1 / ■:-- ;—
9 sec jc 9 Y 1 — sin jc
Am. y ' = - ^c oèsr jcz -* 57. y = ïn tan ( - j + y ) • An>- y ' = ~c o. 1s JC
58. y = s in (x+a) cos ( * + a ) . Ans. y '= cos 2 (jc + a ). 59. /( jc ) = s in (ln jc)
- r, . . sec2 (ln jc)
An*. n * ) = -C0Si.ln *"-
X
6 0. / (x) = ta n (ln je ). i4ns. /'(*) = ---- ------
•I ./( * ) = s in (cosx). Ans. /' ( jc) = — s in jc cos ( c o sjc ). 62. r = - ,j- t a n 8 <p — ta n qp+ (p
Am. ^ - = t a n 4 <p. 63. / (jc) = (jc c o t jc)2. Ans. /' (jc) = 2 jc c o t jc ( c o t jc— jc c sc2 a )
acp
66 . y =
»+*
l n r --------- .
...
i4 n s. y ' = -
2 67. y = log8 (x2— sin x)
1—JC 1— JC2
2 jc — cos jc 1 -\-x2 Â , 4x
4n«. y' = ( j c 2 — s in jc) ln 3*
68. y = ln
7=F- A" * y = T = F
2 jc + 1
59. y = ln(jc2 + jc). Ans. y ’z 70. y — ln (jc3— 2ac+ 5 )
”*2 + x ‘
126 Ch. 3. Dérivative and Differential
3 a:2 — 2
Ans. y' = 71. y = jc ln x. Ans. y f = \n x -\-\. 72. */ = ln*x.
jc3 — 2 at+ 5 ‘
3 ln2 x 1
Ans. y' — 73. y = ln ( * + 1+ x 2 ). /1ns. */'=
74. y = ln (ln *). -4ns. 75- /(* ) = 1" j / " • -4ns. /' •
/ 1 oa s in * - , 1 + s in 2 x 1 . „ , .
y' = ■ . ’q—~ . 80. y = s ---------- s — . 4 n s . y = —^ -----------=>— . 8 1 . y = -^r ta n 2 A :+ ln c o s *
* s in 3 a : 2 cos2 a : * 2 cos3 * * 2 1
86. y = ca* - x*. Ans. y f = — 2*cfl2- * 2 lnc. 87. y = ae^ x. Ans. y' ——
2 K a
88. r= a *. 4 n s . r' = a 9 ln a . 8 9. r = a ln 0 . /1 n s . ~
dO
= - — ? r—
0
• 9 0 . £/ = ^ ( 1 — x 2)
ex — l 2ex e*
^4ns. t/' = ^ (1 — 2jc— ac2). 91. y- . 4ns. y ’- 92. j /= ln
V+l (e*+i )2 i + e*
1 1
i4ns. (/' = 93. y-- d f i - Y ) . Ans. y ’ = - ^ \ e a + e
\+ e* * 2
94. y = esinx. Ans. y' — e*in x cos x. 95. y = atan nx. Ans. y' = na^n nx$ec2 n x ln a
96. [/ = £cos x sin x. Ans. y ' = eco*x (cos x — sin2 x). 97. y = ex \n s in x
Ans. y' = ex (cot * + l n sin x). 98. y = xne*in*. Ans. y' = xn~ 1e ^ x (n + x cos x)
(x + l,* l/(x -2 ? , ( x + l f * / ( x - 2 J* / 3 3
f il. y
• / ( ï= 3 ) » ' - nS' y ~ y & = w U + 1 + 4 ( a :- 2 )
2 \ « ta Ans tf_ ( * + 0 ( 5 * 2+ 1 4 * + 5 )
&( x— 3) J" _ y ~ ( s + 2 ) 3 (* :+ 3 )4 ' ¥ U + 2 )« (x + 3 )» - ’
V
3 / l*
'“- * ’ ' r2 . , — 161
— 161a:2+
a:2 + 4480*—271
8 0 *— 271
113. y = r - . i4ns. */ = — A, ._.r^-r=
* / ( * - 2 ) 3 £ / ( a: - 3 ) 7 6 0 £ /( x - 1 ) 3£ / ( * - 2 ) 74' /(.
' x —3)l° '
... jc( 1 + x2) . , 1 + 3*2— 2x* ... 6/ , ,
114. ÿ = —V = = 4 - . /4n». y = — -------- — 115. y x* (a + 3jc)3 (a— 2a)2.
K l--- 2
(O1—x2)
-* 2 x
Ans. y ’ = 5xi (a-{-Zx)2 (a— 2x)(a1 + 2ax - \ 2x2). 116.
v = arcsin— .
a
A , 2 arcsin x
An*, y ' = 1 117. y = (arcsin x)‘ Ans. y = —r __ = - .
V'a2- * 2 V \-x *
2x 2 jc
118. y = arctan ( a:2 + 1 ). /4 ns. y' = t + . 119. y = arctan.
2 . , —2 * ... arccosjc
—— 5-. 120. i/ = arecos ( jc2). A n *.yf= ---- - ----- . 121. j / = ------------ .
+ *2 * K^I-a :4 *
. , — ( * + 1^ 1 — *2 arccos*) . *+l , ,
Ans. y = — — ----------------. 122. */ = a r c s i n . ,4ns. y =
JC2 K^l — * 2 / 2
— * 123. y — x y a2—*2+ a 2 arcsin — . /4ns. y ' = 2 l / a 2—x2.
K ^ l — 2 a: — * 2 a
152. A:=flcos /, y = bs\n t. Ans. ~ = — cot/. 153. x = a (t — sin /), y = a (1—cos /).
192. y = sin2 jc. Find yin). Ans. — 2 " - 1 cos ^ 2jc+ n -—j . 193. y = jcsinjt.
e, ,, . d2y _
4a sin 4
" ( 4) . d3*/ . 3 cos /
Show that - 7 -|= 0 . 205. * = a c o s /, y = a s in /. Find -j— . A n s . ---- 2 . h- . .
dx2 dx3 a2 sin 6 /
d2" 42/1 +1
206. Show that (sinh x) = sinh x; (sinh x) = coshx.
218. Prove that the segment (between the coordinate axes) of a tangent to
the astroid x2/3 + y 2'3 = a2/3 is of constant length.
219. At what angle a do the curves y = ax and y = bx intersect? Ans.
. ln a — \nb
tnn a = - r —:---- —z . •
1 + l n a-ln b
220. Find the lengths of the subtangent, subnormal, tangent and normal to
the cycloid x = a (0 — sin 0), y = a ( \ — cos 0) at the point at which 0 = — .
Ans. S r = a, SN = a, T = a Y 2, N = a V T .
221. Find the quantities S j, T and N for the astroid x==4acos3 f,
y = 4as\n3 t. Ans. S r = |4 a s i n 2 / cos 1 1; = | 4a sin3 f tan/J; r = 4 asin 2 /;
N = | 4a sin2 / tan 1 1.
Miscellaneous Problems
Find the dérivatives of the following functions:
sin x 1 | . / ji x \ Â , 1
222. y = -x----- s------t t ln tan ------- — . Ans. y = — =— . 223. y = arcsin — .
* 2 cos2 x 2 V4 2 J cosS x x
1 COS X
Ans. y ' = ---------------------- . 224. y = arcsin (sin x). Ans. y ' = - -,------ r . 225. y =
| x | Ÿ x2 — 1 | cos x |
1
. a r c ta n ( 1/ a ? tan ~ ) (a > 0 , b > 0 ) . Ans. y'
'a 2 — b2 \ f a+ b 2J * a + b cos*’
226. y = \x \. Ans. y ’ = - A j . 227. g = arcsin Y 1 — x2. Ans. y ' = —~r^— X
^ 1*1 |x I
^ 1 — x2
4
228. From the formulas for the volume and surface of a sphere v = - ^ n r B and
232. The tractrix has the property that for any point of it, the tangent T
remains constant in length. Prove this on the basis of: (1) the équation of the
tractrix in the form
a — }^a2— y 2
x = V a 2- y 2 + ± In («> 0)
a + Ÿ~a2— y 2
(2) the parametric équations of the curve
x = a ^ In tan — -{-cos
y = a sin t
233. Prove that the function y = Cxe~ x -\-C2e~ 2x satisfres the équation
y*+ 3yf + 2y = 0 (here Cj and C2 are constants).
234. Putting y = ex sin jr, z = ex cos x prove the équations y" = 2zt z"=^—2y.
235. Prove that the function y = sin (m arcsin x) satisfies the équation
(1— jc2) y ' — xy' + m*y = 0.
— (Pu f du \2
236. Prpve that if (a-\-bx)ex = x , then x3 —( x yJ .
CHAPT E R 4
But the relations / ' ( c ) < 0 and f (c) ^ 0 are compatible only if
f ‘(c) — 0. Consequently, there is a point c inside the interval
|{i, 6 ] at which the dérivative f' (x) is equal to zéro.
The number c is called a root of the function <p(x) if <p(c) = 0.
134 Ch. 4. Sortie Theorems on Différentiable Funciions
Note 1. The theorem that has just been proved also holds for
a différentiable function such that does not vanish at the end
points of the interval [a, b\, but takes on equal values f(a) — f(b)
(Fig. 92). The proof in this case is exactly the same as before.
Note 2 . If the function f(x) is such that the dérivative does
not exist at ail points within the interval [a, b], the assertion
of the theorem may prove erroneous (in this case there might
not be a point c in the interval [a, b\, at which the dérivative
f' (x) vanishes).
For example, the function
ÿ = f(x) = 1 —V #
(Fig. 93) is continuous on the interval [— 1 , 1] and vanishes at
the end points of the interval, yet the dérivative
Q= /J i ~ (2 )
and let us consider the auxiliary function F (x) defined by the
t*(| nation
F(x)=f(x)— f(a) — (x— a)Q (3)
What is the géométrie significance of the function F (x)? First
write the équation of the chord AB (Fig. 95), taking into account
that its slope is ^ —Q an(t
that it passes through the point
(a, f(a)):
y — f(a) = Q(x— a)
wlience
y = f(a) + Q(x— a)
liut F (x) = f (x)— [f (a) + Q(x— a)].
ïlius, for each value of x, F (x) is
c(|ual to the différence between the
ordinates of the curve y = f(x) and
t lie chord y = f(a) + Q(x—a) for F‘8 - 95
points with the same abscissa.
It will readily be seen that F (x) is continuous on the interval
|«, b], is différentiable within the interval, and vanishes at the
«Mid points of the interval; in other words, F(a) = 0 , F(b) = 0 .
Ilence, the Rolle theorem is applicable to the function F(x). By
t h is theorem, there exists within the interval a point x = c such
that
F’ (c) = 0
Mut
F’ (x) = f ( x ) - Q
nml so
F' (c) = f (c)—Q = 0
wlience
Q = f'(c)
136 Ch. 4. Some Theorems on Différentiable Functions
(x) would vanish in the interval; but this contradicts the sta-
tement of the theorem.
Let us construct an auxiliary functioiî
F (x) = f (x)— f (a)— Q [<p (x) —<p(a)]
It is obvious that F(a) = 0 and F(b) = 0 (this follows from the
définition of the function F (x) and the définition of the numberQ).
Noting that the function F (x) satisfies ail the hypothèses of the
Rolle theorem on the interval [a, b], we conclude that there exists
between a and b a value x = c ( a < c < b ) such that F'(c) = 0.
But F' (x) = f (x)—Q<p' (x), hence
F'(c) = r(c)-<to' (c) = 0
whence
in which a < c 1<b, a< .c2< b. But since, generally, cl =^c2, the
resuit obtained obviously does not yet yield the Cauchy theorem.
Let the functions f(x) and <p(x), on a certain interval [a, b\,
satisfy the Cauchy theorem and vanish at the point x = a of this
interval, f(a) = 0 and <p(a) = 0 .
The ratio (p (X)r is not defined for x = a, but has a very definite
meaning for values of x ^ a . Hence, we can raise the question
of searching for the limit of this ratio as x —>■a. Evaluating limits
of this type is usually known as evaluating indeterminate forms
of the type ---.
138 Ch. 4. Some Theorems on Différentiable Functions
Note 1. The theorem holds also for the case where the functions
f(x) or <p(x) are not defined at,x = a, but
lim f (x) — 0 , lim <p(x) = 0
x -►a x -►a
f (je)
since it is obvious that the limit of the ratio -AA as x —►adoes
?(*)
uot dépend on whether the functions f (x) and <p(;c) are defined
al x —a.
Note 2. If f' (a) = <p' (a) = 0 and the dérivatives f'(x) and <p' (x)
satisfy the conditions that were imposed by the theorem on the
tmictions f(x) and q>(jc), then applying the l’Hospital rule to the
ratio L-— , we arrive at the formula lim - A -, = lim ' A \ , and
<P (*) W (*)
mi forth.
Note 3. If <p'(a) = 0, but f'(x)^= 0, then the theorem is appli
cable to the reciprocal ratio which tends to zéro as x —*a.
f (X)
llence, the ratio tends to infinity.
Example 1.
lira sin 5x— lim (sin 5*Y lim 5 cos 5x 5
*-*•0 3x x -*■ o (3v)' * -*■o 3 3
Example 2.
1
lim ln 0 + * ) = Hm _!_+*_ 2
0 X jt -> 0 1 1
Example 3.
2x .. e * + e - * — 2 .. ex — e~x .. ex + e ~ x 2
lim-------- :------- = lim —--= lim — :------------------= lim - r - 1 = T 2
a *. o x — sin x x-+o 1— cos jc x o sinx x -*o cosjc 1
More, we had to apply the l’Hospital rule three times because the ratios of
t lu* firs t, second and third dérivatives at jc = 0 yield the indeterminate form— .
lim f (-M = 0 ,
2 -* 0 \ 2 J
140 Ch. 4. Some Theorems on Différentiable Functions
'■ (4 )
= lim = lim £-rf\
f(x)-f(a) f(x) JW
<PW—<p(a) <p(*) .<p(«)
9(*)
From relations (3) and (4) we hâve
, /(«)
F (c) _ f ( x ) f (X)
<p'(c) q>w . <P(«)
<p(x)
Whence we find
■ <p(«)
f (■»?) f' (c) «p (*)
<p(*) q>'(c) , f («)
t ( x)
From condition (1) it follows that for an arbitrarily small e > 0 ,
a may be chosen so close to a that for ail x = c where a < c < a,
the following inequality will be fulfilled:
or
or
<p(«)
1 —e < <p(*) < 1 + e
/(«) (7)
/(*)
Multiplying together the appropriate terms of inequalities (6 ) and
(7), we get
l_5Pjo)
m - « ) ( ' - • ) < £ $ — f ê - < (■4 + e>c + e>
/(*)
or, from (5),
(4 _ e) ( l - e ) < | * g < ( x 4 + e)(l + e)
or, by ( 1),
lim lim ^ j ~ = A
* - a <P(*) * - a q>w
which complétés the proof.
Note I. If in condition (1) A = oo, that is,
lim ^~rj\ = oo
x ,.9 W
then (2) holds in this case as well. Indeed, from the preceding
expression it follows that
i ™ m = °
Then by the theorem iust proved
lim | W = nm 1 ^ = 0
f (x) rw
whence
lim •£— = oo
exists, then
litn ~ | = lim ( 8)
Example 4.
lim = lim — = 0
* - « e* x _ « e*
Generally, foi any intégral n > 0,
.. xn nxn- x n (n— 1 )... 1
lim — = lim — — = . . . = lim —------ -r -------= 0
(b) Let
lim f {x) = 0 , lim (p (*) = 0
it is required to find
lim [f(x)]*<*
Substituting, into the left and right sides of (2) and (3), the
value of a in place of x and replacing, by (1), Pn(a) by /(a),
P'n(a) = f ’ (a), etc., we get
f(a) = C0
/'(a ) = C1
f"(à) - - 2 - 1C4
/ ” (a) —3-2- 1CS
f in) (a) = n(n — 1) (/i — 2) . . . 21C„
whence we find
C#= /(a), C , = r (a), C2==±r ( a) ,
^ 3 = 1-2-3^ ^n= T2 ~ n ^ n1 ,
+ - - - + F F 7 7 ; ^ >(a> (5>
+ ••• + ^ r ( a ) + R„(X) (6 )
4.6 Taylor's Formula 147
/•• ( o = / (x ) - f ( t ) - ^ - r n o - •••
( * - < ) » + * ^
( n + l ) l V
where Q has the value defined by the relation (6 '); here we con-
sider a and x to be definite numbers.
We find the dérivative F' (/):
lir
148 Ch. 4. Some Tkeorems on Différentiable Fùnctionê
Thus, the function F (t) has a dérivative at ail points t lying near
the point with abscissa a (a ^ ^ x when a < x and
when a > x).
It will furfher be noted that, on the basis of (6 '),
F(x) = 0, F (a) = 0
Therefore, the Rolle theorem is applicable to the function F (t)
and, consequently, there exists a value t = £ lying between a and
x such that F’ (£) = 0 . Whence, on the basis of relation (8 ), we get
llcnce, the error is less than 0.001, and so sin 20° = 0.342 to
lliree places of décimais.
Fig. 97 shows the graphs of the function /(x) = sinx and the
jç3
llrst three approximations: S 2 (* )= * — ^ , S 3 (jt)= jt—
X* X*
31 ‘ 51 *
3. Expansion of the function f ( x ) = cos x. Finding the values
of the successive dérivatives for x = 0 of the function f(x) = cos*
152 Ch. 4. Some Theorems on Différentiable Functions
Exercises on Chapter 4
24. 11m
a* —b* Ans. In -r-. 25.
arcsin x
lim Ans.
*->o sin 3 x
x -+ 0
sin x — sin a ey + s i n u — l  n
26. lim Ans. cos a. 27. lim ■ — . Ans. 2.
*^a x —a ' y ^ 0 In (I + «/)
» e * s in x — x . I nn .. 3x— 1 . 3 „ ln x
28. lim . „ , . - . Ans.- z-. 29. ltm ^ . Ans. -rr. 30. lim
, 3*2+** ,2 x + 5 X-*ao xn
x+l
In ( l + ~ ) ln
(where n > 0 ). .4ns. 0. 31. lim — —j— Ans. 1. 32. lim
arctan x x—\
>ln
x
e*+e~*
Ans. —1. 33. lim T . Ans. 0 for a > 0, oo for a ^ 0 .3 4 . lim e-^~t
y-++œeay —
X -> + 00
e~*
ln sin 3x ln tan 7x
Ans. 1. 35. lim Ans. 1. 36. lim Ans. 1
*->o ln sin x *->0 ln tan 2x *
ln {x— 1) —x JT Y 9
37. lim Ans. 0. 38. lim (1— x) tan . Ans. —
*->l , -n
tan x+ 1 2 n
2x
39. lim [ , 2 , ------ ^-1 . i4ns. —4 - - 40. lim ------r ^ - l - Ans. — 1
* - .1 |x 2 — 1 «— U 2 |_,n x ln x ]
41. lim (sec cp—tan (p). Ans. 0 . 42. lim \ X . — r — 1 • Ans. . 43. lim x cot 2x
jï x-*> 1 Lx * *n x j x. jc->o
Ans.-^. 4 4 . lim xHx%. i4ns. oo. 45. lim x•l ~ x Ans.— . 46. lim > /* a • Ans. 1
2 x -+ o x -* 1 « f-*oo
1
ln x
47. lim f — y anX. ,4ns. 1. 48. lim ^ 1 + — Y * Ans. ea. 49. lim (cotx)
x -± 0 \ x J jc->® \ x J x -+ 0
a i + 0 * )T
154 Ch. 4. Some Theorems on Différentiable Functions
For x > 0 we hâve y ' > 0 and the function increases; for x < 0 we hâve y ' < 0
and the function decreases (Fig. 99).
but at this point the function has neither a maximum nor a mini
mum. Indeed, no matter how close the point x is to O, we will
always hâve
x* < 0 when x < 0
and
x* > 0 when x > 0
We hâve investigated the case where a function has a dérivative
at ail points on some closed interval. Now what about those points
at which there is no dérivative? The following examples will show
that at these points there can only be a maximum or a minimum,
but there may not be either one or the other.
Example 1 . The function y — \x \ has no dérivative at the point x = 0 (at this
point the curve does not hâve a definite tangent line), but the function has a
minimum at this point: y = 0 when x = 0 , whereas for any other point x diffe
rent from zéro we hâve y > 0 (Fig. 103).
5.3 Maxima and Minima of Functions 161
/ _ 2 \3 /2
Example 2 . The function ÿ = \ l — x 3 J has no dérivative at x = 0, since
1 - --
y' —— ^ 1 —x 3 ^j2 x becomes infinité at x*= 0 , but the function has
n maximum at this point: / ( 0 ) = 1 , f(x) < 1 for x different from zéro (Fig. 104).
Example 3. The function y = x has no dérivative at x = 0 ( y' —►» as
x —*- 0 ). At this point the function has neither a maximum nor a minimum:
/ (°) = 0, f \x) < 0 for x < 0, f (x) > 0 for x > 0 (Fig. 105).
But if in moving through the point x, from left to right the dérivative
changes sign from minus to plus, the function has a minimum at
this point.
And so
J f' (x) > 0 when x < xt
\ f' (x) < 0 when x > xt
then at x1 the function has a maximum;
if fbt I ? ^ < ° When * <
l f ’ (x) > 0 when x > xt
then at xt the function has a minimum. Note here that thecon
ditions (a) or (b)must be fulfilled for ail values of x that are
sufficiently close to that is, at ail points of some sufficiently
small neighbourhood of the critical point xt.
Proof. Let us first assume that the dérivative changes sign from
plus to minus, in other words, that for ail x sufficiently close to
we hâve
f' (x) > 0 when x < xx
f' (x) < 0 when x > xx
Applying the Lagrange theorem to the différence f ( x ) — f (xJ
we hâve
f ( x ) — f (x1) = f ’ (|) (*—*,)
where | is a point lying between x and x t.
(1) Let x < x,; then
i < *i, f ' ( l ) > 0, f' (£)(*—X jX O
and, consequently,
f ( x ) — f ( x 1) < 0
or
f ( x ) < f ( x x) (1)
(2) Let a: > Arx; then
i> * i» f ( l ) < 0, f ' ( l ) ( x - x l) < 0
and, consequently,
f (x)— f ( x 1) < 0
or
/( * ) < /(* !) (2)
The relations (1) and (2) show that for ail values of * sufficiently
close to Xi the values of the function are less than those at xx.
Hence, the function f(x) has a maximum at the point xt.
5.3 Maxima and Minima of Functions 163
Then for x < xx the tangent to the curve forms with the x-axis
an acute angle, and the function increases, but for x > x, the
tangent forms with the x-axis an obtuse angle, and the function
decreases; at x = x, the function passes from increasing to decrea-
sing values, wliich means it has a
maximum.
If at x, we hâve /' (xa) - 0 and
for ail values of x sufficiently close
to xa the following inequalities
hold:
f' (x) < 0 when x < x2
f' (x) > 0 when x > x,
then at x < x2 the tangent to the
curve forms with the x-axis an
obtuse angle, the function decreases, and at x > x„ the tangent
to the curve forms an acute angle, and the function increases.
At x = x2 the function passes from decreasing to increasing values,
which means it has a minimum.
If at x = xs we hâve f' (x„) = 0 and for ail values of x sufficiently
close to x3 the following inequalities hold:
f' (x) > 0 when x < x8
f ’ (x) > 0 when x > x8
then the function increases both for x < x8 and for x > x8. There-
fore, at x = x8 the function has neither a maximum nor a mini
mum. Such is the case with the function y = x3 at x = 0.
Indeed, the dérivative y ' = 3xa, hence,
(</'),=. = 0
(y%<o> o
(y ')x > * > o
x < xt jr = jr t X > xt
6 X 4 KI
Investigate the second critical point * = 0. Noting that
(iO *<o>0' (y % > 0 < °
we conclude that at x = 0 the function has a maximum, and (y)x = 0= 0. The
graph of the investigated function is shown in Fig. 108.
V (x t ) t" (X j) C h a r a c te r o f c r ltf c a l p o in t
0 Maximum point
0 + Minimum point
0 0 Unknown
*=T
And so at the point xt = ^ we hâve a minimum:
(y) n = 2*1 — 1 = 1
t
At *s = - g - we hâve
(■y) _5n= 2 ,T + T = T
X,~T
Finally,
(y') 1 —2 (— I)— 4 (— 1 )= 6 > 0
3n
Consequently, at = we hâve a minimum:
Fig. 109
3. Investigate the character of the critical point by the fiist method (see
Sec. 5.4):
te')*<0>°> ( y \ > o < 0
Gmsequently, at * = 0 the function has a maximum, namely,
(y)x^ o=l
The graph of this function is given in Fig. 110.
Example 3. Test for maximum and minimum the function
y = xQ
Thus, the second method does not yield anything. Resorting to the first method,
we get
(y% <o<°- (y')x> « > 0
Therefore, at x = 0 the function has a minimum (Fig. 111).
Example 4. Test for maximum and minimum the function
y = (x— l)3
170 Ch. 5. Investigating the Behaviour of Funclions
(y), = . 3 . = ^ . (y)x = - 3 = — is
(y)x= - 1 = 5
«ml the smallest value is
(y)x=-» = ~ 15
The graph of the function is shown in Fig. 113.
Fig. 114
\dtp* / v =ji/4 -T <°
Hence, for the value <P= --j- the range R has a maximum:
and
(a) ^=0
Further, we assume that f(x) has continuous dérivatives up to
the (n + l) th order inclusive in the neighbourhood of the point
x = a.
174 Ch. 5. Inuestigating the Behaviour of Functions
Write the Taylor formula for /(*), taking account of equalities (1):
f(x) = f(a) + ix- V * “ f«+»(l) (2)
But if / ,n+1) (à) < 0 when n is even, then / (x) > / (a) for x < a and
l ( x ) < f (a) for x > a .
The results obtained may be formulated as follows.
If at x = a we hâve
/ » = /» = ...= /< » > ( « ) = 0
imd the first nonvanishing dérivative / <n+l> (a) is a dérivative of
cven order, then at the point a
f(x) has a maximum if / ‘"+1>( a ) < 0
f(x) has a minimum if / (n+1>(a )> 0
But if the first nonvanishing dérivative / <n+1) (a) is a dérivative
of odd order, then the function has neither maximum nor minimum
at the point a. Here,
f ( x ) increases if /(n+1) (a) > 0
f(x) decreases if / <n+1>(a )< 0
Example. Test the following function for maximum and minimum:
/ (* )= * « — 4**+ 6x*— 4 x + 1
Solution. We find the critical values of the function
f (x) = 4x*— 12x*+ 12*— 4 = 4 (x3—3x 2 + 3 * — 1)
l'rom équation
4(*»—3xa+ 3 x — 1) = 0
wc obtain the only critical point
x=l
From équations (1) and (2) it follows that the différence between
the ordinates of the curve and the tangent for the same value of x is
y — ÿ = f ( x ) — f ( x 0) — f (xt) (x— x0)
Applying the Lagrange theorem to the différence f ( x ) — f(x„),
we get _
y —ÿ = f' (c) (*— *«)— /' (*0) (x— xt)
(where c lies between x„ and x) or
y —ÿ = [f (c)—f (Jt,)) (x—x#)
5.9 Convexity and Concavity of a Curve 177
y" < 0 for x < 0 and y" > 0 for x > 0. Hence, for x < 0 the curve is convex
upwards, and for x > 0, convex down (Fig. 120).
sign when passing through x = a, then the point of the curve with
abscissa x = a is the point of inflection.
Proof. (1) Let f" (x) < 0 for x < a and /" (x )> 0 for x > a.
Then for x < a the curve is convex up and for x > a, it is con-
vex down. Hence, the point A of the curve with abscissa x = a is
a point of inflection (Fig. 121).
Fig. 122
(2) If f" (x) > 0 for x < b and /" (x) < 0 for x > b, then for x < 6
the curve is convex down, and for x > 6 , it is convex up. Hence,
the point B of the curve with abscissa x — b is a point of inflection
(see Fig. 122).
Example 4. Find the points of inflection and détermine the intervals of con
vexity and concavity of the curve
y = e~ x* (Gaussian curve)
Solution. (1) Find the first and second dérivatives:
y ' = — 2xe~x‘
y " = 2 e ~ xt (2 x 2 — 1)
12*
180 Ch. 5. I nvestigating the Behaviour of Functions
(2) The first and second dérivatives exist everywhere. Find the values of x
for which y* = 0 :
2e~*‘ (2x2— 1) = 0
1 1
*i = X2
V~2
(3) Investigate the values obtained:
Fig. 125
5.10 ASYMPTOTES
Very frequently one has to investigate the shape of a curve
y — f (x) and, consequently, the type of variation of the correspon-
ding function in the case of an unlimited increase (in absoiute
value) of the abscissa or ordinate of a variable point of the curve,
or of the abscissa and ordinate simultaneously. Here, an important
spécial case is when the curve under study approaches a given line
without bound as the variable point of the curve recedes to infinity.*
* We say the variable point M moves along a curve to infinity if the dis
tance of the point from the origin increases without bound.
5.10 Asymptotes 183
JT 3JT 5JT . 4
<»r— y * -2~> ----- 2~ ’ ••• <Fl«- 129>-
_1_
Example 3. The curve y = e x has a verti*
_i_
rnl asymptote x = Q, since lim ex = oo
^-►+0
(I ig. 130).
2. Inclined asymptotes. Let the curve y = f ( x ) hâve an inclined
H.symptote whose équation is
y = kx + b (1)
Détermine the numbers k and b (Fig. 131). Let Af(x, y) be a point
lying on the curve and N (x, ÿ), a point lying on the asymptote.
* - + • L* * J
For b constant, lim —= 0. Hence,
x +» L x J
or
A= lim tSH (4)
x-++* x
5.10 Asymptotes 185
that is,
k= \
+ 2jc— 1 1 .. r*2+ 2jc—1—Xal
b= lim
ao
[y — x] = lim
X-+ ± oo L
[—
— ;— J
= lim 2
*-►±00 [ - i l -
or, finally,
b= 2
Therefore, the straight line
y=x+ 2
Is an inclined asymptote to the given curve.
To investigate the mutual positions of a curve and an asymptote, let us
consider the différence of the ordinates of the curve and the asymptote for
186 Ch. 5. Investigating the Behauiour of Funclions
f ! ± 2X£ z z l _ X(jc+
I
2)/ = - xl
This différence is négative for x > 0 and positive for x < 0; and so for x > 0
the curve lies below the asymptote, and for x < 0 it lies above the asymptote
(Fig. 132).
Example 5. Find the asymptotes of the curve
y = e~ x sin x + x
Solution. (1) It is obvious that there are no vertical asymptotes.
(2) Look for inclined asymptotes:
flection; in exactly the same way, the points (0, 0) and ^ Y 3, ^are
points of inflection.
(6 ) Détermine the asymptotes of the curve:
for jc—►-(-oo y —►O
for jc — ►— oo y — ►0
Consequently, the straight line y = 0 is the only inclined asymptote. The
curve has no vertical asymptotes because the function does not approach
infinity for a single finite value of jc.
(3) T e s t t h e f u n c t io n fo r m a x im u m a n d m i n im u m :
, 4ax— 3 jc * 4 a —Sx
y — - ------- . ,= m
ax2— **)* z i / x (2a—x ) 1
T h e re is a d é r i v a t i v e e v e r y w h e r e e x c e p t a t th e p o in t s
#1 = 0 a n d # 2 = 2 a
I n v e s tig a t e th e l i m i t i n g v a lu e s of th e d é r i v a t i v e as x — ►— O a n d as x— ► +0:
4 a — 3# 4 a — 3#
= — oo, llm - x -------------- = -f- oo
3 V x Y ( 2 a —x f 3 y x y (2a — # )2
4a
T h u s , a t * = y th e f u n c tio n h a s a m a x i m u m :
ym»x=j
(4) O n th e b a s is of th i s s t u d y w e g e t th e d o m a in s o f iric re a se a n d d e c re a s e
ot th e f u n c t io n :
fo r — oo < x < 0 th e f u n c t io n d e c re a s e s ,
4a
fo r 0 < x< th e f u n c t io n in c r e a s e s ,
4a
fo r - = - < # < + oo th e f u n c t io n d e c re a s e s.
(5) D é te r m in e th e d o m a in s o f c o n v e x it y and c o n c a v i ty o f th e c u r v e a n d
th e p o in t s of in f le c tio n : th e s e c o n d d é r i v a t i v e
9 # 3 ( 2 a — je )8
does n o t v a n is h a t a s i n g le p o in t . Y e t th e r e a r e tw o p o in ts a t w h ic h th e s e
c o n d d é r i v a t i v e is d is c o n ti n u o u s : JCi = 0 a n d xt = 2a.
L e t u s in v e s t i g a t e th e s ig n of th e se c o n d d é r i v a t i v e n e a r e a c h o f th e s e
p o in ts . F o r jc < 0 w e h â v e y" < 0 a n d th e c u r v e is c o n v e x u p ; fo r jc > 0 w e
h â v e yT < 0 a n d th e c tirv e is c o n v e x u p . H e n c e , th e p o in t w i t h a b s c is s a # = 0
is n o t a p o in t o f in f le c tio n .
190 Ch. 5. Investigating the Behaviour of Functions
l/ 2ax2
k= lim
£ -► ± 00
— =
X
lim
X -> ± C D
-= lim
£-►±00 K?-—■
2ax2— j ^ + jc3 2a
6= lim [ i/2 a x 2— jc3 + = lim
£-►±00 £“*±00\ / (2a x 2 —x3)2— x y /^ 2 a x 2— x? + x 2 ^
T h u s th e s t r a i g h t lin e
y = —x+
2a
is a n in c l in e d a s y m p to t e to th e c u r v e y = i/2 a x 2— T h e g r a p h o f th i s f o n c
t i o n is sh o w n in F ig . 134.
y,
5.12 INVESTIGATING CURVES
X v y=ty2axz~x* REPRESENTED PARAMETRI
CALLY
(2)
* -* '< 0 )
For those points of the curve near which it is the graph of a
certain function y = f(x), evaluate the dérivative
dy _ ty' (i)
dx <f' (t) (3 )
X=aC0SH \
y=asm*t f
(a > 0)
v
' '(1')'
Solution. The quantifies x and y are defined for ail values of t. But since
he functions cos3 t and sin 3 t are periodic, of a period 2 ji, it is sufficient to
consider the variation of the parameter t in the range from 0 to 2 ji; here the
nterval [—a, a] is the range of x and the interval [—a, a] is the range of
y. Consequently, this curve has no asymptotes. Next, we find
Jt 3 jt
These dérivatives vanish at / = 0 , , ji, — , 2 ji. We détermine
dy 3a sin 2 t c o s t . .
~r = —3a
— ô------ —-—t t ~ — t a n t (3')
dx cos 2tt
/ sin
S ig n T y p e of v a r i a
R a n g e of t C o rre s p o n d in g C o rre s p o n d in g tio n o f y a s a
ra n g e of x ra n g e o f y o f £dx f u n c tlo n of
x [ y = f (*)]
From the table it follows that équations (!') denne two continuous functions
of the type y = f {x )f for O c / ^ j i (see first two lines of the table),
for 7i < K 2 ?i 0 (see last two lines of the table). From (3') it follows that
dy
lim
n dx
2
and
lim ~ oo
3 jt d x
X~ * T
Solution. Both functions are defined for ail values of t except at / = — 1, and
L= - l . ^2 = 0 ,
- P S
Then we find
dy_
dy dt t ( 2 - t 3)
dx ~~ dx
0')
dt
■ (* -
On the basis of formulas (T), (2 "), and (3") we compile the following table:
S ig n T y p e o f v a r ia
R an g e of t C o rre s p o n d in g C o rre s p o n d in g tio n o f y as
ra n g e of x ra n g e o f y of a f u n c tlo n of
dx
Thus, the curve cuts the origin twice: with the tangent parallel to the x-axis
and with the tangent parallel to the (/-axis. Further,
At this point the tangent to the curve is horizontal. Let us investigate the
question of the existence of an asymptote:
3a(2 ( 1 + /3)
k= lim — lim
JC->+ CD X /_*_ l-o 3at (1 + / 3)
[ 3at2 3at 1 —
b= lim (y— kx) = lim ( - 1)
x-*- + 30 o L1+'3 l + t 3J ""
3ai (/ + 1) 3at
lim lim
t- -1 -0 1-H3 /-►-1-0 i — t + t2 ~
Exercises on Chapter 5
Find the extrema of the functions:
1. y = x2— 2 x + 3. Ans. y m\n = 2 at x = \ . 2. — 2 x2 + 3 x + l . Ans.
when x = arccos
/ ï and when x = arccos J / ^ . 31. j/ = arcsin(sinx).
(4m - f - 3) jt
_ (4 m + 1) jt
i4ns. Maximum when x minimum when x
2 ........... . ~ 2
Find the maximum and minimum values of the function on the indicated
intervals:
32. y = —3x4 + 6 x 2 — 1 (—2 < ; x C 2 ). Ans. Maximum y = 2 at x = ± 1 , minimum
y = —25 at x = ± 2 . 33. r /= —— 2x2 + 3 x + l ( — 1 ^ x ^ 5). Ans. Maximum va-
î 23 . - . . . 13 t om x— 1
lue y = -rr at x = 5, minimum value y — — - at x = — 1. 34. y = — —
3 3 * x+1
3
( 0 s ^ x C 4 ) . Ans. Maximum value */ = y at x = 4, minimum value y = —\
13
196 Ch. 5. Investigating the Behaviour of Functions
ji
at x = 0. 35. y = sin 2x—x ^ . Ans. Maximum value y at
2
71 . • « Tt , Jt
x —— — , minimum value y = — at x = .
36. Using square tin sheet with side a, make a topless box of maximum
volume by cutting equal squares at the corners and removing them and then
bending the tin so as to form the sides of the box. What will the length of a
side of the squares be? Ans. ^ .
37. Prove that of ail rectangles that may be inscribed in a given circle, the
square has the greatest area. AIso show that the square will hâve the maximum
perimeter as well.
38. Show that of ail isosceles triangles inscribed in a given circle, an équi
latéral triangle has the largest perimeter.
39. Find a right triangle of maximum area with a hypoténuse h. Ans.
Length of each leg, - p = - •
40. Find the height of a right cylinder with greatest volume that can be
2/?
inscribed in a sphere of radius R. Ans. Height, *
41. Find the height of a right cylinder with greatest latéral surface area
that may be inscribed in a given sphere of radius R. Ans. Height, R ÿ~2.
42. Find the height of a right cône with least volume circumscribed about
a given sphere of radius R. Ans. 4R (the volume of the cône is twice the
volume of the sphere).
4 3 . A réservoir with a square bottom and open top is to be lined inside
with lead. What are the dimensions of the réservoir (to hold 32 litres) that
will require the smallest amount of lead? Ans. Height, 0 . 2 métré, side of base,
0 . 4 métré (the side of the base must be twice the height).
4 4 . A roofer wants to make an open gutter of maximum capacity with bottom
and sides 10 cm in width, and with the sides inclined at the same angle to the
bottom. What is the width of the gutter at the top? Ans. 20 cm.
45. Prove that a conical vessel of given storage capacity requires th:? least
material when its height is V~2 times the radius of the base.
46. lt is required to make a cylinder, open at the top, the walls and bottom
of wliich hâve a given thickness. What should the dimensions of the cylinder
be so that for a given storage capacity it will require the least material? Ans.
If R is the inner radius of the base, v the inner volume of the cylinder, then
Addilional Exercises
Find the asymptotes of the following Unes:
108. y = - fqrj" • Ans. x —— 1, y = x — 1 . 109. y = x-\-e~x . Ans. y = x.
143- H= ÿ ( 3 * + | * | ) + l . 144. ! / = - | 3 (x - 1 ) +
+ |*—1|J + 1 (0<*<i2).
CHAPTE R 6
m n È y -i+ fif)’
Find the limits of th e le ft and right sides as Ax—<-0. Taking into
account that lim
----- As
1 and that Alim j - = ^r
v n Ajc ax , we get
°
202 Ch. 6. The Curvature of a Curve
* - / P)
or *
ds = V dx2+ dy2 (2')
We hâve obtained an expression for the differential of arc length
for the case when the curve is given by the équation y = f(x).
However, (2') holds also for the case when the curve is represen-
ted by parametric équations.
If the curve is represented parametrically,
x — <p(t), y = t ( 0
then
dx — <f'(t)dt, dy = ‘t y'(t)dt
and expression (2') takes the form
ds = V [<p' (/)]•+ [* '(/)]* dt
6.2 CURVATURE
For one and the same curve, the average curvature of its diffe
rent parts (arcs) may be different; for example, for the curve
* We assume that the magnitude of the limit does not dépend on which
side of the point A we take the variable point B on the curve.
204 Ch. 6. The Curuature of a Curve
K a v = Z
ar
or
Kav=jr
(2) The curvature at the point A is
K= Un. — = —
a -* 0 ar r
Thus, the average curvature of the arc of a circle of radius r is indepen-
dent of the length and position of the arc, and for ail arcs it is equal
to . Likewise, the curvature of a circle at any point is independent of the
cp = arctan^-
Therefore,
&y_
dx 2
dip 1+ (& Y
dy dx ' \ d x ) _____________ dx2
ds ds
~dx
dtp
or, since K — ds
, we finally get
1 tPy
| dx2
{ / Wii \ 2 13/. (3)
K ï )‘]
It is thus possible to find the curvature at any point of a curve
^2y
where a second dérivative exists and is continuous. Calcula
tions are done with formula (3). It should be noted that when
calculating the curvature of a curve only the positive value of
the root in the denominator should be taken, since the curvature
of a line cannot (by définition) be négative.
Example 1. Détermine the curvature of the parabola y2 = 2px:
(a) at an arbitrary point M (x, y);
(b) at the point Afx (0 , 0 );
\c) at the point Af2 , p^ .
Solution. Find the first and second dérivatives of the function y = Y 2px:
dy _ p d2y _ p2
dx Yïp~* ’ dx* (2 px)"'*
Substituting the expressions obtained into (3), we get
(a) K =
(2 p x + p2)7 *
(b)
* î= !-7
1
(C) K
2
2 VTp
y=p
Example 2. Détermine the curvature of the straight line y = a x + b at ar
arbitrary point (x, y).
Solution.
y ' = a t y" = 0
Referring to (3) we get
K= 0
Thus, a straight line is a “line of zéro curvature”. This very same resuit is
readily obtainable directly from the définition of curvature.
6.4 Curvature of a Curve Represented Parametrically 207
— =a(l-cos/), J = « s in l, ^ = a sm t, cos /
It will be noted that for large values of 0 we hâve the approximate équa
tions ^ ~ 1, ^ I; therefore, replacing 0 2 + 2 by 0 2 and 0 2- f l by
0* in the foregoing formula, we get an approximate formula (for large values of 0 ):
i e2 î
A ^ -----------r r = “ S
a (02 )Vt Û0
(O
6.6 The Radius and Circle of Curvature 209
or
Fig. 147
Solution. Substituting the values ^ and into (7) we get (Fig. 148):
(a) a = 3* + p, P = — ^ 7 7 = >
y p
(b) at at= 0 we find a = p, P = 0 ,
with respect to t:
x ' = — f l si n/ , y ' = b c o s t
x " = — a c os / , y n —— b s i n t
b2 \ 3 .
a — cos3 1
-( a J
cos8 1
Similarly we get
sin 3 t
Eliminating the parameter t, we get the équation of the evolute of the ellipse
in the form
Solution.
x ' = a ( l — cos /), y ' = a s i n t
x* = a s i n f , ^ = acos^
Substituting the expressions obtained into
(7')t we get Fig. 150
a = a (/ + sin t )
P = — a ( l — cos t)
But y' is the slope of the tangent to the curve at the correspond-
ing point; it therefore follows from the relationship obtained
that the tangent to the curve and the tangent to its evolute at
the corresponding point are mutually perpendicular; that is, the
normal to a curve is the tangent to the evolute.
214 Ch. 6. The Curvature of a Curve
(3)
(i+y")3
Then we find J*. Since R ■ (i +yy'i)Vr , it follows that y"‘
Differentiating both sides of this équation with respect to x, we
get the following (after appropriate manipulations):
« n d R _ 2(1 + ÿ " ) 2 (3y ' y " ' - y ' " - y ' * y " ' )
K dx - (yy
2n J- j/'2)8/2
Dividing both sides of the équation by 2R = — , we hâve
y
dR ( l + y ' 1)l/2 (3y'y"‘— y ' ” — y''>y ' ” )
dx »
Squaring, we get
(4)
)•
Comparing (3) and (4), we find
(£)•-(£)■
whence
d_R_d±
dx ~ ^ dx
dR
It is given that does not change sign (R only increases or
ds
only decreases); hence, ^ does not change sign either. For the
6.7 The Properiies of an Evolute 215
dR ds
sake of definiteness, let ^ < 0 , ^ . ^ 0 (which corresponds to
Fig. 152). Hence. § — £ .
Let the point hâve abscissa and lft2 hâve abscissa x2. Apply
the Cauchy theorem to the functions s(x) and R(x) on the inter
val [xlt x2]:
s(x 2 ) — s ( J C ,) \ e(t x-j )x = l .
/?(**)-/?(*,) /dR_\ ~
[ dx ) x =i
where | is a number lying hetween x, and x2 (xt < Ê < * 2).
We introduce the désignations (Fig. 152)
^ C^2) ~ ^2» ^ (*^i)= ^i» R (*^2) ” R $ * R (*^i) ” R i
lt will be noted that the profile of a tooth of a gear wheel is most often
in the shape of the involute of a circle.
tion f (xt) and f (xt) hâve different signs. For definiteness, we say
that f ( x 1) < 0 , / (•*■*) > 0 (Fig. 155). Since the function y = f(x)
is continuous on the interval [x,, x2], its graph will eut the x-axis
in some one point between xt and x2.
Draw a chord AB connecting the end points of the curve
y —f(x), which correspond to abscissas x1 and x%. Then the
abscissa of the point of intersection of this chord with thex-axis
will be the approximate value of the root (Fig. 156). In order to
find this approximate value let us Write the équation of the straight
line AB that passes through two given points A [xlt /(x 2)] and
® / (*î)] •
y — /(* i) x — xx
/ ( * * ) — /( • * l ) X2 X\
or
*1 f ( X . 2) — Xi f ( X 1)
ax f ( x t ) — f ( x ,T" ( 2')
of the end points. This rule also holds for the case where /' (x) <C 0.
If the tangent is drawn at the left end point of the interval,
then in formula (3) we must put x, in place of x2:
/( x i)
û| —Xj O')
/' (*i)
When there is a point of inflection C in the interval (xlf x2),
the method of tangents can yield an approximate value of the
root lying without the interval (x,, x2)
(Fig. 160).
Example 2 . Apply formula (3') to finding the
root of the équation
= —6x+ 2 = 0
within the interval (0, 1). We hâve
/ (0) = 2, /' (0) = (3x2—6) | x=0 = —6*
f ” (x) = 6 x ^ Q
E x e rc ise s o n C h a p te r 6
= f aS,n 3 '
Find the points of the curves at which the radius of curvature is a mi
nimum:
19i. y = \nx. Ans. . — y 1112) * 20. y = e*. Ans. ^ - y ln 2 , .
point (0 , 0 ) / ? = y .
Find the coordinates of the centre of curvature (a, P) and the équation of
the evolute for each of the following curves:
.3 .
b2
a4-f 15y4
Ans. a = x + 3 x 3 y 3 , fi = y + 3 x 3 y 3 . 25. ys = a2x. Ans. a =
6û2^
a 4i/— 9yb J x = 3t,
P= 2 6. Ans. a = — - / 3, P = 3 /2—
2Ô4 \ y = t2- 6.
222 Ch. 6. The Curvature of a Curve
x = k In cot ~ — k cos /,
27. Ans. y = i - ( e * + ee * ) (tractrix).
y = k sin t.
J x = a(cos t + / sin /), j x— - acc
a cos 3 t ,
28. Ans. a —a cos t, P = a sin t. 29
\ y = a (sin t — t cos t). \ y = a sisin3 /.
Ans. <x = a cos3 / + 3 a cos / sin 2 /, p = a sin 3 / -f-3a cos 2 t sin /.
30. Find the roots of the équation jc3 — 4jc + 2 = 0 to three décimal places.
Ans. xi = 1.675, *2 = 0.539, = —2.214.
31. For the équation f(x) = xb—x — 0.2 = 0, approximate the root in the
interval ( 1, 1.1). Ans. 1.045.
32. Evaluate the roots of the équation * 4 + 2* 2 — 6 * + 2 = 0 t0 two décimal
places. Ans. 0.38 < x1 < 0.39, 1.24 < x2 < 1.25.
33. Solve the équation x*— 5 = 0 approximately. Ans. xt « 1.71, x29=
-,.7 1 -'^ ^ .
34. Approximate the root of the équation x — tanx = 0 Iying between 0
and . Ans. 4.4935.
35. Compute the root of the équation sin * -—1— x to three places of déci
mais. Hint. Reduce the équation to the form /(* ) = 0. Ans. 0.5110 < x < 0.5111.
Miscellaneous Problems
36. Show that at each point of the lemniscate p 2 = a 2 cos2(p the curvature
is proportional to the radius vector of the point.
37. Find the greatest value of the radius of curvature of the curve
p = a sin 3 i . Ans. R = - ^ a .
38. Find the coordinates of the centre of curvature of the curve ^ = *ln;c
at the point where y ' = 0 . Ans. (e~l , 0 ).
3 9 . Prove that for points of the spiral of Archimedes p = a<p as œ —►oo the
magnitude of the différence between the radius vector and the radius of cur
vature approaches zéro.
40. Find the parabola y = ajc2 + ôx + c, which has common tangent and cur
vature with the sine curve y = sin * at the point 1j . Make a drawing.
Ans. = i “ T*
41. The function y = f(x) is defined as follows:
f(x) = x? in the interval — oo < x ^ \
f (x) = ax2 + b x + c in the interval 1 < x < + oo
What must aK b and c be for the curve y = f(x) to hâve continuous curvature
everywhere? Make a drawing. Ans. a = 3, b = —3, c = l.
42. Show that the radius of curvature of a cycloid at any one of its points
is twice the length of the normal at that point.
43. Write the équation of the circle of curvature of the parabola y = x2 at
/ 7 \ 2 125
the point (I, 1). Ans. (x + 4)2 + ^y —y J = - j - -
44. Write the équation of the circle of curvature of the curve y = tan* at
the point l ) . Ans. + ^ )* = '-§ ■
Exercises on Chapter 6 223
45. Find tlie length of the entire evolute of an ellipse whose semi-axes are
4 (a8 — bli)
a and b. Ans.
ab
46. Find the approximate values of the roots of the équation xex = 2 to
within 0.01. Ans.. The equatior
équation has only one real loot, x æ 0.84.
47. Find the approximate values of the roots of the équation x In* = 0.8
to within 0.01. Ans. The équation has only one real root, x æ 1.64.
48. Find the approximate values of the roots of the équation x 2 a r c ta n x = l
to within 0.001. Ans. The équation has only one real root, x æ 1.096.
CHAPTER 7
that is, if their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are
equal.
(2) A complex number z is equal to zéro
2 = a + ib — 0
if and only if a = 0 , b = 0 .
1. Géométrie représentation of complex numbers. Any complex
number z = a + ib may be represented in the xy-plane as a point
A(a, b) with coordinates a and b. Conversely, every point M(x, y)
of the plane is associated with a complex number z = x-\-iy. The
plane on which complex numbers are represented is called the
plane of the complex variable z, or the complex plane (Fig. 162,
the encircled z symbol indicates that this is the complex plane).
Points of the plane of the complex variable z lying on the
jc-axis correspond to real numbers (b = 0 ). Points lying on the
ÿ-axis represent pure imaginary numbers, since a = 0. Therefore,
7.1 Complex Numbers. Basic Définitions 225
To summarize, then,
\z \ = \a + ib | = V 'a a + b* 1
argz = arg(a + *&) = A r c t a n J ^
then
ay + iby = (a, + ibt) (x + iy)
or
at + iby = ( a ^ — bjj) + i (a2y + btx)
x and y are found from the System of équations
üy —atx — b^y, by = b^c-\-aty
Solving this system we get
a y(ll-\-b yb i ü jby — Oybj
O Î+ 6 Î ’ y a l + b l
~ a l + b l ~ a l + b l ^ a î+ * î
4ji . . . 4ji
*3 = COS-r-+lSin —
Noting that
2jt 2n y 3 4jï ___ 1_
cos -
sjn4jt__ V J
C0ST ---- T ' sin 3 2
we get
, 1 , . V~3 1 .v i
Xi —1» Jfj — g -J- 1 g » ^3 2 * 2
In Fig. 164, the points A, B%C are géométrie représentations of the roots
obtained.
7.4 Exponential Function wilh Complex Exponent 231
The expression in the brackets gives ail the values of the nth
root of 1 .
If A is a real négative number, then
n/î—r \( ji + 2£ji . . . ji+ 2Aji\
* = K M H cos —^ -----b I sin
The expression in the brackets gives ail the values of the nth
root of — 1 .
If A is a complex number, then the values of x are found from
formula (2 ).
Example 2. Solve the équation
x«=l
Solution.
4 ji , . . 4 ji t
x 8 = cos 1sin - ç - = — I
6 ji . . . 6 ji
xk — cos ——\-1 sin —r—= — i
4 4
e
,+-*t ' ( n . . . n\
= e ^ cosT 4 - i s i n T J = e ^ —
( y~2 . y~~2 \
+ ,—
1. 2 = l + Y l »
0+-5-* ./ « , . . n ’\
2. a= 0 + - i , e 2 = e ° f c o s y + lSin y J = *•
3. If m is an integer, then
(ez)m= efnz (7)
For m > 0 , this formula is readily obtained from (3); if m < 0 ,
then it is obtained from formulas (3) and (6 ).
4. The identity
<*+2 (8 )
holds.
Indeed, from (3) and (1) we get
gz+2it/ _ gze2ni —gt (cos 2n -f- i sin 2n) = ez
From identity (8 ) it follows that the exponential function e*is a
periodic function with a period of 2 ni.
5. Let us now consider the complex quantity
w = u (x) -f- iv (x)
where u(x) and o(x) are real functions of a real variable x. This
is a complex function of a real variable.
(a) Let there exist the limits
lim u (x) = u (x0), lim v ( x ) = v (x,)
x-+x0 x-*x0
= i- (2 cos 2 y + 2 )= y (1 + cos 2 y)
— / = c o s ( — - £ - ) + ' sin ( —
( 6)
zt r2ei^t r2
z n = (re/?)n = rnein* (7 )
___ . q>+ ik n
yfreiv = ÿ 7 e n (£ = 0 , 1 ,2 ......... n — 1) (8 )
Formula (5) coïncides with (3') of Sec. 7 .2 ; (6 ), with (5) of
Sec. 7.2; (7), with ( 1) of Sec. 7.3; (8 ) with (2) ot Sec. 7.3.
certain linear factors tum out the same, they may be combined,
and then factorization of the polynomial will yield
f (x) = A0 ( x - a j * ( x - a 2)*>. . . (x - a j * ~ (V)
Here
^1 + k* + • • • + km — n
In this case, the root ax is called a root of multiplicity klt or a
£x-tuple root, at, a root of multiplicity k2, etc.
Example. The polynomial ^ (x )= x s — 5 x * + 8 x — 4 may be factored into the
following linear factors:
f (x) = (x — 2 ) (x— 2 ) (x — 1 )
This factorization may be written as follows:
f(x) = ( x - 2 ) » ( * - l )
The root ox = 2 is a double root, O j = l is a simple root.
If a polynomial has a root a of multiplicity k, then we will
consider that the polynomial has k coincident roots. Then from
the theorem of factorization of a polynomial into linear factors
we get the following theorem.
Every polynomial of degree n has exact ly n roots ( real or complex).
Note. Ail that has been said of the roots of the polynomial
f(x) = A0xn + A 1x ' ' - ' + . . . + A n
may obviously be formulated in terms of the roots of the algeb-
raic équation
A0xn+ A 1xn- i + . . . + A n = o
Let us now prove the following theorem.
Theorem. If, for the polynomial /(je), ax is a root of multiplicity
kt > 1 , then for the dérivative /' (je) this number is a root of
multiplicity k l— 1 .
Proof. If a x is a root of multiplicity > 1, then it follows from
formula (T) that
f(x) = (x— ûi)*'«p(jc)
where <p(je) = (je—a2)*>. . . (x—am)km does not become zéro at x = ax;
that is, <p(a1)=,£0. Difîerentiating, we get
f (*) = {x— a,)"'-19 (x) + (x—ûj)*19 ' {x)
= (x— ûj)*1"1 [*i9 (*) + (x— a j 9 ' (je)]
Put
9 (Je) = ^ 9 (Je) + (je— a,) 9 ' (je)
Then
n x ) = (x-aj»-'V (x)
and here
9 (ax) = Ax9 (at) + (ax—a,) 9 ' (a,) = * , 9 (a,) =/= 0
240 Ch. 7. Complex Numbers. Polynomials
q _______________ y_n_____________
" (xn— x0) (xn — xt) ( X n — X 3 ) . . . ( X „ - X n - X)
. ( x — x „ ) (x — x t ) . . . ( x — x„)
^ ( X l — X„) ( X i — X 3 ) . . . ( X i — x „ ) y i
■ (x— X p ) ( X — Xj)(X— x3) . . . ( x — x„)
" 1" ( x 3 — x „ ) ( x t — X i ) ( x . , — x 3 ) . . . ( x 3 — x n ) y *
I (x— X 0 ) ( x — X j ) . . . ( x — Xn - j )
( x „ — x 0) ( x „ — x i ) . . . ( x „ — x a - i ) y n
(3)
This formula is called Lagrange's interpolation formula.
7.10 Newton's Interpolation Formula 243
X *0 *1 = *0 + h Xs = x t + 2h *n = * 0 + n h
*
y yo y\ ya ••• Vn
+ T iT (3)
Finally, a polynomial of degree n taking on the values t/#, ÿlf
yit . . . , yn for the respective values x0, xlt x2, ..., x„ will be of
the form
P . W - ÿ. + A». ^ ^ ^ ^ - 1) + ■• •
( 1)
For x = x0 we hâve
<P' ( x 0) æ P i’ ( x 0) = h 2h ( 2)
(3)
246 Ch. 7. Complex Numbers. Polynomials
m= 0
Here, CJ are binomial coefficients, <p is the value of the gi-
ven function at the point x = The expression Bn (jc) is a n n t h
degree polynomial called the Bernstein polynomial.
* It will be noted that the Lagrange interpolation formula fsee (3) Sec. 7.9]
cannot yet answer this question. Its values are equal to those of the function
at the points x0, xlf x2t . . . , xnt but they may be very far from the values of
the function at other points of the interval [a, b\.
Exercises on Chapter 7 247
X
0 1 1.5 2 3
y \
1 0 1 1.5 2 3
2 0 2 3 4 6
3 0 3 4.5 6 9
4 0 4 6 8 12
The domain of this function is x > 0, y > 0 (since the base of a triangle and
its altitude cannot be négative or zéro). We notice that the domain of this
function does not coincide with the natural domain of définition of the analytic
expression used to define the function, because the natural domain of the expres
sion ^ is obviously the entire xy- plane.
8 .2 GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION
OF A FUNCTION OF TWO VARIABLES
We consider the function
z = f(x, y) ( 1)
defined in a domain G in the xt/-plane (as a particular case, this
domain may be the entire plane), and a System of rectangular Car-
tesian coordinates Oxyz (Fig. 167). At each point (x , y) erect a
perpendicular to the xy-plane and on it lay off a segment equal
to f( x , y).
* We shall mainly consider functions of two variables, since three and more
variables do not introduce any fundamental changes, but do introduce additio-
nal technical difficulties.
8.4 Continuit y of a Funet ion of Several Variables 255
Let us examine the values of z along the straight line y = kx (fc = const).
Obviously, along this line
2A;jc2 2k
= co n st
* ~ j P + k tX* 1+ * 2
This means that a function z along any straight line passing through the ori-
gin retains a constant value that dépends upon the slope k of the line. Thus,
approaching the origin along different paths we will obtain different limiting
values, and this means that the function f ( x , y) has no limit when the point
(x, y ) in the jcy-plane approaches the origin. Thus, the function is disconti
nuous at this point. It is impossible to redefine this function at the coordinate
origin so that it should become continuous. On the other hand, it is readily
seen that the function is continuous at ail other points.
We give without proof some important properties of a function
of many variables continuous in a closed and bounded domain.
These properties are similar to the properties of a function of one
variable continuous on an interval (see Sec. 2.10).
8 .5 P a r tia l Dérivatives of a Function 257
— -3 x iz* --x z 3
dz ~~ 1 ' d t~ r
8.6 Geometr. Interprétation af Partial Dérivatives 259
g = ta"P
The sum of the latter two terms of the right side is an infini-
tesimal of higher order relative to Ap = KAx2 + Ay2. Indeed, the
ratio TtApA* —*•0 as Ap—>-0 since Yi is an infinitésimal and
is bounded V r - |< |1 ^ . In similar fashion it is verified that
f Il Ap
V* Ay ■0 .
“ApP
The sum of the first two terms is a linear expression in Ax
and Ay. For f'x (x, y)=£ 0 and f'y (x, y)--^=0, this expression is the
principal part of the incrément, differing from Az by an infinité
simal of higher order relative to Ap = V/ A*a-FAy2.
Définition. The function z = f(x, y) [the total incrément (Az)
of which at the given point (x, y) may be represented as a sum
of two terms: a linear expression in Ax and Ay, and an infinité
simal of higher order relative to Ap] is called différentiable at the
given point, while the linear part of the incrément is known as
the total differential and is denoted by dz or df.
From (5') it follows that if the function /(x, y) has continuous
partial dérivatives at a given point, it is différentiable at that
point and has a total differential:
dz = fx (x, y) Ax + f'y (x, y) Ay
Equation (5') may be rewritten in the form
Az = dz + Yi Ax -f- Yj Ay
and, to within infinitesimals of higher order relative to Ap, we
may write the following approximate équation:
Az as dz
We shall call the incréments of the independent variables Ax
and Ay differentials of the independent variables x and y and we
262 Ch. 8. Functions of Several Variables
dz = Txdx + Tydy
Thus, if the function z = f(x, y) has continuous partial dérivati
ves, it is différentiable at the point (x, y), and its total differen
tial is equal to the sum of the products of the partial dérivatives
by the differentials of the corresponding independent variables.
Example 1. Find the total differential and the total incrément of the func
tion z — xy at the point (2, 3) for Ax = 0 .1, Aÿ = 0.2.
Solution.
Az = (x + A*) (y + Ay ) —xy = y Ax+ x b y + Ax Ay
dz = j ï d x + j ^ d y = y d x + x d y = y b x + x b y
Consequently »
Az = 3 -0 .1 + 2 -0 .2 + 0 .1 -0 .2 = 0.72
dz = 3 -0 .1 + 2 -0 .2 = 0.7
Fig. 174 is an illustration of this example.
The foregoing reasoning and définitions are appropriately genera-
lized to functions of any number of arguments.
t If we hâve a function of any number of
■V i
variables
S w = f(x, y, z, u,
xûy
and ail partial dérivatives^, df_ 2L are
!
d x * dy ’ dt
y continuous at the point (x, y , z, u, t),
the expression
■<----- 1 ----- ►-
dw=‘ % dx + % dH+ % d! +
&x
+ p‘
is the principal part of the total incrément of the
Fig. 174 function and is called the total differential.
Proof of the fact that the différence Aw— dw is
an infinitésimal of higher order than V (A x)2+ (A y)2+ . . . + ( A / ) 2 is
conducted in exactly the same way as for a function of two vari
ables.
Exa.nple 2. Find the total differential of the function u = ex2+y 2 sin 2 z of
three variables x, y , z .
Solution. Noting that the partial dérivatives
~ = ex2+y2 2x sin 2 z
= ex2+y 2 2 y sin 2 z
But since
%L = 2nRH, | = nJÎ', AR = AH = k
oR otl
we get
væ n {'2 R H k + R*k) (6 )
Comparing the résulte of (5) and (6 ), we see that they differ by the quan»
tity ji (Hk2 + 2Rk2 + k3), which consiste of terms of second and third order of
smallness relative to k.
Let us apply these formulas to numerical examples.
Let Æ= 4 cm, H = 20 cm, fc = 0.1 cm.
Applying (5), we get, exactly,
ü = ji (2 .4 .2 0 -0 .1+ 42 .0 .1 + 20.0.1 2 + 2.4 0.1 2 + 0.1»)=17.881ji
Applying formula (6 ), we hâve, approximately,
v « jv (2 4.20.0.1 + 42 0 .1 )= 17.6ji
Hence, the approxirtiate formula (6 ) gives an answer with an error less than
0 . 3j i , which is 100 • %, i. e., it is less than 2 % of the measured
quantity.
Here, the values of the partial dérivatives and the errors of the
arguments may be either positive or négative. Replacing them by
the absolute values, we get the inequality
| Au | |A y |+ • •• + lddt |A /| ( 1)
Examples.
1. Let u = x + y -\-zt then | A*u | = | A*x | + | A*y | + | &*z |.
2. Let u — x —y , then | A*u | = | A*x | + | A*y |.
3. Let u = x y t then 1 | = x \ |A *y| + | p | | A*x|.
^ | | ^ y[_ | y l l A * x | + j x | l A * y |
4. Let « = — , then I A*m 1=1 — \* * x \ +
y 1 1 Iy
5. The hypoténuse c and the leg a of a right triangle ABC, determined with
maximum absolute errors |A *c| = 0.2, |A * a [= 0 .1 , are, respectively, c = 75,
a = 32. Détermine the angle A from the formula 6ini4 = -^-; and détermine
6 . In the right triangle ABC, let the leg 6= 121.56 métrés and the angle
A = 25®21'40\ and the maximum absolute error in determining the leg 6 is
|A *6 1= 0.05 métré, the maximum absolute error in determining the angle A is
\b*A\=\2*.
Détermine the maximum absolute error in calculating the leg a from the
formula a = b tan A.
Solution. From formula (2 ) we find
|A * a | = |t a n X ||A * 6 | + J A L | A M |
but
t -
For this reason, (3) may be rewritten as follows:
lô*“ l =
^ l n |/ |||A * x | + |^ l n |/ |||A * ÿ |+ . . . + | ^ l n | / | | | A * / | . . . , (5)
or briefly,
16*u J = | A* ln | /|| (6 )
From both (3) and (5) it follows that the maximum relative error
of the function is equal to the maximum absolute error of the
logarithm of the function.
From (6 ) follow the rules used in approximate calculations.
1. Let u —xy. Using the results of Example 3, we get
| * | | A * ÿ | _ 1 A*x1 I A*y|
|y||A**|
|ô*u| 6**1 + |«V I
l*y| l*y| " 1*1 \y\
1 1 1*—y|
If x and y are close, it may happen that | ô*« | will be very great
compared with the quantity x — y being determined. This should
be taken into account when performing the calculations.
8.10 The Dérivative of a Composite Function 267
T - .S n /i
where / is the length of the pendulum and g is the accélération of gravity.
What relative error will be made in determining T when using this for
mula if we take jx « 3 .1 4 (accurate to 0.005), / = 1 m (accurate to 0.01 m),
g = 9.8 m/sec2 (accurate to 0.02) m/sec2).
Solution. From *6 ) the maximum relative error is
|Ô*T| = | AMuTf
But
ln r = ln 2 + ln \n l — ^ \ n g
But i! u and v receive incréments Axu and Axv, th,en the func-
tion z = F(u, v) will receive an incrément Az defined by formula
(5'), Sec. 8.7:
Az " '1 T + i k à *v + VrA*“ + T*1A*y
Divide ail terms of this équation by Ax:
Az dF A,u . dF Avü A,u . Axu
 7 = dï--ÂF + *T  F + ^ - s j 4 - Y*-5J-
If Ajî—►O, then Axu —>-0 and A*o—►0 (by virtue of the conti-
nuity of the functions u and v). But then y1 and y» also approach
zéro. Passing to the limit as A*—<-0, we get
A z _ dz Axu _du Axv dv
lim lim lim
àx-+ 0 Ax~~ dx ’ Ax-+ 0 T x ~ d x ' Ax-^ 0
lim Yi = 0 . Hm Y2 = 0
Ax 0 Ax 0
and, consequently.
dz dF du . dF dv
dx du d x ' dv dx (4)
dx
J t = 2 ye*+y\ %L=2
dy dx
x,
dy
Using formulas (4) and (4') we find
<*»•**' , + >)
In these expressions, we hâve to substitute ex+y* and x2+ y for u and v res-
pectively.
we get
, ( dF du , dF dü \ , . / dF du f dF dv \ .
d z = [ ^ i ï + W t e j d x + ['fadi,+ frr'diï)dy
270 Ch. 8. Functions of Several Variables
d2 = ^ du + W dv (9)
or
*■=■*>+1 * <9')
Gomparing (6 ) and (9') we can say that the expression of the
total differential of a function of several variables (the first diffe-
rential) is of the same form (that is, the form of the differential
is preserved) whether u and v are independent variables or func
tions of independent variables.
Example 4. Find the total differential of the composite function
2 = u V , u = jcasin y , v = x3eX
wkere F (x, y), F'x (x, y), Fy (x, y) are continuons functions in some
domain D containing the point {x, y) whose coordinates satisfy
équation (1); also, at this point F'y (x, y) =+0. Then the function
y of x has the dérivative •
Fx(x, y)
( 2)
Fy(x, y)
Proof. Let the value of the function y correspond to some value
of x. Here,
F(x, y) = 0
Increase the independent variable x by Ax. Then the function y
will receive an incrément Ay) that is, to the value of the argu
ment x + A x there corresponds the value of the function y + Ay.
By virtue of équation F (x, y) = 0 we shall hâve
/^(x + Ajc, y + Ay) = 0
Hence
F(x + Ax, y + A y ) — F (x, y) = 0
The left member of this équation, which is the total incrément
of the function of two variables by formula (5'), Sec. 8.7, may
be re-written as follows:
dF dF
F(x + Ax, y + A y ) — F (x, y) = - ^ A x + - ^ Ay + ^ A x + ^ A y
where Vi and ys approach zéro as Ax and Ay approach zéro. Since
the left side of this expression is equal to zéro, we can Write:
dF_
dz
8.12 Partial Dérivatives of Higher Orders 273
àz
dF
It is assumed that
Similarly, we deteumine the implicit functions of any number
of variables and find their partial dérivatives.
Example 3. *a + Pa + 3a— # a = 0.
dz 2x x dz __ y
dx 2z z ' dy T
Differentiating this function as an explicit function (after solving the équa
tion for z), we would obtain the very same resuit.
Example 4. e2+ x 2y + z + 5 = 0.
Here,
F (x, y t z) = e*+ x*y + z + 5
dF „ dF dF z .
~àx= 2 x y ' S j f ~dF= e ^
dz 2 j(y dz
dx~ ez + \ ' dy V+l
Note. Throughout this section we hâve assumed that the équa
tion F (x , y) = 0 defines a certain function of one variable y = <p(x)
and the équation F(x, y , z) — 0 defines a certain function of two
variables z — f{x, y). We now state, without proof, the condition
that must be satisfied by the function F (x, y) so that the équa
tion F (x, y ) — 0 defines a single-valued function y = q>(x).
Theorem. Let a function F (x, y) be continuous in the neighbour-
hood. of a point (x„, y0) and haoe continuous partial dérivatives
there, and let F'y (x, y)=^0 and F (jc#, y0) = 0. Then there exists a
neighbourhood containing the point (x0, y0) at which the équation
F (x, y) = 0 defines a single-valued function y — cp(x).
An anaiogous theorem is also valid for the conditions of exis
tence of an implicit function defined by the équation F (x, y, z) = 0.
Note. When deriving the rules for differentiating implicit func
tions, we made use of conditions that détermine the existence of
implicit functions.
them we can again find partial dérivatives. Thus, there are four
partial dérivatives of the second order of a function of two vari-
dz dz
ables, since each of the functions ^ and g^rnay be differentiated
both with respect to x and with respect to y.
The second partial dérivatives are denoted as follows:
= f"xx (x, y), here f is differentiated twjce successively with
respect to x;
g ^ = fxy(x <y ) , here / is differentiated first with respect to x
and then the resuit is differentiated with respect
to y,
Ô^Z
dÿdx~ fyx(x >y)< here / is differentiated first with respect to y
and then the resuit is differentiated with respect
to x\
d2z
~ d ÿ ~ fyy (x <y)» here the function f is differentiated twice suc
cessively with respect to y.
Dérivatives of the second order may again be differentiated
both with respect to x and y. We then get partial dérivatives of
the third order. Obviously, there will be eight of them:
d*2 à3z d3z d»2 cPz d3z d®2 d®2
dx* ’ dJëdÿ’ dxdydx ’ dxdÿ* ’ djjdjë' dydxdy ' dÿ*dx' ~dÿ~
Solution.
ï£=z'e*+y\ - ~ = 2 „**+*.
The natural question that arises is whether the resuit of differ-
entiating a function of several variables dépends on the order of
différentiation with respect to the different variables; in other
words, will, for instance, the following dérivatives be identically
equal:
d*f &f
3— s- and 3dydx
dxdy —3-
or
d*f (x, y, t) j d*f(x, y, t )
dxdydt d u d td x d y
and so forth. It turns out that the following theorem is true.
Theorem. I f a function z = f(x, y) and its partial dérivatives
fx> fy< fxy and flx are defined and continuous at a point M(x, y)
and in sotne neighbourhood of it, then at this point
à*f _ d*f /(. _ ,
d x d y ~ d y d x yixy~ lyx’
Proof. Consider the expression
A = [f(x + Ax, y + Ay)— f (x + Ax, y)] — [f(x, y + Ay)— f(x, y)]
If we introduce an auxiliary function <p(x) defined by
<P(x) = f(x, y + A y ) — f(x, y)
then A may be written in the form
j4 = <p(x + Ax)—<p(x)
Since it is assumed that f'x is defined in the neighbourhood of
the point (x, y), it follows that <p(x) is différentiable on the
interval [x, x-f-Ax]; but then, applying the Lagrange theorem,
we get
A = Ax<p' (x)
where x lies between x and x+A x. But
<p' (*) = fx (*. y + Ay)—fx(x, y)
18*
276 Ch. 6. Funet ions of Several Variables
Since the dérivatives fxy and f y’ x are continuons at Jhe point (x, y ),
we hâve lim f"x y (x, y ) = f x y (x, y ) and lim f"y x (x, y ) = f " y x{x, y).
Ajc 0 Ax0
Aj/ -> 0 é .y -*> 0
And finally we get
fxy(x, y ) = f y x {x, y )
as required.
A corollary o! this theorem is that if the partial dérivatives
dnf d*f
d x k d y n = k and d y n - k d j ÿ are continuons, then
dnf ônf
dxk dyn~ k dyn~ k dxk
from its origin, let us consider a point Af^x + Ax, y + Ay, z + Az).
Thus,
As = V Ax2 + Ay*+ Az2
We shall assume that the function u(x, y, z) is continuous and
has continuous dérivatives with respect to their arguments in the
région D.
~ -= co sa , 4 f = C0SP* 4 r = cosV
Consequently, équation (2) may be rewritten as
= cosa + -^ c o s p + -J-cosY + e1cosa + e2cosp + eï cosv (3)
cos a = -
^ 4+ 1+9 vu
cospa = —=1= -, cos y=
3
___
v i4 /t?
Hence,
du du du 1 du 3
dsx dx Y~\4 ày y ~ ü àz y j l
The partial dérivatives
É Ü - 2X — = 2 u — = 2 z
dx ' dy y ’ àz
at the point Af(l, 1, 1) are
(-t)»-* (§ )* = 2
Thus,
du 1 12
<fci
=2
/1 4
+ 2 « / 1 4 + 2 - yta vu
(b) Find the direction cosines of the vector S2:
1 0 1 1
cosa = — cos p = — cos v = ——
}T3 V3
Hence,
àu _ n 1 f 2 . 1 — = — = 2 v ~î
+2
àst ~ ’ / I /I V3 /Ü
12
We note here (and it wiil be needed later on) that 2 V 3 > (Fig. 179).
8.15 Gradient 281
8.15 GRADIENT
At every point of the région D, in which the function u = u (x, y, z)
is given, we détermine the vector whose projections on the coor-
dinate axes are the values of the partial dérivatives ^ ^
of this function at the appropriate point:
VW +W +¥ 3 VHï V3
8.15 Gradient 283
And so
du_ „ 1 2 —L t = 2 V^3
^ - 27 T f 2
^3 |/~3
or
du , . .
^ = |g r .d « |
lj2
Example 2 . Détermine the gradient of the function (Fig-
at the point M (2, 4).
Solution. Here
du 0 du 2 I8
àx *L 2’ dy 3 y \M~ 3
Hence
grad« = 2 / + - | - /
The équation of the level line (Fig. 184) passing through the given point is
x2 , y2 22
284 Ch. 8. Funefions of Several Variables
Substituting expressions (3), (4) and (5) into formula (2), we get
f(x , y) — f (a, &) + — / > , b) + i± = f r xx(a, b)
(x— a f ,£ ,,
Since | Ax| < Ap, | Ay\ < Ap and the third dérivatives are bounded
(this is given), the coefficient of Ap2 is bounded in the domain
under considération; let us dénoté it by a 0.
Then we can write
R* = a oAp*
In this notation, Taylor’s formula (6 ) will, for the case n = 2,
take the form
f(x , y) = f(a, b) + Axfx (a, b) -f Ayfy (a, b)
+ ± [Ax^xx (a, b) + 2AxAyfxy (a, b) + Ay%y (a, b)] + a 0Ap* (6 ')
-1
Fig. 185 Fig. 186
Inside the cirde x a+ y2 = —- take a point (*, y) different from the point
or
f ( x , y) < / (O, 0)
The définition, given above, of the maximum and minimum of
a function may be rephrased as follows.
Let x = jc0 + A.ic, y = y0+ Ay, then
/(*> y)—f(xo, y0) = f(x 0+ Ax, y0+ Ay)— f(x 0, yg) = Af
(1) » Af < 0 for ail sufficiently small incréments in the independ-
ent variables, then the function / ( x, y) reaches a maximum at the
point Af(*0, y0).
(2) If A /> 0 for ail sufficiently small incréments in the independ-
ent variables, then the function f(x, y) reaches a minimum at the
point M (x0, yg).
These formulations may be extended, without any change, to
functions of any number of variables.
Theorem 1. (Necessary Conditions for an Extremum). I f a function
z = f(x, y) attains an extremum at x = x0, y = y0 then each first
partial dérivative with respect to z either vanishes for these values
of the arguments or does not exist.
Indeed, give the variable y a definite value y = y0■ Then the
function f(x, y0) will be a function of one variable, x. Sinçe at
x = x0 it has an extremum (maximum or minimum), it follows
that (j£ )x_x is either equal to zéro or does not exist. In exactly
T hen fo r x = x 0, y = y 0:
(1) / (*, y ) h as a m a x im u m i f
d*f(x0, y„) d*f(x9, y0) ( à2f (x0, y 0) \ 2 ^ » . d*f(x0, y 0) , n
dp dp \ àxdÿ ) > U anQ Si* ^ U
(2) f ( x , y ) h as a m in im u m i f
dViXo, y*) d*f(x0, y„) (d *f(x0, y*)'* n ÿo) ^ n
dP dp V àxdy ) >U a n (1 dP > U .
(3) f ( x , y ) h as n e ith e r m a x im u m n or m in im u m i f
à l f ( x o, y 0) d * f ( x 0, y 0) f d * f ( x 9, y 0) V ^ n
dx* ’ dy• ^à x d y J^
{t) i, tHen th e r e m v
we will hâve
/ ( * .+ A *, y.+ Aÿ ) = I ( * . . y , ) + dl y"1 A * + * , l ) A i, +
+ -Î + a .( â p ) -
where Ap = V^Àxa + A y 2 and a 0 approaches zéro as Ap—>-0.
8.17 Max, and Min, of a Function of Several Variables im
It is given that
àf{xo , ÿ„) _ Q df (x0, y0) _ Q
dx * dy
Hence
A/ = / (*„ + Ax, y0+ Ay)— f (x0, y0)
( S ) ..- *
Dénoté by cp the angle between the direction of the segment Af0M,
where M is the point Af(x0 + Ax, y„-{-Ay), and the *-axis; then
Ax = Apcosqp, At/ = Apsin<p
Substituting these expressions into the formula for A/, we find
A /= y (Ap)2 [A cos® <p+ 2B cos <psin <p+C sin® (p + 2a 0 Ap] (2)
Suppose that A =?£=0.
Dividing and multiplying by A the expression in the brackets,
we hâve
A /= |(A p)® cos V+B sin <P)| + MC-B®)sin>9 + 2 ct(>Ap] {3)
which means that at the point (x0, y0) the function attains
a maximum.
(2) Let AC— Æ2 > 0 , A > 0. Then, reasoning in the same way,
we get
A/ = — (Ap)2 [m2 + 2a0Ap]
or
f (xa+ Ax, y0+ Ay) > / (*0, y0)
that is, f(x. y) has a minimum at the point (x0, y0).
(3') Let AC—fi 2 < 0, A > 0. In this case the function has
neither a maximum nor a minimum. The function increases when
we move from the point (x0, y0) in certain directions and decreases
when we move in other directions. Indeed, when moving along
the ray <p= 0 , we hâve
A/ = ^ (Ap)2 [A + 2 a 0 Ap] > 0
When moving along this ray the function increases. But if we
A
move along a ray <p= <p0 such that tan qp0 = — g , then for A > 0
we hâve
A /= ÿ(A p) 2 J ^ = ^ * s i n 2 <p0 + 2a(, Apj < 0
When moving along this ray the function decreases.
(3") Let AC—Bi < 0 , A < 0. Here the function again has neither
a maximum nor a minimum. The investigation is conducted in the
same way as for 3'.
(3'") Let AC— fi2 < 0 , 4 = 0. Then B ^ 0 , and (2) may be
rewritten as follows:
Af = y (Ap)2 [sin <p (2B cos <p+ C sin <p) + 2a 0Ap]
For sufficiently small values of <p the expression in the parenthèses
retains its sign, since it is close to 2 B, while the factor sin<p
changes sign depending on whether <p is greater or less than zéro
(after the choice of q>> 0 and <p < 0 we can take p so small that
2 a 0 will not change the sign of the whole square bracket). Conse-
quently, in this case, too, Af changes sign for different <p, that
is, for different Ax and Ay; hence, in this case too there is neither
a maximum nor a minimum.
Thus, no matter what the sign of A we always hâve the follow-
ing situation:
If AC—B 2 < 0 at the point (x0, y0), then the function has nei
ther a maximum nor a minimum at this point. In this case, the
surface, which serves as a graph of the function, can, near this
8.17 Max. and Min. of a Function of Several Variables 291
point, hâve, say, the shape of a saddle (see Fig. 187). The func
tion at this point is said to hâve a minimax.
(4) Let AC—i-Æ2 = 0. In this case, by formulas (2) and (3), it
is impossible to : décidé about the sign of *Af. For instance, when
A 0 we will hâve
(A cas <p+ Æsin <p)2
A/=ÿ(Ap)* A
When <p= arctan ^ t h e sign of Af is determined by the sign
of 2 a 0; here, a spécial additional investigation is required (for
example, with the aid of a higher-order Taylor formula or in some
other way). Thus, Theorem 2 is fully proved.
Example 3. Test the following function for maximum and minimum:
z = x2—xy + y 2+ 3 x — 2 y + 1
Solution. (1) Find the critical points
g -2 ,- ,+ 3 . « + S » -2
Solving the System of équations
2x— y + 3 = 0 1
—* + 2y — 2 = 0 f
we get
2m i n 3
Example 4. Test for maximum and minimum the function z = x?-{-y3— 3xy.
Solution. ( 1) Find the critical points using the necessary conditions of an
extremum;
dz_
= 3 x 2— 3y = 0
dx
dz
= 3 y 2— 3x = 0
dÿ
Whence we get two critical points:
* i = l , y i = l and #t =0, 0
292 Ch. 8. Functions of Several Variables
y= \ y= 1 y=\
AC — i3a = 36—9 = 27 > 0, A> 0
Hence, at the point (1,1) the given function has a minimum, namely:
*min = — 1
(4) Investigate the character of the second critical point M2 (0, 0):
A = 0, B = — 3, C = 0, AC — B2= — 9 < 0
Hence, at the second critical point the function has neither a maximum nor
a minimum (minimax).
Exam ple 5. Décomposé a given positive number a into three positive terms
so that their product is a maximum.
Solution. Dénoté the first tenn by xt the second by y\ then the third will
be a — x — y. The product of these terms is
u = x - y ( a —x — y)
It is given that x > 0 , y > 0 , a — x — y > 0 , that is, x + y < a, u > 0. Hence,
x and y can assume values in the domain bouüded by the straight lines x = 0t
y = 0. x + y = a .
Find the partial dérivatives of the function u:
f= y(a -2 x -y)
du , _ .
-= x (a -2 y-x )
Investigate the character of the critical points using the sufficiency condi
tions. Find the second partial dérivatives of the function u:
d 2u d * u
= a — 2x— 2yt = — 2 jc
dx2 y' d x d y d y 2
provided that 2xy + 2xz + 2yz = 2a. The problem here deals with
a conditional extremum: the variables x, y , z are restricted by the
condition that 2xy + 2xz + 2yz = 2a. In this section we shall con
sider methods of solving such problems.
Let us first consider the question of the conditional extremum
of a function of two variables if these variables are restricted by
a single condition.
294 Ch. 8. Functions of Several Variables
âx^dydx~v (3)
This équation is satisfied for ail x and y that satisfy équation (2)
(see Sec. 8.11).
Multiplying the terms of (4) by an (as yet) undetermined coef
ficient X, and adding them to the correspond ing terms of (3), we
hâve
(V ,V d y\ , i ( d<p , <9<p n
+ + d ÿ à x ) ~ l}
or
(!+ * £ )+ (!+ > •!) ! M <»
The latter équation is fulfilled at ail extremum points. Choose A,
such that for the values of x and y which correspond to the extre-
8.18 Conditional Maxima and Minlma 295
It thus turns out that at the extremum ' points three équations
(in three unknowns x, y, A,) are satisfied:
(6)
<p(*. y ) = o j
From these équations détermine x, y, and A; the latter only played
an auxiliary rôle and will not be needed any more.
From this conclusion it follows that équations (6 ) are necessa-
ry conditions of a conditional extremum; or équations (6 ) are sa
tisfied at the extremum points. But there will not be a conditional
extremum for every x and y (and A) that satisfy équations (6 ).
A supplementary investigation of the nature of the critical point
is required. In the solution of concrète problems it is sometimes
possible to establish the character of the critical point from the
statement of the problem. It will be noted that the left-hand sides
of équations (6 ) are partial dérivatives of the function
F(x, y, A) = /(*, y) + A<p(x, y) (7 )
(9)
ÊL = 0
dx„ + XZ + màxn
and from the m + n équations (8 ) and (9) détermine xlt xit ...,x „
and the auxiliary unknowns Xlt Xm. Just as in the case of a
function of two variables, we shall, in the general case, leave
undecided the question of whether the function, for the values
found, has a maximum or a minimum or has neither. We will dé
cidé this matter on the basis of additional reasoning.
Example 1 . Let us return to the problem formulated at the beginning of
this section: to find the maximum of the function
v — xyz
provided that
xy + x z + y z — a = 0 (x > 0, y > Q, z ^ 0) ( 10)
We form the auxiliary function
F (x, y, k) = xyz + k (x y + xz + y z —a)
We find its partial dérivatives and equate them to zéro:
y g + k ( y + z) = 0 \
xz+ A ,(x+z) = 0 L (M )
xy + k ( x + y ) = 0]
The problem reduces to solving a System of four équations (10) and ( il)
in four unknowns (x, y t z and X). To solve this System, multiply the first of
équations ( 11 ) by x, the second by y , the third by z, and add; taking ( 10 )
into account, we find that k = P u t t i n g this value of k into équations
8.18 Conditional Maxima and Muama 291
( 11 ) we get
^ [ i - g <«/+*)] = °
» [ | - â (x+z)] = °
= °
Since it is évident from the statement of the problem that x, y, z are diffe
rent from zéro, we get from the latter équations
^ (* 1 ....... xtt’ * - ) = V + a)
Find its partial dérivatives:
= _L *t*»- -*n + x = — - + X = 0 or u = -n X * !
*t n n~ 1 1 n xx 1 1
(xx . . rX n ) n
F' = i - — = 0 or u = — nkx2
X* n x 2
F’ = — ~ 4 - X = 0 or u = — nkxn
xn n xn^
From the foregoing équations we find
xx = x2= . . . = x n
and from équation ( 12 ) we hâve
a
xl = x2= . . . = x „ = j
298 Ch. 8. Functions of Several Variables
By the meaning of the problem these values yield a maximum of the func-
tion y /^x1. . xn equal to ü . .
n
Thus, for any positive numbers xit x2, connected by the relation-
ship *i + *2+ • • • + x n = a, the inequality
(13)
is fulfiüed (since it has already been proved that ^ is the maximum of this
function). Now substituting into (13) the value of a obtained from (12),
we get
This inequality holds for ail positive numbers xlt xt , . . . . xn. The expression
on the left-hand side of (14) is called the géométrie mean of these numbers.
Thus, the géométrie mean of several positive numbers is not greater than their
arithmetic mean.
X X1 Xi ... xn
y yi ya yn
= —2 £ [ÿt—(axi + b)]xi=0
i= 1
n
d*S
=4 21 <*/—*/)* > °> >0
da* db* \d a d b j da*
t<J
SJ9 The Method of Least Squares 301
or, expanded,
n n n n
2 ÿiXf— a 2 xf — b 2 x f — c 2 ^ = 0
/=i /= i <=i i=î
n n n n
23 ÿiXi— a 2 xf — b 2 x f — c 2 Xi = 0 l (9)
i= l i= 1 i= 1 /= 1 V1
n n n
2 üi—a 2 xJ—b 2 xi— cn = 0
i=i 1=1 i=i
. 2 3 5
'1
y 3 4 2.5 0.5
We seek the function <p in the form of a linear function y = ax-\-bt and set up
the expression for S (at b):
4
S (a. b) = 2 lw - («/ + »)]*
is 1
302 Ch. 8. Functions of Severat Variables
(§).„-<* -
y= y.
(S U - y= y.
§ = (x -a )(a -3 x ). ” =2y
§ .o .
we find the only System of values of x and y that satisfies them:
x0= a t y Q= 0
Gjnsequently, the point Af0 (a, 0 ) is a singular point of the curve.
Let us investigate the behâviour of the curve near the singular point and
then construct the curve.
Rewrite the équation in the form
y= ± (x— a) Y~X
From this formula it follows that the curve: (1) is defined only for
(2) is symmetrical about the x-axis; (3) cuts the x-axis at the points (0, 0) and
(a, 0). The latter point is singular, as we hâve pointed out.
Let us first examine that J>art of the curve which corresponds to the plus
sign:
y = ( x — a) Ÿ~x
Find the first and second dérivatives of y with respect to x:
, 3 x —a 0 3x + û
y ~ 2 Y~X ' y ~4x vu
304 Ch. 8. Functions of Several Variables
For x = 0 we hâve y' — oo. Thus, the curve touches the 0 -axis at the origin.
For x = - j we hâve */' = 0, y" > 0, which means that for x = -g - the function
y has a minimum:
2a
y t
On the interval 0 < x < a we hâve y < 0; for x > y' > 0 ; as x — >*00 y —►« .
For x = a we hâve y ' = which means that at the singular point Af0 (at 0)
the branch of the curve y = -j-(x—a) Y x has a tangent
y = V~a (x— a)
Since the second branch of the curve y = — (x — a) V~x is symmetrical with
the first about the x-axis, the curve has also a second tangent (to the second
branch) at the singular point
y = — V ~ â(x— a)
The curve passes through the singular point cwice. Such a point is called a
nodal point.
The foregoing curve is shown in Fig. 191.
To construct the curve let us first investigate the branch to which the plus
sign in the équation corresponds, since the branch of the curve correspond]'ng
to the minus sign is symmetric with the first about the x-axis.
The function y is defined only for x^sO, it is nonnegative and increases
as x increases. #
Let us find the first and second dérivatives of the function y = |^x®:
3 1
y'= V
4 \T x
For x = 0 we hâve y = 0, y ' = 0. And so the given branch of the curve has a
tangent y = 0 at the origin. The second branch of the curve y — — V 'x3 also
passes through the origin and has the same tangent y = 0. Thus, two different
branches of the curve meet at the origin, hâve the same tangent, and are situ-
ated on different sides of the tangent. This kind of singular point is called a
cusp of the first kind (Fig. 192).
Note. The curve y 2—x®= 0 may be regarded as a limiting case of the curve
y2 = x ( x —a)2 = 0 (considered in Example 1) as a — ►O; that is, when the loop
of the curve is contracted into a point.
Example 3. Investigate the curve (y— x2)2—xb = 0.
Solution. The coordinates of the singular points are defined by the following
set of équations:
—4x (y — xa) — 5x4 = 0, 2 (y — x2) = 0
which has only one solution: x = 0, y — 0. Hence, the origin is a singular point.
Rewrite the given équation in the form
y = X* ± K * *
20—2081
306 Ch. 8. Functions of Seueral Variables
gent near the point of tangency. This kind of singular point is called a cusp
of the second kind. The graph of this function is shown in Fig. 193.
Example 4. Investigate the curve y 2 — jc4 + jc6 = 0.
Solution. The origin is a singular point. To investigate the curve near this
point rewrite the équation of the curve
in the form
y = ± X* y l - x J
Since the équation of the curve con-
tains only even powers of the variables,
the curve is symmetric about the coordinate axes and, consequently, it is suf-
ficient to investigate that part of the curve which corresponds to the positive
values of x and y. From the latter équation it follows that x can vary over
the interval from 0 to 1, that is, O ^ x s ^ l .
Let us compute the first dérivative for that branch of the curve which is
a graph of the function y = + * 2 ÿ 1 — x2:
, _ x(2 — 3x2)
y VT=T*
For x = 0 we hâve y = 0, y' = 0. Thus, the curve touches the *-axis at the
origin.
For x = l we hâve y = 0, y ' = oo; consequently, at the point (1, 0) the tan
gent is parallel to the y-axis. For x = VJ the function has a maximum
(Fig. 194).
At the origin (at the singular point) the two branches of the curve corres-
ponding to plus and minus in front of the radical sign are mutually tangent.
A singular point of this kind is called a point of osculation (also known as
tacnode or double cusp).
Example 5. Investigate the curve
y2— *2 (x— 1) = 0
Solution. Let us Write the System of équations defining the singular points:
y2— x2 (x — 1) = 0
— 3 x2 + 2 jc = 0 , 2 y = 0
This System has the solution '* = 0, y = 0. Therefore, the point (0, 0) is a
singular point of the curve. Let us rewrite the given équation in the form
y = ± x Y x — 1 . It is obvious that x can vary from 1 to -J-oo and also take
the value 0 (in which case y = 0 )f
Exercises on Chapter S 307
= V xt +yt. Ans.-j-
18. Set up a formula which, for small absolute values of the quantities x , y
\+ x
and z , yields an approximate expression for i4ns.l +
(1 +ÿ) (1 +*)
+ ~2 (*—y—*)■
19. Do the sa me for
Y TT ÿ j â - Ans- l + y (* ~ !/- 2)'
20. Find — and if z = u + v2t u = x2 + s\n y, u = ln ( x + y ) . Ans.
2 at x = y = y .
310 Ch. 8. Functions of Several Variables
Find the singular points of the following curves, investigate their character
and form équations of the tangents at these points:
51. jp-{-y3— 3axy = 0. Ans. Afo (0, 0) is a node, Jt = 0, y — 0 are the équa
tions of the tangents.
52. a4y 2 = x*(a 2 — x2). Ans. A double cusp at the origin, the double tangent
y 2= 0.
jf3
53. y 2— 2a _x ' ^ ns‘ 0) is a cusp of the first kind, y 2 = 0 is a tangent.
54. y 2 = x2 (9—x2). Ans. M o (0, 0 ) is a node, y = ± 3 x are the équations of
the tangents.
55. x 4 — 2ax2y —axy2-{-a2x2 = 0. Ans. Af0 (0 , 0 ) is a cusp of the second kind,
y 2 = 0 is a double tangent.
56. y 2 (a2-\-x2) —x2 (a2 —x2). Ans. M0 (0 , 0 ) is a node, y = ± x are the équa
tions of the tangents.
57. b2x2+ a 2y 2 = x2y 2. Ans. M0 (0, 0 ) is an isolated point.
58. Show that the curve y = x \n x has an end point at the coordinate ori
gin and a tangent which is the y-axis.
x
59. Show that the curve (/ = ------- — has a nodal point at the origin and that
l+eT
the tangents at this point are: on the right y = Q, on the left y —x.
CHAPTER 9
Let us write the équation of the hélix, denoting by jc, y , and z the coor-
dinates of its variable point M and by t the angle AOP (see Fig, 198). Then
x —a c o s/, y = a s i n /, z = PM = AP tan0
and denoting tan 0 by m, we get the parametric équations of the hélix in the
form
x = = a co s/, y = a s \ n t t z —amt
— = ta n —
x am
This is the so-called helicoid. It is generated as the trace of a half-line parai-
lel to the xy-plane if the end point of this half-line lies on the z-axis and if
the half-line itself rotâtes about the z-axis at a constant angular veiocity, and
rises with constant veiocity so that its extremity is translated along the z-axis.
The hélix is the line of intersection of these two surfaces and so can be rep
résente d by two équations:
314 Ch. 9. Differential Calcutus and Solid Geometry
v « y 2 v a / 2 Zt —am —7 1
* 2 2 _ 4
a Ÿ 2 a V 2 am
2 2
or
„ a y 2 y ji am
* 2 2 4
— J 1 — ■ m y 2
or
— X + Y + m ÿ~2 Z = a m t ^ ÿ"2
Let us now dérivé the équation of the tangent line and the
normal plane of a space curve for the case when this curve is
given by the équations
«M*. 0 . 2) = 0 , <!>.,(*, y, z) = 0 (6 )
We express the coordinates x, y, z of this curve as functions
of some parameter t:
* = <P ( 0 . ÿ = W . 2 = X (0 (7 )
318 Ch. 9. Different ial Calculas and Solid Geometry
T¥ X II Il 1M ^^Pa d0n
Here, we naturally assume that the expression —' d y ’W ^
9 ^=0 ; however, it may be proved that the final formulas ( 11 ) and
( 12 ) (see below) hold also for the case when this expression is
equal to zéro, provided that at* least one of the déterminants in
the final formulas differs from zéro.
From équations (10) we hâve
dx dy dz
dt dt dt
d<Pid<P2 dOx d(P2 dOt d(P2 dcPt d(Pa ^(Pi d(Pa d<Px d(Pa
dy ~dz. dz dy dz dx dx dz dx dy dy dx
™i=2r
dx Zr'
^dy> - 2r ^dz 1 = 2r V~2
ao 2 âO, = 0
dx
= 2 r, ¥ddy*y -—o .’ dz
For this reason the équation of the tangent line has the form
X —r V —r Z - r V~2
0 ÿ~2 —1
dJ T Æ + £ i M = [q>i (0 + ç , (/)] ' /+ to (/)+♦. (01 ■'7+ [Xi (0+Xi (01 '*
or
Hence,
d[ri«)+r2(01 drx , dr,
dt ~ dt f dt t1'
II. The dérivative of a scalar product of vectors is expressed by
the formula
d(r1rt) _ d r l _ , _ dr% /TIS
dt ~ dt r t ~T~r i ~dt
Indeed, if r x(0. r*(0 are defined by formulas (3), then, as we
know, the scalar product of these vectors is equal to
(0 r t (0 = <Pi<p*+ iM>. + XiX*
9.3 Rules for Differentiating Vectors 321
= ( M + M + %ik) ( M + M + X a * ) + ( M + M + x , * ) ( M + M ' + x ^ )
or
de
But this means that the vector -r. is perpendicular to the vector e.
III. If f(t) is a scalar function and r(t) is a vector function, then
the dérivative of the product f(t) r(t) is given by the formula
d(fr) _ df f dr
dt d t r ~t ~ ' dt
(III)
[the limit of the ratio of the chord length to the arc length *].
Hence, is a unit vector in the direction of the tangent; let us
dénoté it by o:
dr = <T
( 2)
ds
If the vector r is represented by the projection®
r = xl+yj+zk
then
dx , . d y j . d z .
a = ^ l + l f J + Tsk (3)
and
1
v i t y
lim = 1
As —►0
since irt this Câôe we consider curves such that theré exists a limit
lim x® and, consequently, Acp —►0 as As —>- 0. Thüs, after passing
As -«• o a s
to the limit we hâve
(4 )
9.4 The Carvature of a Curve. The Principal Normal 325
The ratio in absolute value of the angle of turn A<p of the tangent,
when the point A goes to the point B, to the length As of the
arc AB is called (just as it is in the case of a plane curve) the
average curvature oi the given curve on the section AB:
average curvature —
The limit of the average curvature as As—*-0 is called the curva
ture of the curve at the point A and is denoted by K ‘.
But therl from (4) it follows that = which means that the
length of the dérivative of a unit vector* of a tangent with res-
pect to the arc length is equal to the curvature of the line at the
given point. Since the vector o is a unit vector, its dérivative
is perpendicular to it (see Sec. 9.3, Corollary).
Thus, the vector is equal, in length, to the curvature of the
curve, and, in direction, is perpendicular to the vector of the
tangent.
Définition. The straight line that has the same direction as the
vector ^ and passes through the corresponding point of the curve
is called the principal normal of the curve at the given point. We
dénoté by n the unit vector of this direction.
Since the length of the vector is equal to K, which is the
curvature of the curve, we hâve
-Z. = Kn
~ds
But
d*r _ cPx , , d?y . <Pz.
ds* ds* * ' ds* ^ ' ds*K
Hence,
i - v m + m + m ' <6,>
This formula enables us to compute the curvature of a curve at
any point provided that the curve is represented by parametric
équations in which the parameter is the arc length s(i. e., provided
the radius vector of the variable point of the given line is expressed
as a function of the arc length).
Let us consider the case where the radius vector r is expressed
as a function of an arbitrary parameter t :
r = r(t)
In this case the arc length s will be regarded as a function of
the parameter t. Then the curvature is computed as follows:
dr _dr ds
~dT~~~ds di (7 )
Since
we hâve
(8)
(§ )’
Expressing ^ and by formulas (8 ) and (9) in terms of the
dérivatives of r (/), we get *
( ^ r y (dr_y_(^rdr_y
I _ Vdt2 ) [ d t ) \ dt2 dt )
( 10)
R ,= { ($ )7
Formula (10) may be rewritten as follows: **
fdr
1 [ dt x dt2 J
R2 (ii)
m i
We hâve obtained a formula that enables us to calculate the
curvature of a given curve at any point for an arbitrary paramet-
ric représentation of the curve.
If in a particular case the curve is a plane curve and lies in
the xy-plane, then its parametric équations hâve the form
* = <P( 0
z= 0
pression ,s meaningless.
** We utilized the identity a 2b 2— (ab)*= z(axb)2 whose validity is readily
recognizable if one rewrites the identity as follows: a2b2— (ab cos <p)a = (ab sin q>)*.
328 Ch. 9. Differential Calculus and Solid Geometry
d2r
— i a cos t —j a sin t
dt 2 *
t j k
dr £ r_
— a sin / a cos t cm = i a 2m sin t —j a2m cos t + k a 2
dt x dt 2 “
— a c o s t —a sin / 0
( w x £ )* -« •(« * + '>
^ ^ = û2 sin 2 -f- a2 cos 2 f + a2m2 = a 2 ( 1 + m2)
Consequently,
1 a 4 (m2+ 1) 1
/?2 [a2 (1+m 2)}3 a2 (1 + m2)2
whençe
R = a ( 1+ m2) = const
Thus, the hélix has a constant radius of curvature.
The modulus of the velocity is found from formula (3), Sec. 9.2:
- /(IH IH I 7 <l3>
If we irïtroduce the arc length s, as was done at the beginning
of this section, and constder s as a function of time t , then for
mula ( 12 ) may be written
dr_ dr ds
dt
— — = av
ds dt
(14)
But v = and so
d*r (16)
w = d t«
If we procéed from formula (14), then we get
dv d (o -a)
330 Ch. 9. Different ial Calculus and Solid Geometry
w = ^ a + ,° W <17>
W = w a+v2i ï (18)
Here, a is a unit vector directed along the tangent line in the
direction of motion and n is a unit vector along the principal
normal.
In words, formula (18) may be stated thus:
The projection of the accélération of a point on the tangent line
is equal to the first dérivative of the absolute value of the velocity,
and the projection of the accélération on the principal normal is
equal to the square of the velocity divided by the radius of curvature
of the trajectory at the given point.
Since the vectors a and n are mutually perpendicular, the mo-
dulus of accélération is given by the formula
— / ( S ) * + ( t )* <19>
Définition 1 . The plane passing through the tangent line and the
principal normal to a given curve at a point A is called the oscu
lating plane at the point A.
For a plane curve, the osculating plane coïncides with the plane
of the curve. But if the curve is not a plane curve, and if we
take two points on it, P and Plt we get two different osculating
planes that form a dihedral angle p.. The bigger the angle p, the
more the curve differs in shape from a plane curve. To make this
more précisé, let us introduce another définition.
Définition 2 . The normal (to a curve) perpendicular to the oscu
lating plane is called a binormal.
On the binormal let us take a unit vector b and make its di
rection such that the vectors o, », b form a triple with the same
orientation as the unit vectors /, J, k lying on the coordinate
axes (Figs. 204, 205).
9.5 Osculating Plane. Binormal. Torsion 331
LL Fig. 204
the binormals. By analogy with formula (4), Sec. 9.4, one can
write
\I ds
f \ I= As-0
Iiin -nrn
lAsl
To summarize, then, the torsion of a curve at a point A is
equal, in absolute value, to the limit which is approached
(as As—*-0) by the ratio of the angle p between the osculating
planes at the point A and the neighbouring point B to the length
| As | of the arc AB.
If the curve is plane then the osculating plane does not change
its direction and, consequently, the torsion is equal to zéro.
From the définition of torsion it is clear that it is a measure
of the déviation of a space curve from a plane curve. The quan-
t it y T is called the radius of torsion of the curve.
Let us find a formula for computing torsion. From (3) and (4)
it follows that
and
( .xî ) - * £ x ( « S + g £ )
- * ( S x £ ) + * ï(S x 3 )
9.5 Osculating Plane. Binormal. Torsion 333
But since the vector product of a vector into itself is equal tozero,
^ :X
dsi x d— = oU
S2 —
Thus,
* Indeed,
d r _dr ds
dt ds dt
Differentiating once again with respect to /, we get
d2r ___ d f d r \ ds ds . dr d2s _d?r f d s \ 2 . d r d 2s
dt2 ds \d s J dt dt ' d s dt2 ds2 \ dt J ' d s dt 2
Differentiate it once more with respect to t:
cPr _ d ( d 2r \ ds / d s \ 2 . d2r ~ ds d^s j i ( d r \ ds d2s . dr d3s
dt3 ~ d i [ d ï 2 ) dt \ d t ) ' d é 2 Z dt dt2 ' d s \ d ï J ~dtdT2 + d ï dt*
_cFr / d s \ 2 d2r ds d2s . drcPs
\ d t ) + ô dï? W d F 2 + d£dt*
section, that
drfcPr tfjr\
dr fd*r „ ( P r \ _ d t { d t 2 X dt » J
ds Us2 X ds» J ~ ( { d r \ 2\ a
\\àt) I
Putting this expression into formula (6 ) and replacing R* by its
expression from formula (11), Sec. 9.4, we finally get
d r (<£r_ < P r\
1 _ d t \ d f i x d t* J
T
\ d t Xd t 2 )
This formula makes it possible to compute the torsion of the
curve at any point if the curve is represented by parametric
équations with an arbitrary parameter t.
Concluding this section, we note that the formulas which express
the dérivatives of the vectors a, b, n are called Serret-Frenet
formulas:
d o _n d b _n_ d n ___ b
Us ÏT * ~ d s ~ 7 ’ 1s ~ ~ R ' ~ T
The last one is obtained as follows:
n = bxo
dn _ d ( b x a ) db
ds ds ds x < r + 6 x | = ^ X ff + J x -
~ T
«xa + i f t x »
but
n x a = — b, b x n = — a
therefore
dn _b____ a
ds ~ ~ ~ T R
Example. Compute the torsion of the hélix
r = i a cos t + j a sin t + k a m t
Solution.
—a sin t a cos t am
— a cos t —a sin / 0 —cPm
dt \di* X dt» J ”
a sin t — a cos t 0
Consequently,
q «(l+ m ») a([+m2)
T=
cPm m
9.6 The Tangent Plane and the Normal to a Surface 335
If we put expressions (2) into équation ( 1), the latter will be*
corne an identity in since the curve (2 ) lies on the surface ( 1).
336 Ch. 9. Differential Calcul us and Solid Geometry
l » l - / ( ï ) ,+ (S ),+ (ï)V o
The vector
dÿ. dz-
d t ~ d t l + dt J + d t * 1° )
From this équation it follows that the vector N and the tangent
vector ^ to the curve (2 ) at the point P are perpendicular. The
foregoing reasoning holds for any curve (2 ) passing through the
point P and lying on the surface. Therefore, every tangent to the
surface at the point P is perpendicular to one and the same vector N
and for this reason ail these tangents lie in a single plane that
is perpendicular to the vector N. The theorem is proved.
* Here we apply the rule for differentiating a composite function of three
a r»
variables. This rule is applicable here since ail the partial dérivatives
dF dF X
are, as stated, continuous.
dy ’ dz
9.6 The Tangent Plane and tke Normal to a Surface 337
Définition 2 . The plane in which lie ail the tangent lines to the
curves on the surface passing through the given point P is called
the tangent plane to the surface at the point P (Fig. 207).
It should be noted that a tangent plane may not exist at the
singular points of the surface. At such points, the tangent lines
to the surface may not lie in one plane. For instance, the vertex of
a conical surface is a singular point.
The tangents to the conical surface at
this point do not lie in one plane (they
themselves form a conical surface).
Let us write the équation of the tan
gent plane to a surface ( 1) at an ordi-
nary point. Since this plane is perpen-
dicular to the vector (4), its équation
has the form
Z- 2 = |( X - r ) + |( 7 - ! / ) (6 ')
z - z =TxA x + % * y
Its right side is the total differential of the function z = f(x, y).
Therefore, Z— z = dz. Thus, the total differential of a function of
two variables at the point M(x, y), which differential corresponds
to the incréments Ax and Ay of the independent variables x and y,
is equal to the corresponding incrément in the z-coordinatè of
the tangent plane to the surface which is the graph of the given
function.
Définition 3. The straight line drawn through the point P (x, y, z)
of surface ( 1) perpendicular to the tangent plane is called the normal
to the surface (Fig. 207).
22—2081
338 Ch. 9. Differential Calculus and Solid Geometry
dx dy dz
For x = 1 , y — 2 , z — 3 we hâve
— —2 — =4 — =6
dx ’ dy ’ dz
Therefore, the équation of the tangent plane will be
2 (*— l) + 4 (y— 2 ) + 6 (z—3) = 0 or x + 2y + 3 z— 14 = 0
Exercises on Chapter 9
Find the dérivatives of the following vectors:
1. r= /c o t/+ y a r c ta n < . Ans. r'= — + y ^ i/ 2- r = t e - 1+ J 2 t +
X — cos* Y K -y s in < 1 — S in -i
-------- :—:— = ---------- : = — ; the équation of the normal plane:
— s in / cos / / ’ 't r
C0ST
+ X sin t — Y cos / — Z cos y = - { - j c s in / — y cos / — z c o s y , where xf y , z are
the coordinates of that point of the curve at which the normal plane is drawn
^that is, * = cos 2 y , i/ = y s i n / , z = sin y ^ •
6. Find the équations of the tangent to the curve x = t — s in /, y = 1— co s/,
z = 4 s i n y and the cosines of the angles that it makes with the coordinate
„ X —X0 Y—K0 Z—Z0
axes. Ans. -----— = ------ -2- = ------2 -,
. 2/0
cos a = sin2 ---,
0 1 . ,
cos p = - r - s in /0,
sin
(n cos
/•> cot./o -|
/ *
+ y s i n / ( l — c o s /) — k c o s t . Ans. o = - ^ = ( —l + j + k ) , ^ —-
V3 Ÿ~42
/-2 /± 3 *
VÛ
9. Find the équations of the principal normal and the binormal to the
/3 JC— JC,0__
curve * = y » y = - 3 , z = y at the point (x0, y 0, z0). Ans. —
+ 2/0“
_y— y 0 . z— *0 x — x „ _ y — y n _ z — z0
i-<$ - 2t i —t0 — 2 tn tl
340 Ch. 9. Di fièrent ial Calcul us and Solid Geometry
It is easy to see that if for the given function f(x) there exists
an antiderivative, then this antiderivative is not the ooly one.
In the foregoing example, we could take the following functions
j^3
as antiderivatives: / 7 (x) = y + l , F(x) = -^— 7 or, generally,
F (x) = -g- + C (where C is an arbitrary constant), since
(f+c) - ,.
Let us put
Fy ( x ) — F 2 (x) = (f(x) (2)
Then by (1) we hâve
f;w -f;w = /W -/W = o
or
q>' (*) = [^i (*)—F,, (*)] ' = o
for any value of x on the interval [a, b\. But from <p'(*) = 0 it
follows that <p(x) is a constant.
Indeed, let us apply the Lagrange theorem (see Sec. 4.2) to the
function <p(x), which, obviously, is continuous and différentiable
on the interval [a, b]. No matter what the point x on the interval
[a, b], we hâve, by virtue of the Lagrange theorem,
«P(*)—<P(«) = (*— a) <P' (Ê)
where a < £ < x.
Since q>' (ê) = 0,
<p W - t (û) = o
or
<p(*) = q>(a) (3)
Thus, the function <p(x) at any point x of the interval [a, b]
retains the value <p(a), and this means that the function <p(x) is
constant on [a, b]. Denoting the constant <p(a) by C, we get,
from (2) and (3),
5- i-E Ê k = ta n x + c -
6- î ü § 7 = - c0tx + C*
7. ^tanxdx = — ln |co sx | + C.
8. ^ cotxdx = ln|sinx|-f-C .
9. Je*dx = e* + C.
10 . ^ a x dx = - ^ + C.
11. J ,^*va = arctanx + C.
S 3 f r - = - î arctanf + c -
+ *c +1 C.
' « • Î s 5 ? - b ' " *a —a
ç dx
13. arcsinx + C.
J yT ^ * 5
,r dx
13'. = arcsin —+ C.
J y a*—x*
( l n |s i n * |) '= - g ^ = c o t *
x \ ~ a * — xt
therefore,
Ç - A i » 2 'a in [\ a£—± xî|\ +1 c
J a 2 — jc2
It should be noted that the latter formula will also follow from
the general results of Sec. 10.9.
In the case of Formula 14,
(ln |x + K x 4 ± a a|) = x+ K^ ± a , ( l + ŸTF±?
hence,
l T f e - ln U + K lr ïS ! |+ c
This formula likewise will iollow from the general results of
Sec. 10.10.
Formulas II' and 13' may be verified in similar fashion. These
formulas will later be deriyed from formulas 11 and 13(seeSec. 10.4,
Examples 3 and 4).
Thus, the dérivatives of the left and right sides of ( 1) are equal;
in other words, the dérivative of any antiderivative on the left-
hand side is equal to the dérivative of any function on the right-
hand side of the équation. Therefore, by the theorem of Sec. 10.1,
any function on the left of ( 1) differs from any function on the
right of ( 1) by a constant term. That is how we should understand
équation ( 1).
Theorem 2 . A constant factor may be taken outside the intégral
sign; that is, if a = const, then
J af (x)dx = a ^ / (x) dx (2 )
To prove (2), let us find the dérivatives of the left and right
sides:
(J a/ (x)dx) = af (x)
( a \ f ( x ) d x ) = a ( \ f ( x ) d x ) = af(x)
The dérivatives of the right and left sides are equal, therefore,
as in ( 1), the différence of any two functions on the left and
right is a constant. That is how we should understand équation (2).
When evaluating indefinite intégrais it is useful to bear in mind
the following rules.
I. If
J f(x)dx = F(x) + C
then
J f(ax)dx = ^-F(ax) + C (3)
then
§ f(a x + b)dx = ^-F(ax + b) + C (5)
Equations (4) and (5) are proved by différentiation of the right
and left sides.
Example 1.
J (2JC3 —3 s i n x + 5 V~x) dx = J 2 *» dx — J 3 s in x d * + ^ 5 V x d x
= 2 J * ? d x — 3 J s in x d x + 5 J x 2 dx
4 -«
= 2 ^*. . —3 (— cos x) + 5 * -------- f-C = JC*+ 3 cos x + y x V~>c+ C
'3 + 1
Example 2.
f â - to' « + s i + c
Example 4.
J cos 7x d x = y s i n 7x + C
Example 5.
J sin (2x— 6) dx = — cos (2x— 6) + C
then
\j>' (x) dx = dt
= ^ +c=|5I, , , +c.
Example 2. J — ^ = ? We put / = l+ x** then dt = 2 x d x and J
= y J f = T ln^+ c = T ln(1+^ ) + c *
Example 3. f
-a— i 7 — Ta • We Pu* * = —- î then dx = a d t t
° J '+ ( t )
f *** ^ 1 p adf _ I p d* 1■arctan / + C = — arctan — 4-C.
J j iq p T î— J J l+ * * = a a a '
Example 4.
p dx _ 1f djc We put / = — ; then
a
• j / . - ( i ) ’
= j< * d * = -£ + C = l(ln * )« + C .
= ÿ a rc ta n t + C = y a r c t a n x* 4 - C
= 4 ( * + ê ) ' + ( T - ê ) H [ K 4 ) ,H
where
a 4a* ±R
/ = — arctan
2 V 6 6
II. Let us consider an intégral of a more general form:
Ax+B
/, dx
- S ; ax2 -\- b x -\- c
, f , +, JT r > - « n - ( . + ± . )
■dx
J x2 — 2x—5 ax J x2— 2x— 5
_J_ Ç (2x— 2)dx f» dx
2 J x2— 2x— 5 ' J x2— 2x— £
dx
= - l n | x 2—2 x - 5| + 4
(x — I)2—6
= 4 - In | x2 — 2x—5 1+ 2 - L
V T -(x -l) + C
In , ^ -----------
2 Vë | K T + (*-l)
352 Ch. 10. The Indemnité Intégral
Jf V a x i dx+ bx-{-c
By means of transformations considered in Item I, this intégral
reduces (depending on the sign of a) to tabular intégrais of the
form
f ■r f* ■■ for a > 0 or f ■. dt for a < 0
J Vt*±k' J
which hâve already been examined in the Table of Intégrais (see
formulas 13' and 14).
IV. An intégral of the form
f **+B dx
J V axt + b x + c
is evaluated by means of the following transformations, which
are similar to those considered in Item II:
— (2 + g£)
Ax+B
V ax* + bx + c -f Ÿ axa + bx + c
2a x + b
dx
dx
- * l ÿ a x 2+ b x + c ax2 + bx + c
Applying substitution to the first of the intégrais obtained,
axt + bx + c = t, (2ax + b) dx = dt
we get
f l 2ax+b)d^
J Ÿax' + bx+c
= [ ^
J Vt
= 2 V r + C = 2V hx* + bx + c + C
^ T
The second intégral was considered in Item III of this section.
Example 3.
y (2* + 4) + ( 3 - 1 0 )
1
5*+3
____________ ■dxz
y xa-t-4x+ io
2*+4
■î
■dx
Vr*a + 4*+ IO
dx
dv = dx, we h â v e du = , v = x. T h u s,
1+ x2
C x—C x dx
\ a rc ta n **& = * a rc ta n \ ^ ^ 2= x a rc ta n * —^1 ln | I+ * 2|+ C
354 Ch. 10. The Indemnité Intégral
Finally we get
du = (2x + 7)dx, u= —
2x+7
Apply intégration by parts to the latter intégral, letting = =
= sin 2* dx; then
. , cos 2x
du1 = dx, ü i = ------ ^—
f* 2 x + 7 . 0 , 2x + 7 / co s2 x \ Çf cos 2x\ .
------ 2 / J\ ------ 2“ ) *
(2 x + 7 )c o s2 x , sin 2x , n
~ ~ 4 + 4 +
Therefore, we finally get
J ( ^ + 7 * - 5 ) c o s a ï<t e - ( ^ + 7 x - 5 ) ^ + ( 2 * + 7 , ^ - 2 ^ + C
= (2*2+ 1 4 * - l l ) ^ + ( 2 * + 7 ) ^ + C
Example 5. / = ^ V a 2—x2 d x = ?
Perform identity transformations. Multiply and divide the integrand by
Va2—x2:
f - *
K a2— *2
^r — r x2 dx
J V a 2— *2 J V a 2-
- . x r xdx
= a2 arcsin------\ x ■ ■■
a J V^oï—jt*
10.6 Intégration by Parts 355
f(x) = A f(.*
v ’H1-7f(x)
7T
F (x )
Here M(x) is a polynomial, and is a proper fraction.
Example 1. Given an improper rational fraction
x*—3
x2+ 2x-i-l
Dividing the numerator by the denominator (by the rule for division of
polynomials), we get
*4—3 4jc— 6
**+ 2*+l = x*— 2x + 3 x*+2x+\
^4
II. ——— (k a positive in te g e r^ 2),
- A ln | i, + p J :+ , | + J ^ . arcta n - p ^ + C (see
Sec. 10.5).
The intégration of partial fractions of type IV requires more
involved computations. Suppose we hâve an intégral of this type:
TV. f Ax+B , dx.
J (jc2 + P*+<?)*
Perform the transformations:
Ax+ B [ 4 - {2x+p) + { B ~ T )
(x* + p x + q ) k d x - J {x2 + p x + q ) l t d x
numbers A, B, p, q.
Example 2.
-i-(2* + 2 M - ( - l - l )
dx
i ( x 2 + 2* + 3)2* C l (x2 + 2 x + 3 )2
2*+2
dx
(x2 + 2 x + 3 ) 2 - * î (*a + 2*
‘ + 3)a
1 1 * dx
2 (*2 + 2x+3)" (x2 + 2 x + 3 ) 2
(which is true for every A) and let us define the constant A so that
the polynomial F(x) — A f1(x) can be divided by x — a. To do this,
by the remainder theorem, it is necessary and sufficient that the
following équation hold:
F (a) — A ft (a) = 0
Since f\(a)^* 0, F (a) =5^ 0 , A is uniquely defined by
hence, also the conjugate number a —t'p. But then the polynomial
can be divided, without remainder, by the différences x —(a-f-i'P)
and*—(a — t'P), and, therefore, by their product, which isx2-\- px+Ç-
Denoting the quotient of this division by (D, (*), we get
F (x) — (Mx + N ) <pt (r) = (*3+ px + q) (*) <I\
Cancelling x2-\-px + q from the last fraction in (4), we get (3),
and it is clear that the degree of d>j(*) is less than that of the
denominator, which is what we set out to prove.
F (je)
Now applying to the proper fraction the results of Theo-
rems 1 and 2, we can obtain, successively, ail the partial fractions
corresponding to ail the roots of the denominator / (*). Thus, from
the foregoing the resuit follows that
If
/(*) = (*—a)*. . .(*—b ) $ (x2+ px + q y . . . (x3+ /* + s)v,
F (je)
then the fraction jj-j- can be represented as follows:
F(x) _ A Ax 4,-t
f(x) (x— —a ) * - 1 ’ ‘ x —a
(x -b f (x— Ô)?-1 ^ T x —b
M x+N M xx + N x (5)
(x* + px + qT + { X* + px + q ) v - i + x2 + px + q
Px-jrQ , P i x + Qi P V- 1 ^ + QV - 1
(x2 + Ix + s)v ' (x2 + Ix + S)v- 1 x2 + !x + s
and then
F(x)
/(*) d x = = $ x - a + î x - b d x + - - + 1 x - d dx
= A \n \x —a | + fî ln | jc—b \ + . . . + D ln |.v— d \ 4 - C
Case II. The roots of the denominator are real, and some of them
are multiple:
f(x) = (x—a)*(x—by ... {x—d f
F (*)
In this case the fraction is decomposable into partial
fractions of types I and II.
Example I (see example in Sec. 10.8).
x2 + 2 f
P dx .1 P dx 2 P dx
(*+1)3 (*—2) dx
I J ( * + l ) 3 ' 3 J ( x + l)2 9 J 7+T
dx 1 1 1
2 2 (*+1)2 3(*+ 1) - 4 ini* + ' i + 4 ,nijc—2 i+ c
2x — I x —2
+C
6(*+l)2+1-1" x+l
Case III. Among the roots of the denominator are complex non
repeated ( that is, distinct) roots:
f (x) = (x2+ px + q) . . . (*2-f-/x + s) (*—a)1* . . . (x—d)8
F (*)
In this case the fraction y - ^ is decomposable into partial frac
tions of types I, II, and III.
Example 2. Evaluate the intégral
xdx
î (*2+ i)(* —i)
10.9 Intégration of Rationaî Fractions 365
Décomposé the fraction under the intégral sign into partial fractions [see (5),
Sec. 10.8]
x _Ax-\~B . C
(x2 + 1) (x— 1 )~ x2+ l Xm— 1
Consequently,
x = ( A x + B) (x — 1) + C(x2 + 1)
(
* The notation R \ x ,
— -)
x " , .... x s J indicates that only rational operations
m r
1 3
Solution. The common denominator of the fractions y , y is 4; and so we
V7+4 ■dx
f
Solution. We make the substitution *+ 4= t2, x=?t2— 4, dx = 2tdt; then
=2
<+ 21n
\ t —2 + C= 2 / I + 4 + 21n
yx+4 —2
+ C
;/+ 2 Y 7 + 4+ 2
dx=i- ÿ - dt
Ÿ ? + i = - x + t = - £ = ^ + t= .£ ± Z
Returning to the original intégral, we hâve
ç * r * * f - = ln
• I*l + C , = l n | *+ Y*2+c | + C ,
J » '* * “ J & J ,= "
(see formula 14 in the Table of Intégrais). *
l + * + * 2= * 2/ 2+ 2;irf + l, *= à x = ~ ^ à .- £ - d t
y i+x+x*=jc<+ i = —j _ji"
i —v 'r+ * + * î =■
Putting the expressions obtained into the original intégral, we find
f (1 -^ 1 + * + * » )* , C ( - 2 t2 + 1)2 ( 1-< « )» ( 1- 12) (2P - 2 t + 2)
J *2 V l + x + * J (!-/•)• (»-!)• (<*-<+ 1)(1-/*)2
t2 I+ t
=+2I I— t2 dt = —2/ + In 1—t
2(Ÿ~ l+ * + * 2—l) In *-j-
*+ Yr î+x+x*—i _|_c
x— Y 1+*+**+1
2 ( V l + * + * 2—l) -ln |2 x + 2 Y l + x + x 2+ \ | + C
Since dx and V ax2+ bx-\~c also rationally dépend upon the given
intégral is transformed into an intégral of a rational function of t .
Note 1. The third Euler substitution is applicable not only for
a < 0 , but also for a > 0 , provided the polynomial ax* + bx + c lias
two real roots.
Example 3. It is required to compute the intégral
p dx
J j/> + 3*_4
Solution. Since x2 + 3x— 4 = (* + 4 )(x — 1), we put
K ( * + 4 )( * - 1 ) = (x + 4 ) t
then
(jt+ 4 )(* — 1)= (*+ 4)2/2, x — l = (x + 4 ) t*
1+412 .
dx-
10i zdt
1—/2 ' ~~ (1—*2)2
y r( x + 4 ) ( x - l ) = [ i ± ^ + 4 ] < = —
JC y x2-f-3x—4
dx
“ JÇ10/(1—/*)^ C 2 , |l + t
l - t * dt~ in 1 - / -K
X—1
1+ jc+ 4 V x + a + \T 7 = \
= ln + C = ln +c
V x + 4 —/ x —1
'- / S i
Note 2. It will be noted that to reduce intégral (1) to an intégral
of a rational function, the first and third Euler substitutions are
sufficient. Let us consider the trinomial ax* + bx-\-c. If b2—4ac > 0,
then the roots of the trinomial are real, and, hence, the third
Euler substitution is applicable. If b2— 4ac<|0, then in this case
axî + bx + c = ^ [ 2ax + by + (4ac—b1)]
and therefore the trinomial has the same sign as that of a. For
]/raxi + bx + c to be real it is necessary that the trinomial be posi
tive, and we must hâve a > 0. In this case, the first substitution
is applicable.
tanT 4-c
This substitution enables us to integra te any function of the
form R (cos jc, sinx). For this reason it is sometimes called
a “universal trigonométrie substitution”. However, in practice it
frequently leads to extremely complex rational functions. It is
therefore convenient to know some other substitutions (in addition
to the “universal” one) that sometimes lead more quickly to the
desired end.
24*
372 Ch. 10. The Indemnité intégral
(4) If the integrand h^s the form R (sin a:, cosjc), but sinjc and
cos a; are involved only in even powers, then the same substitu
tion is applied:
tanjc = f (2')
because sin2* and cos2a: can be expressed rationally in terms of
tanx:
l 1
cos2x = l + tan2 x I + *a
tan2 x *2
sin2x = 1+ tan2 x
1+ /2
dt
dx 1+ t*
Solution. This intégral is readily reduced to the form J /? (cos x) sin x dx.
Indeed,
sin2 x sin x dx Ç 1— cos2 x .
Jf 2q-t——
cos x <&= J[J " 2 + cosx
sin xdx
+ cosx [■
J 2 + co sx
We make the substitution cosx = z. Then sin xdx = — dz:
S2 ^ * = ! ï +t 7 + î * - 1 ( ‘ - 2+ r j h ) *
rr»o2 y
=
= -—- 2z
2z+31n(Z + 2)
+ 3 ln (z + 2)H+ C==— —— — 2 cos x + 3 ln (cos x + 2) + C
dx__
Example 3. Compute J ^ ^
-sin 2 x *
Î0.J2 Intégration of Certain Trigonométrie Functions 373
“ 7 ï ‘ ,' l*"('j7=5)+c
(5) Now let us consider one more intégral of the form
J R (sin x, cos jc ) dx, namely an intégral with integrand sin'* x cosn x dx
(where m and n are integers). Here we consider three cases.
(a) J sinm.ccosn xdx, where m and n are such that at least one
of them is odd. For definiteness let us assume that n is odd. Put
n — 2/7+1 and transform the intégral:
^ sin™x cos*/’+l xdx = ^ sin“ x cosip x cos x dx
= J sin1* jc(1 —sin* x)p cos x dx
Change the variable:
sinx = /, cos xdx = dt
Putting the new variable into the given intégral, we get
jj sin™x cosn x dx = J ( 1— t2)p dt
which is an intégral of a rational function of t.
Example 4.
f* cos® x ^ Ç cos* x cos x d x f* (1 — sin* x) cos x dx
J sin4 * J sin4 x —J sin4x
Denoting sin x= t , cos xdx = dt, we get
f* cos*x . f*(l — t*)dt (* dt r dt
3^+ 1"+ °
_____ î___«__ !__ . c
3 sin3 x ' sin x '
= - i j^jc — s i n 2 * + ÿ J ( l + cos4x)d *| = - - [ y - « - s i n 2 * + ^ — - j - fC
IS i i f ï î - f '■ "+'*>"'- T + f + c
_tan8 x , tan6x , n
1 5 l" C
dx = a cos z dz
_ f a ccos z d z *
a cos z dz
J V(a2—jc2)3 J
V (a2—aa sin2 z)3 =J “*:s cos3 z
1 P dz 1 l .r 1 sin z
a2 J cos2 z a2 a n z ' ~ a2 cos z
c=
sin z
“2 V 1— sin* z
=-L *
7=-jV* d x + c
which vanishes for x = 0 is called the Laplace function and is
denoted by O (x). Thus,
<D(*) = y = - ^e~*t dx + C1 if <D(0)=0
J K l —£2sin2xdx-|-C (k < 1)
* ÿ~ 1— sin2 z--= | cos z |. For the sake of definiteness, we only examine the
case | cos z | = cos z.
378 Ch. 10. The Indeftnite Intégral
Exercises on Chapter 10
A „s. * + * fi+ c . s.
fis .. te . I,*v~+ C . s. j ( J s + -j L r + 2 )* .
te. : .i _ + 2>+c. .. i V e U
i4ns. — ln | cos 2 jc | + C. 18. Jcot (S x — 7) dx. Ans. --I n | sin (5x— 7)| + C
21. ^tan <p*seca<pd<p. Ans. --ta n 2 (p + C. 22. ^(cotex)ex dx. Ans. \n\s\nex \-\-C
sind x COS4 X
24. \ sin 2 x cos x dx. Ans. C. 25.
i î\ cos 3x sin x dx. Ans. — -C.
Ç sin 2x dx
35
.
f y 2 sin * + 1
Ans. |^ 2 s i n * + l + C .
P s in 2 *É
xdx
____ !
____ + C.
36. \ — ------- — s .
J (1 + cos 2x)2
Ans.
2 (1+ cos 2 x y
37.
J i^r+irsin * 2
52
r dx Ans. In | arctan * | + C.
dx
arctan * *
• J ( l + * 2) ai "• h cosa* (3 t a n * + 1 )*
yl/M .4-In|3tanx-f 1I + C.54. 34ns. î + ^ f - C . 55. f ■ dx .
3 1 ' Jco s* x 4 ^ J K T = x*arcsinx
c1 cos 2x 1
i4ns. In | arcsin * [ + C. 56. J 2 + 3 sin 2 * dx‘ ^ nS* -g-ln | 2 + 3sin 2*| + C.
57. J c o s (ln x)— . Ans. sin (ln * ) + C. 58. J c o s (a + bx) dx. i4ns.— sin (a+6*)+ C .
* x
59. J e2x dx. Ans. y g a* + C. 60. J e 3 dx. Ans. 3 e 3 + C . 61. ÿ e slnxcos xdx.
a JL JL
Ans. esinx-\-C. 62. ja * * x d x . Ans. +C. 63 Je°d *. Ans. oea + C .
380 Ch. 10. The Indefinite Intégral
.. w - m ex dx
■2x + C . 70. Ans. ÿ l n ( 3 + 4e*) + C.
ln a — In b 3 + 4e*'
nn Pcos8* .
99. \ - —
J s in 4 * sm x
-
.—dx. Ans. —----------
1
—
3 sin3x
1
ioo. J \-----
/ tan x
2
=— - dx.
cosa x
Ans.
3 3.
5
j / tan6 jc+C.
v 1
dx
101 ~x - Ans. ÿ = - arctan ( Y \ tan*) + C'
j2 sin 2x+3cosa.
dx
Integralsoftheform ^ - ^ t ^ - d x : 102-f c , + 2 j t + 5 Ans. ~ arctan^—i -(-C.
r dx 1 i 3a— 1 . dx
103.
^r+4*
,__
^ s* / T T -arctan —= r4 -C . m. J
J 3a:2 —2 x /T T *a+ 3 * + r
2jc+ 3 — ^ 5
Ans. ln
+ c - ,05- J iT Z ^ + 5 - Ans- T ln\ h +c.
V~5 [•2* + 3 +
106 ' J 2za—i L + r ‘ ^ a^ a" (2a- D + C . «07. J 3T2_ ^ + 2 .
171= arctan
. — 10a-:—3 ,_
,09- U ^ - 3êa;r-2- +2 ’ Ans• to 1" ^ - 3*4*2)-------- 5 /3 l /TI
= r - \- C .
110.
(* 33jc
jc—- 1 -dx. Ans. - |ln (*a—x + !) + • — -arctan ï y = - + C .
J * a- * + l
111 7* + 1
• î) .6 jc2 + x — 1
dx. Ans. - |ln (3 j ï— l ) + 4 - l n ( 2 * + l ) + C . 112, f 2x-
2
2x— 1
‘ J 5a:* — jc+ 2
d*.
IOjc— 1
Ans. 4 - ln (5 * 2 —^x+ 2 )------- arctan -C.
« 5 /3 9 /3 9
,,,
113
p6x«—5**+4** Ans. * 3 _«Ç
* + | , „ | 2 ^ - JC+I| + - ^ r c t a n 4^ = i + C .
2 . 2 tan x + l . _
114 arctan------■==+— h C.
Î ! cosa * + s in x cos jc-|-sin 2 jc *
2 ÿ ~7 t,4^ve,“
Intégrais of the form f A
A xx +
+BB _ ^x. 115>
115 , f —
J /< w a + t>* + C JAx*
/2 -3 * -
f d* . 1 . 6*+7 , r t t t . [* dx
118. \ „ - . . Ans. —— arcsin — = - + C . 119. \ _ =
J / 5 —7*-3*a /3 /TÔ9 r J /x(3*+5)
Ç dx
Ans. - p = l n |6 * + 5 + / 12*(3* + 5 ) |-|-C . 120.
J / 2 — 3*—x*
2*+ 3 C dx
121.
Ans. arcsin
/l7 J V 5 x * -x — 1
2ax + b
Ansi. - p = ln | 1 0 * - 1 + /2 0 ( 5 * a— * — 1 ) | + C. 1 2 2 . j" j — dx.
+bx+C
382 Ch. 10. The fndefinite Intégral
(jc+3) dx
Ans. 2 \ ax^ -J- bx -Ç~c C. 123.
I V 4x2 + 4x + 3 ’
Ans. 1 y 4x2 + 4 x + 3 + | - t n \ 2x + 1 + / 4 x 2 + 4 x + 3 | + C.
129. J x sin x dx. Ans. sin x — x cos x -fC . 130. J \nxdx. Ans. x ( \ n x — 1) + C.
134. ^ jcarctan xdx. Ans. y [(x2 + 1) arctan x —*] + C. 135. J x arcsin xdx.
Ans.
p 2x_1
152. \ ----- 7Y7----- ôr dx. Ans. In
J (x— l) (x — 2 )
-g- ln
(x— 2)8
x—1
(x+ 3)6
-+ C.
C.
153
154
■s xdx
(x ~f" 0 (x ~f~3) (x -f- 5) *
Ç xb + x * — 8 .
l* + 5 |#|* + l . ■j " ^ dx-
je2 (x— 2)6 Ç ___ x*_dx
Ans. - j + y + 4x + ln + C. 155.
(* + 2)3 j (*2—i0 (*+ 2) ’
x — 1 | , 16,
Ans. ij-— 2x+ -g- ln ■Î T I F -r T i„l, + s l + c. j ,—
x—2
Ans. ■ln
Jï-1 + c - 157 f S - J + * * - ■4“
4x + 3 * 2 i f> .e n P * 2 <**
158.
J *(*+ !)•*' 2 (*+!)■ 'ii+ îi»+ c- 1M- j ( , + w Z + w
Ans.
( S I ) ’+ c' m ■ ^ l n + c -
P 2a;2— 3x- Ans. ln (*2 ~~ 2 *-j~5) 1
161. i- a r c t a n — i
J (x 1 ) (a ;2 -2* + 5) Ix — 1|
x3—6
■dx. Ans. ln
x2+ 4 .3 , x
■■■+■-5 - arc tan ■s -
3 v
162. arctan + C.
I ? + 6jc2+ 8 Vx» + 2 2 2
C dx
163. ^ ir ln S q r T+ - i 7 f ^
arctan — +c.
J^+ 1‘
•2 _* -
164.
J[■SjTîXT-TI-
x3 + x 2 + 4 x + 4 Ans- ln/v"na-
( x + 1 )2 + T
2 arctanT
2 +' C- ,fl5- JÇx*4 +^1t
Ans. > ,„*•+ * r i + i + y -î„ clmJp q _ -C. dx.
y 2 x2—x Ÿ^2 + 1 1 — -*2
f xP + x —- 1 A
i4ns. •y [■** + ln (ac*— 1 )] + C. 167.
J (*2+2)2
2—x
Ans. ^ - + l n ( x 2 + 2 ) 2 -------
4 (x2 + 2) 4^2
^
arctan - Ï = + C . 168.
y^2
f—
^
J (*—•)12 (x2 +
-8x)dx
l )2 •
Ans.
3*2—jc
ln ( x - l) 2 ■arctanx + C. 169. J } (f f _ x + 1)a ■
(x— l)(x2+ l ) ^ *2+ l
. I* — Il 10 . 2x— 1 2x— 1
Ans. ln -------- — arctan —— -C.
* I 3^3 Ÿ 3 3 (x 2- x + \ )
384 Ch. 10. The Indemnité Intégral
I
Ans. x*— \ n ( î / x® + l) ] + C
) v/ **+l
3 6 /J+i
dx.
,7,‘ ^ e Vî */ f x~dx' Ans' Z * ^ x' ~ i ^ xis + c - 172• j* \Y X1+ V Xh
Ans. 2 In x — 24 ln ( y^x + l) + C.
V x V x [
2 + y x ■dx.
173
ÿ x + % /x + V x +1
+ y ln ( ^ J C + l ) + 3arctan ^ / x + C . 174. j
Ans. 2 arctan Y T + ^ + ln
yr+ x —y 1—x + C. 176. f V x + Vx
y r + ^ + y r —; J V7*+ V^ '
i4ns. 14 x —ÿ V * + y 'V * - y V ** + ÿ k 'V ] +C .
177. j Y ^ ^ d x - Ans. ÿ 3 x i — 7 x —6 + ^ X
X ln ^ x—y + Y *2 — y * - 2 ) + c -
J
178. f dx 4ns. ln
y x2- x + 3 — y i , 1
J * y xa-jç+3 * 1
n 1 3 2 y 3
+ C.
179.
dx
. Ans. -- L_ ln
y 2+x—xa+ y ? , >
x |/ " 2 + x —x* y 2 X 12 y i +C.
dx i
180. -. 44ns. — arcsin -dx.
j* x y * * + 4 x - 4 .......... 2 ........... x y 2 ■- - 1-
Ans. y xa-f-2x + In | x + 1 + y x2 + 2x\ + C. dx
182
x—1
j y (2x—xa)4 •
Ans.
y 2x—x* -C. 183. x2 dx.
-i- [(x— 1) y 2 x - x * + a r c s i n ( x - l ) ] + C.
<4/is. 184 • f---
J X— ^ X2 ---- 1
x + y \+ x + x * (*+0
Ans. In + c. 186. dx.
2 + x + Y 1 -j- x -j- x* J (2 jc+ jc2) Ÿ~2x-\-x2
1 1*— Y 1 + x -}-*2
Ans.
y 2x + x2
2-}-x— 2 Ÿ \ -j-jc + jc5
+C. 187.
i x Y 1+ *+
dx.
+ 4*
Ans. In - + C. 188. dx.
x2 j
8
Ans. |-ln |; c - f 2 + Y x2 + 4 x | + C.
x + y x2 + 4x
Ans. — ^ i _ i _ . i n |s i n x\ + C. 200.
tan’ jc , 3 tan6jc
î sec jc dx.
8
tan 7 jc , tan6 jc dx
Ans. -C. 202. Ans. tan jc + -g-tan 8 jc+ C .
7 1 5 î - c o s 4 JC
r CO
05S JC sin 3 jc dx
203.
J ^
- dx.
1
Ans. C — e s c jc . 204.
I |/* COS4 JC
sin4jc , sin 2 jc
Ans. -jj- cos 3 jc + 3 cos 3 jc + C . 205. \ sin jcsin3jcdjc. Ans. f C.
•î- 8 ‘ 4
sin 11 jc , sin3jc
2 0 66 . J\ cos 4jc cos 7jc dx. Ans. C. «7. J cos 2jc s i n 4jc dx.
— 22 1 6
cos 6 jc cos 2jc r i 3 x dx. cos jc . 1 , ^
Ans.
12
f-C. 208. \ s i n — x cos Ans. ------- (-COSy*+C.
ta n | - 2
25—2081
386 Ch. 10. The Indefinite Intégral
dx
Ans. arctan (2 sin 2 x — 1) + C. 214. J Ans. 4 - t a n - £ + 4 - tan3 — + C .
+ cos x)2
(1
1 . / tan x \
2IS. f— Ans. — — cot X- ~~r=- arctan ( — ■ ■) + C.
J sin 2 xc + ta
t nax 2 v 2 \\n J
216. f - —-? - * dx. Ans. Ÿ 2 arctan / ta^ \ —X-\- C.
J 1 “i~ cos 2 x \\T 2 J ^
CHAPTER II
The sum sn is called the lower (intégral) sum, and the sum sn
is called the upper (intégral) sum.
If f (x) 53 0, then the lower sum is numerically equal to the area
of an “inscribed step-like figure” AC0N lClNi .. .Cn_lNnBA bounded
by an “inscribed” broken line, the
upper sum is equal numerically
to the area of a “circumscribed
step-like figure” A K ^C ^x- ..
.. .C„_lK„_lCnBA bounded by a
“circumscribed” broken line.
The following are some proper-
ties of upper and lower sums.
(a) Since m,- ^ Af,- for any
i (i = 1, 2, . . . , n), by formulas (1)
and (2) we hâve
s„ ^ s„ (3)
Fig. 212 —
(The equal sign occurs only when f(x) = const.)
(b) Since
tnx > m, m2Ss m, . . . , m „> m ,
where m is the smallest value of f(x) on [a, b], we hâve
s_n = ml Axy-\-mi Axa-\-. . . + mnAxn^ mAxx+ mAx2+ . . . -\-mAx„
= m (Axx-f Axt + . . . -f Axn) = m (b—a)
Thus,
sn 7s>m{b— a) (4)
(c) Since
M x < M, M2< A f,
where M is the greatest value of /( x) on [a, b], we hâve
s„ = Af1A.*:1+ Af2Ax2+ . .. + MnAxn ^ M Aa^ + M A.v2-f . . . + ÀfAx„
= M (Axj -)- A*2-J- . . . + Axn) = M (b— a)
Thus,
sa ^ .M ( b —a) (5)
11.2 Proof of the Existence of a Definite Intégral oan
00*7
or
S„ < S„ < sn (2)
The géométrie meaning of the latter inequality for f ( x ) ^ 0 con-
sists in the tact that the figure whose area is equal to s„ is bounded
by a broken line lying between the “inscribed” broken line and
the “circumscribed” broken line.
The sum s„ dépends upon the way in which the interval [a, b\
is divided into the subintervals [*,_!, x{] and also upon the choice
of points inside the resulting subintervals.
Let us now dénoté by max *,] the largest of the subintervals
[x0, *1], [xt, xt], . . . , [*„_!, xn]. Let us consider different partitions
of the interval [a, b] into subintervals fo -j, *,] such that
max [je,-!, *,-] —►0. Obviously, the number of subintervals n then
approaches infinity. Choosing the appropriate values of | (-, it is
possible, for each partition, to form the intégral sum
s „ = i / ( i () a *, (3)
tends to one and the same limit s, then this limit is termed the
definite intégral of the function f(x) on the interval [a, b] and is
denoted by
b
$ / (x)dx
a
Thus, by définition,
« *
lim 2 f ih) AXi= \ f ( x ) d x (6)
m a x Ax; -► 0 i = 1 ^
Sn = 2 Axf (9)
” i= 1
n
s„ = 2 M ( Ax( ( 10)
i= î
392 Ch. 11. The Definite Intégral
That is,
lims„ = lims„ = s (17).
or
sn, <
which complétés the proof.
Property 5. If a f-unction f (x) is continuous on an interval [a, b] ,
then for any sequence of partitions of [a, b] into subintervals
[x,-!, x,], not necessarily by means of adjoining new points of
division, provided max Ax,- —*■0, the lower (intégral) sum s^ and the
upper (intégral) sum s'm tend to the limit s defined by Property 3.
Proof. Let us consider a sequence of partitions of the sequence
of upper sums sn defined by Property 2. For arbitrary values of n
and m [by inequality (18)], we can write
Sm<Sn
Passing to the limit as n oo we can write, by (15),
Sm< S
Similarly we can prove that s < s ^ .
Thus,
£^<S<S^
or
s - s ; > 0, s ^ - s ^ O (22)
Consider the limit of the différence :
lim (Sm— Sm)
m ax Ax,- -► 0 —
Sn=itf<& ,) A*,
('= 1
such that maxA^:,—►O and £,• is an arbitrary point in the subin
terval [*,•_!, Xi\.
We consider the appropriate sequences of upper and lower sums
s„ and s„ for the gi-ven sequence of partitions. The relations (2)
hold true for each partition :
in < s„ < s„
Passing to the limit as maxAjc,—>-0 and using équations (23)
and Theorem 4, Sec. 2.5, we get
lim s„ — s
m ax AXi -* 0
J f (x)dx — 5 f ( t ) d t = . . . = J/(z )d z
a a a
<
\>f ( x) dx= — <
\ f ( x) dx (25)
a b
Thus, for instance,
o 5
J x2dx — — J -v'2dx
5 o
Note 3. In the case of a = b we assume, by définition, that for
any function f (x) we hâve
[ f { x) dx = 0 (26)
For the points g* take the left end points of each subinterval :
Êi = a» I 2= a + \ x t Ê3 = a + 2 A*, \ n = a-{-(n— 1) A*
Form the intégral sum (1). Since /(£/) = ££,-, we haye
sn = &x + ^£2 A* + . . . + k \ n Ax
= ka Ax + [k (a + Ax)\ A x + . . . + { k [ a + (n— 1) Ax]} Ax
= k { a + (a + Ax) + (a + 2Ax) + . . . + [ a + (n — 1) A*]} A*
— k {na-\-[Ax-\-2Ax + . . . + (/i— 1) A*]} Ax
= k [na + [ 1 + 2 + . . . + ( / ! — 1)] A*} A*
The area of ABba (Fig. 215) is readily computed by the methods of elernen-
tary geometry. The resuit will be the same.
b
As we know,
l 2 + 2 * + 3 ‘ + . , . + n « = n (n ~t~?)(2/t~l~ 1)
O
398 Ch. 11. The Définite Intégral
therefore
63 n ( n + \ ) ( 2 n + \ ) _ b9 f \\ ( 1 \
n* (■^)K)
lim sn = Q = \ x2dx = ^ -
n » J *5
=m lim V A */-=m ( 6 — a)
m a x A xj -* 0
n
Here, 2 ^xi *s sum °f ^ e lengths of the subintervals into which the
t=l
interval [a, 6 ] was divided. No matter what the method of partition,- the sum
is equal to the length of the segment b— a.
b t
Example 4. Evaluate J e* dx.
x0= a, xi = a + b x , . . . , xn = a + n b x t b x = ^ ^ -
Take the left extremities as the points £/. Then form the sum
sn = ea bx-\-e°+Ax bx + . . . - f e û+(/,“ A* Ajc
« e * (1 + e*x+ e2A* + . . . + e<«- !>A*) bx
The expression in the brackets is a géométrie progression with common
ratio eA* and first term 1; therefore
jnAx - 1 bx
sn = ea bx = ea (en*x— 1)
eA*—1
Then we hâve
bx
nbx = b— a, lim =1
A x -* o e*x — 1
f By rH ospital’s rule lim ■ 2 — lim -^- = 1.^ Thus,
^ J z o e*— 1 2 - o ez J
lim sn = Q = e a (eb~ a— 1)• 1 = e b—ea
11.3 Basic Properties of the Definite Intégral 399
=A lim % f ( i i)Axt = A \ f ( x ) d x
max A*/ 0^ j J
= lim 2[q> ( I d - n i M A x i .
m ax Ax t -> 0
But
b b
\f{x)dx^\f(x)dx+\f{x)dx (6)
a a c
2 î (6 ,) A*,. = 2 / « , ) A*,. + 2 / ( i , ) A x ,
a a c
J f ( x ) d x = — l f(x)dx
b c
Therefore,
b c b
5 f(x)dx=\f{x)dx+\t{x)dx
a a c
\f{x)dx
a
let the lower limit a be fixed and let the upper limit b vary.
Then the value of the intégral will vary as well: that is, the
intégral is a function of the upper limit.
11.4 The Newton-Leibniz Formula 403
Q>{x) = \ f ( t ) d t (1)
a
that is,
x + Ax
A<D= 5 f (t )dt
404 Ch Jl. The Definite Intégral
l f ( t ) d t = F(x) + C* (3)
a
For an appropriate choice of C*, this équation holds for ail va
lues of x, that is, it is an identity. To détermine the constant C*
put x = a in the identity; then
a
l f ( t ) d t = F ( a ) + C*
a
or
0 = F(a)+C*
whence
C* — — F (a)
Hence,
X
l f ( t ) dt = F( x) - F( a)
a
l f ( x ) d x = F( b ) - F( a )
a
Example 5.
2 ji
Consequently,
n_ n_
r 2 2
^ Ÿ r 2 —x2 d x = ^ y r2— r2 sin 2 t r cos t dt = r2 J V 1 —-sin 2 t cos t dt
o o o
JT JT
b
Since J (uv)'dx = uv + C, we hâve J (uv)' dx~ uv\5\ for this reason,
a
the équation can be written in the form
b b
UV |o = 5 v du + 5 Udv
a a
or, finally,
b b
J u dv = uv £ — ^ v du
a a
jt
2
Example. Evaluate the intégral I n —■J sin” x dx.
o
n ji Jt
2 2 2
I„ = ^ sinnx d x = J sin ” - 1 x s i n x d x = — ^ sin ” - 1 x d cos x
o o o
n
HL 2
s* —sin ^*“ 1 x cos x -f-(n— 1) J sin **-2 x cos x cos xdx
o
n
2
=*=(n—- 1)^ sin " -a x c o s2 xdx
o
jt_
2
=. (n— 1) ^ sin " - 2 jc(1 — sina x)dx
o
Jt jt
2 2
= (n— 1) ^ sinw—2 jc dx— <J7— 1) ^ sinn *dx
0 0
In the notation chosen we can write the latter équation as
/» = ( « - O/ » - . - ( * - IJ/»
whence we find
1n— n In-a (2)
2 2
/ 1== \ sin * d x = 1
J
0 0
ve hâve
s\n2m x dx =
2m—1 2m—3 J5 3 1 jt
2m 2m—2 6 4 ’ 2 ’ T
2m 2m—2 6 4_ 2_
^2m+l I0 sin2/w+ 1 =
2m-}- 1 2m—1 “ '7 5 3
From these formulas there follows the Wallis formula, which expresses the
ji
number — in the form of an infinité product.
Indeed from the latter two équations we find, by means of termwise di
vision,
j t _ / 2 .4 .6 . . . 2m \ 2 1 I2m
2 \ 3 - 5 . . . (2m— 1)/ 2 r n + \ / im + l W
We shall now prove that
lim - ^ - = 1
m —►co *2 m+ 1
Hence
2m+l
lim lim 1
m -* oo 2m+ l m-* oo 2m
From inequality (4) we hâve
lim = 1
m-* oo *2/7î + i
Passing to the limit in formula (3), we get Wallis1 formula ( W allis’ product) for
ji [Y 2-4-6 . . . 2m y 1 ]
L U -5 . . . ( 2 m - 1)J 2m + 1J
S / (x) dx
a
+00
In this case it is said that the improper intégral J f(x)dx exists
a
b
for the case where /(x )^s 0 : if the intégral J / (x) dx expresses the
a
area of a région bounded by the curve # = /(x), the x-axis and
the ordinates x--a, x = b, it is natural to consider that the im-
+ 00
j
rhr
0 \ b X o \ x
\ b
\ (dx \ T dx
jh xz l /♦**
-fl
Fig. 223 Fig. 224
+00
r» dx
Example 1. Evaluate the intégral j \ (see Figs- 223 and 224).
o
II.7 Improper Intégrais 413
J
f ^jc*- = T-!—
1— a
x1-* |Ib= — (*»-«- 1)
i 1—a
l
we hâve
f -^ - = lim TJ — 1)
J X 6 -►+ ao 1
I
+»
c dx 1
if a > 1, then \ ~ ^ r = a~ZT[ » and the inte8ral converges;
l
+ao
(* djc
if a < 1, then \ — = o o , and the intégral diverges
+»
P djc +®
When a = l , \ — = ln jc ^ = o o , and the intégral diverges.
f OO
Solution.
+ OD 0 +®
ç dx f* dx 1 f
j i+ * 2 j i+ * 2
—OD —00 i i+ x i
414 Ch. 11. The Definite Intégral
The second intégral is equal to (see Example 1). Compute the first intégral:
C -tt™T=
J
C.
\ + x 2 a -*--» J 1 + * 2
1,marctanjc)0
a -*-® | a
5 f(x)dx ^ J <p(x) dx
x2 ( 11+e*) < 1
And
+00
I t -* — t I T -1
Consequently,
f î ± l «: dx
J VI?
We notice that
X+ 1 X
y x* > —
v x» v x
But
+0C
f -y^=— 1™ 2 V~ —+00
J V X b-* +o
f
Therefore, the intégral ^ | j dx conver2es- Whence it follows that the
Çf (x ) dx = iim Ç/ (x)dx
a i >- +a + 0 b
o
Solution.
1 b
, lin, f dx = - Iim 2
b - + \ - 0 j y 1—X b + 1-0
= — lim 2 ( ] / T = 3 — 1) = 2
b-* 1-0
1
Example 8. Evaluate the intégral
Solution. Since inside the interval of intégration there exists a point x==0
where the integrand is discontinuous, the intégral must be represented as the
117 Improper Intégrais 417
i- tdx „ 1 Ie» / 1 l \
lim \ -5 = — 11m — = —l i m -------------- r = <
t—o J x2 t*i-*«- o x |-1 e, -►-o Vei —1J
1 -1
Thus, the intégral diverges on the interval | — 1, ()|:
1
And this means that the intégral also diverges on the interval [0. 1].
Hence, the given intégral diverges on the entire interval [— I, 1).
It should be noted that if we'had begun to evaluate the given intégral
without paying attention to the discontinuity of the integrand at the point
x = 0, the resuit would hâve been wrong.
lndeed,
Then dénoté by y0, «/,, y2, . . . . y„-x, y„ the values of the func
tion f(x) at the points xx, *s, x„; that is,
y» = f ( x a), y1= f ( x 1), . . . . y„ = f(x„)
Form the sums:
y0Ax + yxAx + . . . + y n- lAx
yxAx + y2Ax + . . . + y aAx
Each of these sums is an intégral sum of f(x) on the interval
[a, b] and for this reason approximately expresses the intégral
b
J f ( x ) d x » ~ ( ! / 0 + !/, + «/„+.. • + y n-i) (0
a
b
§ f ( x ) d x & ^ ( y x+ y 2+ . . . + y n). ( 1')
a
27*
420 Ch. II. The Definiie Intégral
or
b
^ f ( x ) d x ^ — ^ ^ ^± Mj i + yx+ y 2+ . . . + yn_1^ (2 )
a
and with an axis parallel to the ÿ-axis (Fig. 229). We shall call
this kind of curvilinear trapezoid a parabolic trapezoid.
The équation of a parabola with axis parallel to the y-axis is
of the form
y = Ax2+ Bx + C
The coefficients A, B and C are uniquely determined from the
condition that the parabola passes through three specified points.
Analogous parabolas are constructed for other pairs of intervals as
well. The sum of the areas of the parabolic trapezoids will yield
the approximate value of the intégral.
Let us first compute the area of one parabolic trapezoid.
Lemma. I f a curvilinear trapezoid is bounded by the parabola
y = Ax* + Bx + C
the x-axis and two ordinates separated by a distance 2h, then its
area is
B — y ( i / o + ^ i / i + yt) (3 )
where y0 and t/2 are the extreme ordinates and y, is the ordinate
of the curve at the midpoint of the interval.
J f ( x ) d x x ^ - ( y 0+ 4yl + yi)
a=x0
*4
j f (x) dx « — (yt + 4y3+ y*)
X%m=b
§ f ( x ) d x i v ^ - ( y tm. i + 4ytm. i + ytm)
Adding the left and right sides, we get (on the left) the sought-
for integra! and (on the right) its approximate value:
b
J f (x) dx & j - ( y 0+ 4jq + 2yt + 40,
+ . . . + 2 0 2 /n -î + 4 0 tm - ! + 0 , J (5)
or
« - i1 f
Solution. Divide the interval [1, 2] into 10 equal parts (Fig. 231). Assuming
2— 1
Ajt = = 0.1
10
we make a table of the values of the integrand:
i i
X X
y m ~x V~ T
1.6 y, = 0.62500
o*
*e =
b
* To find out how many division points are needed to compute an intégral
to the desired number of décimal places, one can make use of formulas for
estimating the error resulting from approximating the intégral. We do not give
these estimâtes here. The reader will find them in more advanced courses of
analysis; see, for example, Fikhtengolts, Course of Differential and Intégral
Calculus, 1962, Vol. II, Ch. IX, Scc. 5. (in Russian).
424 Ch. IL The Definite Intégral
Thus, when dividing the interval [0, 1] into 10 parts by Simpson’s rule,
we get five significant décimais; by the trapézoïdal rule, only three; and by
the rectangular formula, we are sure only of the first décimal.
( x x,) (x X3) . . . ( x x n ) .
(X2 — X l ) ( X 2 — X3) . . . [ X . i — Xn ) I K
(X Xj) (x X 2) . . . { X Xn — i) c / \
(x„ — x l ) ( x n — x 2) . . . ( x n — x n ^ , ) I K n’ ( 1)
where ç (t) dénotés the function of t under the intégral sign. Thus,
the problem of integrating the given function f(x) on the inter
val [a, b] can always be reduced to integrating some other func
tion <p(x) on the interval [—1 , 1].
To summarize, then, the problem has reduced to choosing in'
the formula
f 2 (a 0 + | + O
f+ Ÿ + ---+ “ ) « nisodd ^
\ 2 (o 0 + y + • • • + —5 ^) it n is even
On the other hand, the sum on the right side of (6 ) will, on the
basis of (7), be equal to
Cn [na#+ (xt + x2 + . • • + xn) + (x2 + x| -f- • • • + *«)
+ . . . + a n. t ( x r l + x?-' + . . . + x ^ 1)] (9)
2 = C„n or C„ = -
X 1 + x 2 + • • • + xn ~ 0
x\ + x\ + • • • + xn == = "ô"
( 10)
x l + x l + - • - + x *n = 0
xi + xi + • • • + xn = = y
/
From these n — 1 équations we find the abscissas x,, xa, . . x„.
These solutions were found by Chebyshev for various values of n.
The following solutions are those that he found for cases when
the number of intermediate points n is equal to 3, 4, 5, 6 , 7, 9:
11.9 Chebyshev's Formula 427
N u m b e r of C o e f fic ie n t V a l u e s of a b s c ls s a s
o rdinates n Ci» *i. .......^
•
3
2 xx = —x3 = 0.707107
3 *2 = 0
5 x2 = —x4 = 0.374541
*3 = 0
1
xx — —x6 = 0.866247
6 *2 = —*5 = 0.422519
3
= —x4 = 0.266635
*, = —*, = 0.883862
7
2 *î = - * , = 0.529657
7 *, = —*» = 0.323912
*4 = 0
xx = —x9 = 0.911589
*2 = — *8 = 0.601019
2
9 *3 = — *7 = 0.528762
9
*4 = - * « = 0.167906
*» = 0
dt
3+ t
Since
/|..707l<.7)-3+(, ; |i7Æ - o + w -0.269752
/(°) = 3 ^ ô = 0333333
th ree in te rm e d ia te p o i n t s ) is in b e t t e r a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e t r u e v a l u e of th e
in tégral th an th e re s u it o b ta in e d by th e tra p e z o id a l ru le (w ith n in e in te rm e
d ia te p o in ts).
where 0 < 0 < 1. Since fa (x, oc) is continuous in the closed do
main (2 ), we hâve
fa(x, a + 0 Aa) = f'a (x, a) -fe
where the quantity e, which dépends on x, a, Aa, approaches
zéro as A a—<-0.
430 Ch. II. The Definite Intégral
Thus,
b b b
/ (g + Aa) — / (a)
Aa
J [f'a (X, a ) 4 - e] dx = J f a (x, a )dx + ^ e d x
a a a
b
* The integrand in the intégral / = J e d a approaches zéro as Aa —►0. From
a
the fact that the integrand approaches zéro at each point it does not always
follow that the intégral also approaches zéro. Howevei, in the given case,
/ approaches zéro as A a —►O. We accept this fact without proof.
11.10 Intégrais Dépendent on a Parameter 431
d<t>
Finally, to evaluate ^ use the above-derived Leibniz formula:
* cos olx dx
* Leibniz* formula was derived on the assumption that the limits of intégra
tion a and b are fini te. However, in this case Leibniz’ formula also holds,
even though one of the limits of intégration is equal to infinity. For the condi
tions under which différentiation of improper intégrais with respect to a para
meter is permissible. See G. M. Fikhtengolts, Course of Differential and Intég
ral Calculus, Fizmatgiz, 1962, Vol. II, Ch. XIV, Sec. 3 (in Russian).
432 Ch. II. The Definite Intégral
P ^ sin ax . .
\ e~ x --------djc=arctana
J a:
o
Example 2. The gamma function.
We consider an intégral dépendent on a parameter a ,
00
^x*-l e-*dx (6)
o
and we will show that this improper intégral exists (converges) for a > 0. We
represent it in the form of a sum
oo 1 00
J x*~le ~ x d x = J x * - le ~ x dx-{- J xa~ le~ x dx
o oJ 1
The first intégral on the right converges, since
l l
0 < J x * - le - * d x <
o
The second intégral likewise converges. Indeed, let n be an integer such that
n > a — 1. Then clearly
00 OD
0 < J x ' - ' e - x d x < ^ xne~ x dx < oo
o l
Integrate the latter intégral by parts noting that
lim = 0 (7)
JC—► + oo t
for an arbitrary positive integer k. Thus, intégral (6) defines a certain function a .
This function is denoted by T (a) and is called the gamma function:
00
r (a) = ^ X * - Xe - * c d x (8)
o
It is widely used in applied mathematics. Let us find the values of T (a) for
intégral a . For a = l we hâve
OD
T (1) = J e ~ x d x = 1 (9 )
o
Let the integer a > 1. We integrate b y parts:
CD 00
r ( a )= ^ x ? “ 1e ~ x d x = — x * ~ le ~ x I * + ( a — 1) ^ x u ~ 1e ~ x d x
o o
11.11 Intégration of Complex Function of Real Variable 433
Exercises on Chapter 11
1. Form the integra! sum sn and pass to the limit to compute the follow-
b
ing definite intégrais J x2 dx. Hint. Divide the interval [a, b] into n parts by
a
n/ j
the points x ^ a q 1 (/ — 0, l, 2............ n), where q = y — , An$, — g— • .
28—2081
434 Ch. / / . The Définite Intégral
To do this, multiply and divide ail the terms of the left side by sin h and
replace the product of sines by the différence of cosines.
b
5. ^ cos x dx. Ans. sin b— sin a.
VT n
2 3
tan x dx. Ans. In 2.
0 0 0
e x x
15. C x2 dx. Ans. . 16. J . Ans. In (2z— 1). 17. J cos2 xdx.
3 /~ 1 0
/a
*
xdx
Ans.
K5
. 21. Ç
J y 2 + 4*
, 2 + 4jc= / 2. 4ns. 3 \f 2
■ ”• i ( +*2)3’ 1
n
2
1 3 __ P cos <pd<p
24. r d* z = — . Ans . In — . 25. \ =— . g- ■, sin<p = f.
j x 2 J 6 — 5 sin <p-j-sina <p Y
Ans. ln-g-.
Ans.
a2 + b2 '
Evaluate the following intégrais approximately:
5
P dx
44 l n 5 = \ y by the trapézoïdal rule and by Simpson's rule (n = 12).
1
Ans. 1.6182 (by the trapézoïdal rule); 1.6098 (by Simpson’s rule).
436 Ch. 11. The Definite Intégral
n
45. ^ jx* dx by the trapézoïdal rule and by Simpson’s rule (n = 1 0 ).
1 1
Ans. 3690, 3660. 46. ^ Y l — x3 dx by the trapézoïdal rule (n = 6). Ans. 0.8109.
o
3 10
47. -j- by Simpson’s rule (n = 4). Ans. 0.8111. 48. ^ log10xdx by the
l 4
trapézoïdal rule and by Simpson’s rule (n = 10). Ans: 6.0656, 6.0896. 49. Eva-
09
0Y
dX--------- — • • evaluate the intégral
'+ « 2 Y~â '
J (x,+J*,,+1 . Ans. y 0 •
P J_g-ax
53. Evaluate the intégral \ — — — dx. Ans. l n ( l + a ) ( a > — 1). 54. Utilizing
o
1 l
the équation J x " - 1 dx=-jL , cornpu te the intégral J xn~ 1 (ln x)k dx.
k\
CHAPTER 12
<? = J I / (*) I d*
Example 1. Compute the area Q bounded by the sine curve y = sinjt and
the x-axis, for 0 < ; jc^ 2 ji (Fig. 233).
438 Ch. 12. Applications of the Definite Intégral
Solution. Since sin jc^ O when and slnxs^O when ji< *^2 ji,
we hâve
2ji 2ji
Q= ^ s in x dx + 1 J s i n x d x | = ^ | s in x \ dx
o ji o
ji
o
2ji
I2 ji
S
ji
s in x dx = — cos x I = — (c o s 2 ji — cos j i) = — 2
C o n s e q u e n tly , Q = 2 -f | — 2 | = 4.
y r-t'M
a *
Fig. 234
Q= i
o o
x^ i ___2 __ 1__J_
3 o 3 3 3
Q = l f ( x ) dx =^ ydx
Solution. Compute the area of the upper half of the ellipse and double it.
Here, x varies from — a to - f a , and so t varies between n and 0,
'o o n
Q = 2 ^ (b sin /) (— a sin t dt) — — 2ab ^ sin2 t dt = 2ab J sin2 t dt
n n o
o
Example 4. Compute the area bounded by the Jt-axis and an arch of the
cycloid
x = a (t — sin /), y = a { \ — c o s/)
^ dt = 2n, J c o s /d / = 0, J cosa / d/ — dt = n
0 0 0 0
We finally get
Q = a 2 (2ji + ji) = 3 jia 2
The sum
n n
jfp M e
oc
Q = t J [ /( °)lsd0 0')
a
The définition of arc length was given in Sec. 6.1. Let us recal 1
définition. On an arc AB take points A, Aflt Af2, . . . ,
B with abscissas x0= a, xlt x.......... xh . . . , x„ = b and
B draw choras A Mlt M,M 2, . . . , M ^ B
Mi whose lengths we shall dénoté by Aslt
As2, . . . , As„, respectively. This gives
•the broken line AM^M2: .. Mn. xB ins-
cribed in the arc ÂB. The length of the
broken line is
b x = 2 As,-
i=1
Fig. 239 The length s of the arc AB is the
limit which the length of the inscribed
broken line approaches when the length of its greatest segment
approaches zéro:
sR= i / i + l r W A x , .
i =1
It is given that f (x) is continuous; hence, the function|/ 1+ [/'(*)]*
is also continuous. Therefore, this intégral sum has a limit that
12.3 The Arc Length of a Curve 443
i - Y ^ W i' O»
This formula was derived in Sec. 6.1 on certain other assump-
tions.
E x a m p le 1 . Détermine the circumference of the circle
x2 + y 2 = ra
JC
■dx = r arcsin —
2
0 o r
The length of the circumference is s = 2 nr.
Let us now fînd the arc length of a curve when the équation
of the curve is represented in parametric fornï:
*=<p(0> KO ^P ) (4)
444 Ch. 12. Applications of the Definite Intégral
where <p(0 and \p(/) are continuons functions with continuous dé
rivatives, and <p' (t) does not vanish in the given interval. In this
case, équations (4) define a function y = f(x) which is continuous
and has a continuous dérivative:
dy _ (0
dx <p' ( / )
_
s =-- J Y 1+ V (0 dt, or s = j V W (/)]*+ [♦'«)]* dt (5)
a a
Note 2. It may be proved that formula (5) holds also for curves
that are crossed by vertical lines in more than one point (in
particular, for closed curves), provided that both dérivatives <p' (t)
and tp'(/) are continuous at ail points of the curve.
Example 2 . Compute the length of the astroid:
x = a c o s3 /, y-—a s\n 9 t
Since the curve is symmetric about both coordinate axes, we shall
S o lu tio n .
first compute the length of a fourth part of it located in the first quadrant.
We find
- ^ - = —3a cos2 1 sin t
at
— = 3 û sin2/ cos t
i t cos t
= 3aJ siin dt —3a
sin2t 2 Sa A
0 =T* s=6a
Note 3. If a space curve is represented by the parametric équations
* = ç ( 0 . y = ' H 0 . z = X(0 (6)
where (see Sec. 9.1), then the length of its arc is
defined (in the same way as for a plane arc) as the limit which
the length of an inscribed broken line approaches when the length
12.3 The Arc Length of a Curve 445
Hence,
e
s = J l V 2+ P 2d0
9.
(Fig. 240).
Varying the vectorial angle 0 from 0 to Jt,
we get half the sought-for length. Here,
Fig. 240 p' = — a s in 0 . Hence,
n
s = 2 ^ Ÿ a2 (1 + c o s 0 )a + a 2 sin 2 0 d0
o
ji
= 2a ^ | ^ 2 + 2 cos 0 d0
o
ji
C 0
\ cos y d0 = 8a sin —8a
= 4a
o
Example 5. Compute the length of the ellipse
x = a cos t \
} 0< / < 2ji
y = b sin / |
ji
2
J Ÿ a2 sin 2 1+ 6 2 cos27 dt
o
ji n
2 2
J y a 2 (1 — cos* t) + b2 cos 3 / dt = J y a* — (a2— b2) cos* / ctt
o o
JI Jï
2 _____________ 2
V a 2— b2
where k < 1. Hence,
a
ji
2 •
s= 4a ^ y l — k2 cos 2 1 d t
o
The only thing that remains is to compute the last intégral. But we know that
it is not expressible in elementary functions (see Sec. 10.14). This intégral can
be computed only by approximate methods (by Simpson’s rule, for example).
For instance, if the semi-major axis of an ellipse is equal to 5 and the
3
semi-minor axis is 4, then
O , and the circumference of the ellipse is
k = —
Jl
2
s = 4-5 ^ 1— cos2 / dt
o
Computing this intégral by Simpson’s rule ^by dividing the interval
and so the length of the arc of the entire ellipse is approximately equal to
s « 25.96 units of length.
v„ = S Q (h) Ax,
t= 1
The limit of this sum as max A.v,-—►() (if it exists) is the
volume of the given solid:
n
v= lim 2 Q (?,•) A*,-
m ax Axi - > 0 i = |
with semi-axes
But the area of such an ellipse is nb’iCi. (See example 3, Sec. 12.1).
Therefore,
12.5 The Volume of a Solid of Révolution 449
v^Jtbcj ( l - £ y x = n b c ( x - ^ ) \ a_ = ± . m b c
-a
In the particular case, a = b = c, the ellipsoid tums into a sphere, and we hâve
v = n ^ y2dx = n J [/ (x)]2dx
a a Fig. 243
450 Ch. 12. Applications of the Definite Intégral
il
/ A
U U
2X 2X-\I 6 / 2b 2b
na2 Ia a
e~T \
a _ e~~â jiaa6
~~r [ t 1 6 \ o “ 8 \e
A Pt = 2n ^ ± 1 1 Y \ + / ' . ( | , ) A v ;
12.6 The Surface of a Solid of Révolution 451
The surface described by the broken line will be equal to the sum
or the sum
/> „= K s K T + T W ax,. (1)
1=1
extended over ail segments of the broken line. The limit of this
sum, when the largest segment As,- approaches zéro, is called the
area of the surface of révolution under considération. The sum (1)
is not the intégral sum of the function
2 n f ( x ) V l + f ’ (xy (2)
because the term corresponding to the interval [x,_,, x,] involves
several points of this interval x,-_1( x,-, But it is possible to
prove that the limit of the sum (1) is equal to the limit of the
intégral sum of function (2); that is,
= lim n S 2 / ( i 1) K Î T F W A x /
max A x i -+>0 1=1
or
(3)
By (3) we hâve
a a
P=2n [ ÿ ïp x y ' dx = 2 n Ÿ p j \ r 2x+~pdx
o o
29
452 Ch. 12. Applications of the Definite Intégral
A, = 2 F ( l i)Asi
1=1
will be an approximate expression of the work of the force F over
the interval [ay b\.
Obviously, An is an intégral sum of the function F = F (s) on
the interval [a, b], The limit of this sum as max(As/) —►() exists
and expresses the work of the force F (s) over the path from s=a
to s = b:
b
A = ^F(s)ds (1)
a
By ( 1) we hâve
o.o&
1OOS dS = 100 y = 0.125 Mlogram-métré
- i
Example 2. The force F with which an electric charge ex repuises another
charge e2 (of the same sign) at a distance of r is expressed by the formula
tF- -Rk -^^
where k is a constant.
Détermine the work done by a force F in moving
the charge e2 from the point Ax (at a distance of
rx from ex) to A2 (at a distance of r2 from ex) as-
suming that e1 is located at the point A0 as the ori-
gin.
Solution. From formula (1) we hâve
m m m ',
Fig. 245
AA k^ d r = - ke'e* T \ r, r ke'e* ( ^ - - k )
When r2= oo, we hâve
A= f dr = - glg*
J r2 r.
When e2— \ t A = k - y . This quantity is called the potential of the field gene-
rated by the charge ex.
2 y im i
__ y \ m \ + y 2 m 2 • • • Jr y n m n _ ;=1
( 2)
mi + m2+ • • • + mn
2 m‘
454 Ch. 12. Applications of the Definite Intégral
2g/VAsf 2/ (i.) Y
yc
2 y^s‘ 2 vAs<-
If the function y = f(x) is continuous and has a continuous déri
vative, the sums in the numerator and denominator of each frac
tion hâve, as max Ai,-—+0, limits equal to the limits of the cor-
responding intégral sums. Thus, the coordinates of the centre of
gravity of the arc are expressed by definite intégrais:
b b
^ x ds ^x y 1 + f'2 (x) dx
*c = - T — = - b ---------------------------- (1 ')
^ ds ^ y 1 + / ' 2 {x) dx
a a
b b
Ç / (x) ds (x) y 1 + / ' 2 (x) dx
* Linear density is the mass of unit length of a given line. We assume that
the linear density is the same in ail portions of the curve.
12.8 Coordinates of the Centre of Gravit y 455
• dx dx
Ÿ~&=r> 2 a2
• î 2a
y c ~- zia na na n
xc = 0 (since the semi-circle is symmetric about the y-axis).
2. The centre of gravity of a plane figure. Given a figure bounded
by the Unes y = f t {x), y = f 2(x), x = a, x = b, which is a material
plane figure. We consider con
stant the surface density, which
is the mass of unit area of the
surface. It is equal to ô for ail
parts of the figure.
Divide the given figure by
straight Unes x —a, x = xlt . . . ,
x = xn = b into strips of width
A * !, A x 2, . . . , Axn. The mass
of each strip will be equal to
the product of its area by the
density ô. If each strip is rep- x *a K, xt i 2 *i
laced by a rectangle (Fig. 246) Fig. 246
with base Ax{ and altitude
h ( î i ) — fi(îi)< where i,- = , then the mass of a strip will
be approximately equal to
Ami = ô [/2 (g,.)] Axi (i = l , 2 , . . . , n)
The centre of gravity of this strip will be situated approxi
mately in the centre of the appropriate rectangle:
(x,)c = li, {y,)c=tf(^ )+2h (g/)
Now replacing each strip by a material point, whose mass is
equal to the mass of the corresponding strip and is concentrated
at the centre of gravity of this strip, we find the approximate
value of the coordinates of the centre of gravity of the entire
figure [by formulas (1) and (2)]:
2&«[/t(gf)-/i(Ê/)]A*/
2J x yr axdx
4-2 ï2 4 a3
-=- 3
_o_________ 0 |i[) 5 3
a a~ 4 —5 a
2 V~a4^x'l' — Qr
2 J yTxdx 0 3 “
0
yc = 0 (since the segment is symmetric about the x-axis).
where r (. = V x f + yf.
As in Sec. 12.8, let the curve AB be given by an équation
y = /(x), a ^ x ^ i b , where f(x) is a continuous function. Let this
curve be a material line. Let the linear density of the line be y.
Again, partition the line into n parts of length As„ As2, . . . . As„,
12.9 Computing the Moment of Inertia 457
where ASi = V Axf + Ayf and the masses of these parts, A m ^vA s,,
Am2--=yAs2, Amn = yAsn. Take an arbitrary point with abs-
cissa on each part of the arc (on each suba&c). The ordinate
of this point will be % = /(£.). The moment of inertia of the arc
about the point 0 will, in accord with (1), be approximately
equal to
/ 0 ~ 2 (i! + t|r) vAs,- (2)
i = 1
If the function y = f(x) and its dérivative f' (x) are continuous,
then the sum (2) has a limit as As,- —>0. This limit, which is
expressed by a definite intégral, defines the moment of inertia of
the material line:
b _________________
x
Fig. 248
We consider one annulus (Fig. 249) with inner radius r,- and
outer radius r,- + Arf. The mass A/n,- of this annulus, to within
higher-order infinitesimals with respect to Ar(-, is A/n( = 62jtr,Ar,-.
By formula (6), the moment of inertia of
this mass about the centre is roughly
(AI 0)i » 62jir;Ar,- •rf = 62nrf •Art
The moment of inertia of the entire circle,
as a System of annuli, will be given by the
approximate formula
2 ô2rtr?Ar.- (7)
i=i
Passing to the limit as max Art —>-0, we get the moment of
inertia of the area of the circle with respect to the centre:
R
I n = 62n Çr*dr = n ô (8)
o
If the mass A4 of the circle is given, then the surface density Ô
is defined as
* M
Exercises on Chapter 12
Computing Areas
1. Find the area of a figure bounded by the Unes y2 = 9x, y = 3x. Ans. .
2.
Find the area of a figure bounded by the équilatéral hyperbola xy = a2t
the x-axis, and the lines x = a, x = 2a. Ans. a2 ln 2 .
3. Find thearea of a figure lying between the curve y — 4 — x2 and the
2
x-axis. Ans. 10-g-,
2 2 2
6 . Find the area of a figure bounded by the curve y = x3, the line y = 8,
and the t/-axis. Ans. 12.
7. Find the area of a région bounded by one *Prch of a sine wave and the
x-axis. Ans. 2.
8 . Find the area of a région lying between the parabolas y 2-— 2px, x2 = 2py.
Ans. ~ p i .
9. Find the total area of a figure bounded by the lines y = x?t y = 2x, y = x.
Ans.
10. Find the area of a région bounded by one arch of the cycloid
x = a ( t — s in /), y = a ( \ — co s/) and the x-axis. Ans. 3na2.
11. Find the area of a figure bounded by the astroid x = a c o s3 /,
3
y = a s\n 3 t*. Ans. — na2.
12. Find the area of the entire région bounded by the lemniscate
p2 = û2cos2qp. Ans. a2.
13. Compute the area of a région bounded by one loop of the curve
p = a s i n 2 <p. Ans. ~ Jta2.
O
14. Compute the total area of a région bounded by the cardioid
3
p = a ( l — cos <p). Ans. — na2.
juz2
15. Find the area of the région bounded by the curve p = a co s< p . Ans. .
un2
16. Find the area of the région bounded by the curve p = a cos 2<p. Ans. - j - .
jt
17. Find the area of the région bounded by the curve p = cos3<p. Ans. .
JUZ2
18. Find the area of the région bounded by the curve p = a cos 4<p. Ans. - j - .
Computing Volumes
x2 y2
19. The ellipse = l revolves about the x-axis. Find the volume of
4
the solid of révolution. Ans. — nab2.
O
20. The segment of a line connecting the origin with the point (a, b) re
volves about the i/-axis. Find the volume of the resulting cône. Ans. a2b.
21. Find the volume of a torus generated by révolution of the circle
x2 ( y — b)2 = a2 about the x-axis (it is assumed that b ^ a ) . Ans. 2n2a2b.
2 2 . The area bounded by the lines y 2 = 2px and x = a revolves about the
x-axis. Find the volume of the solid of révolution. Ans. npa2.
2 2 2
23. A figure bounded by the astroid x 3 + y 9 = a is
3 revolved about the
32na3
X-axis. Find the volume of the solid of révolution. Ans.
24. A figure bounded by one arch of the sine wave y = sin x and the x-axis
is revolved about the x-axis. Find the volume of the solid of révolution.
460 Ch. 12. Applications of the Definite Intégral
40. Find the length of one arch of the cycloid x = a ( t — sin /), y = a ( 1 — cos/).
Ans. 8a.
41. Find the length of an arc of the curve y ^=\ nx between x = Y 3 and
x= / 8. Ans. 1 + y I n y •
42. Find the arc length of the curve y = 1— ln cos x between x = 0 and
* = ~ . Ans. l n t a n ^ .
43. Find the length of the spiral of Archimedes p=a<p from the pôle to the
end of the first loop. Ans. n a Y 1 + 4 j i 2 - f - y ln (2ji + \ 1 + 4ji2).
44. Find the length of the spiral p=e*'f from the pôle to the point (p, <p).
Ans. J[~<X err = — Y 1+ a 2-
a a
45. Find the entire length of the curve p — a sin 3 -2-. Ans. jta.
o 2.
C2 C2
46. Find the length of the evolute of the ellipse x = — cos3 /, sin3 /.
4 (a3 — b3)
Ans.
ab
47. Find the length of the cardioid p = a (1 + cos (p). Ans. 8a.
48. Find the arc length of the involute of the circle x = a (cos <p-[-<p sin <p),
^ = a(sincp — <p cos <p) between cp= 0 and <p= q)|. Ans. — aq?î-
59. Find the centre of gravity of the area of one-fourth of the ellipse
y2 u 2 4û 4b
- * + £ = 1 ( * 3 ,0 , y ^ O ) . Ans.
60. Find the centre of gravity of the area of a figure bounded by the para-
bola x2-\-4y — 16 = 0 and the jr-axis. Ans. ^0, .
61. Find the centre of gravity of the volume of a hemisphere. Ans. On the
2
axis of symmetry at a distance -g- R from the base.
62. Find the centre of gravity of the surface of a hemisphere. Ans. On the
D
axis of symmetry at a distance from the base.
63. Find the centre of gravity of the surface of a right circular cône, the
radius of the base of which is R and the altitude h. Ans. On the axis of
h
symmetry at a distance -g- from the base.
64. The figure is bounded by the lines y = s\n x ( 0 ^ x ^ jx), y = 0. Find the
centre of gravity of the area of this figure. Ans.
65. Find the centre of gravity of the area of a figure bounded by the para-
bolas y2 = 20x, x2 = 20y. Ans. (9, 9).
6 6 . Find the centre of gravity of the area of a circular sector with centra
angle 2a and radius R. Ans. On the axis of symmetry at a distance y R
from the vertex of the sector.
67. Find the pressure of water on a rectangle vertically submerged in water
at a depth of 5 métrés if it is known that the base is 8 métrés, the altitude,
12 métrés, and the upper base is parallel to the free surface of the water. Ans.
1056 métrés.
6 8 . The upper edge of a canal lock has the shape of a square with a side
of 8 m lying on the surface of the water. Détermine the pressure on each part
of the lock formed by dividing the square by one of its diagonals. Ans.
85,333.33 kg, 170,666.67 kg.
69. Compute the work needed to pump the water out of a hemispherical
vessel of diameter 20 métrés. Ans. 2 .5 x 106ji kg-m.
70. A body is in rectilinear motion according to the law x = ct9f where x is
the path length traversed in time /, c = const. The résistance of the medium is
proportional to the square of the velocity, and k is the constant of proporti-
onality. Find the work done by the résistance when the body moves from the
point jc = 0 to the point x = a. Ans. y k y / c 2à 7.
Exercises on Chapter 12 463
71. Compute the work that has to be done in order to pump a liquid of
density y from a réservoir having the shape of a cône with vertex pointing
down, altitude H and radius of base R. Ans. .
72. A wooden float of cylindrical shape whose basal area 5 = 4,000 cm2 and
altitude H = 50 cm is floating on the surface of the water. What work must be
done to pull the float up to the surface? (Spécifie weight of the wood, 0.8).
Ans. ^ - = 3 2 kg-m.
73. Compute the force with which the water presses on a dam in the form
of an équilatéral trapezoid (upper base a = 6.4 m, lower base 6 = 4.2 m, altitude
H = 3 m). Ans. 22.2 m.
74. Find the axial component P kg of total pressure of steam on the sphe-
rical bottom of a boiler. The diameter of the cylindrical part of the boiler is
D mm, the pressure of the steam in the boiler is p kg/cm2. Ans. P = .
75. The end of a vertical shaft of radius r is supported by a fiat thrust
bearing. The weight of the shaft P is distributed equally over the entire surface
of the support. Compute the total work of friction, in one rotation of the shaft.
4
Coefficient of friction is jlx. Ans. — jipP/\
ü
76. A vertical shaft ènds in a thrust pin having the shape of a truncated
cône. The spécifie pressure of the pin on the thrust bearing is constant and
equal to P. The upper diameter of the pin is D, the lower d, and the angle at
the vertex of the cône is 2a. Coefficient of friction, p,. Find the work of fric
tion for one rotation of the shaft. Ans. ^ (O3 — d3).
6 sin a
77. A prismatic rod of length / is slowly extended by a force increasing
from 0 to P so that at each moment the tensile force is balanced by the forces
of elasticity of the rod. Compute the work A expended by the force on
tension, assuming that the tension occurred within the limits of elasticity.
F is the cross-sectional area of the rod, and E is the modulus of elasticity of
the material.
Hint. If x is the élongation of the rod and / is the corresponding force, then
FE ' PI
f = ——x. The élongation due to the force P is equal to A / = ^ r . Ans. A =
PM PH
~~ 2 “ 2 EF •
78. A prismatic beam is suspended vertically and a tensile force P is ap-
plied to its lower end. Compute the élongation of the beam due to its weight
and to the force P if it is given that the original length of the beam is /, the
cross-sectional area F, the weight Q and the modulus of elasticity of the ma-
terial E. Ans. A/
79. Détermine the time during which a liquid will flow out o f a prismatic
vessel filled to a height H. The cross-sectional area of the vessel is F, the area
of the opening /, the exit velccity is computed from the formula u = p }^ 2g/i,
where p is the coefficient of viscosity, g is the accélération of gravity, and h
2FH
is the distance from the opening to the level of the liquid. Ans. T = ----- . —_ =
n f ] f 2g H
464 Ch. 12. Applications of the Definite Intégral
80. Détermine the discharge Q (the quantity of water flowing in unit time)
over a spillway of rectarigular cross section. Height of spillway, h, width, b.
Ans. Q = ~ iibhyr<2gh.
81. Détermine the discharge of water Q flowing from a side rectangular
opening of height a and width b%if the height of the open surface of the water
above the lower sidcof the opening is H. Ans. Q —— [ H 1/2 — (H — a)*''*].
INDEX
HIGHER GEOMETRY b y N . E f t m o v
by L . E ls g o lts
PROBLEMS
IN HIGHER MATHEMATICS
b y V. M i n o r s k y
M IR P U B L I S H E R S