DCB 65

17-19 Gladding Place
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New Zealand
Phone: +64-9-262 2885

Fax: +64-9-262 2856
Email: structural@hera.org.nz
No. 65 December 2001

The author(s) of each article in this publication are noted at the beginning of the The procedure detailed herein has been the
article. subject of review by a number of people. The
effort and input of these reviewers is greatly
appreciated.
Introduction
Also on our website is a second paper entitled
The last issue focussed on results from HERA’s Elaboration on Aspects of the Postulated Collapse
semi-rigid joint research project. This issue of the World Trade Centre Twin Towers, dated
covers a range of topics, including a significant 13th December, 2001. This paper elaborates on
fire design advice article presenting a number of the collapse mechanism for the North Tower,
fire engineering design examples and a design which is relatively complex and is only
procedure for circular bolted flange annulus simplistically covered in the original paper. It also
connections. elaborates on the likely severity of the post-impact
fires, introducing new material which sheds further
Some of the topics from the last issue also light on this hotly debated issue.
warrant revisiting, principally to highlight sources
of further information. These are covered
immediately below. In This Issue Page
It has been a very busy and rewarding year for the FDA Article No. 65:
expanding team of people working in the Various Examples Covering the
4
research, education, development and promotion Design of Structural Members for
of structural steel in buildings. Some of the Fully Developed Fires
highlights from that year were presented on pages
11 and 12 of the December Issue of HERA News. Semi-rigid joints: 3 Dimensional
13
Views
One aspect covered under new products/services
was the introduction of a long-span, deep deck
Design of Circular Bolted Flange
profile. A major industry innovation in regard to 16
Annulus Connections: Part 1 of 2
that profile is also announced below, to whet
reader’s appetites for a significant new floor
system opportunity that will be available from New Cold-Formed Stainless Steel
31
2002. Structures Standard is Available
World Trade Centre Twin Towers Collapse References 32

Revisited
As mentioned in DCB Issue No. 63, HERA has The Behaviour of Concrete and Composite
published details on the possible causes of the Steel-Concrete Floor Slabs in Fire
collapses of these two towers. The original paper
on this was written by Charles Clifton, HERA This very significant fire research project, currently
Structural Engineer, dated 17th September, 2001. underway at the University of Canterbury, has, as
It has since undergone 3 revisions, with the latest its primary aim, determination of structural
dated 11th December, 2001. That revision covers behaviour of concrete floor slabs in fire. The
a number of issues that have come to light as a second objective for the researcher is to validate
result of ongoing investigations and the finite element program, SAFIR [1], to model
considerations by a range of organisations. That concrete slabs and hence to be able to use SAFIR
revision is now on the HERA website at as a reliable tool to predict the behaviour of other
www.hera.org.nz.
HERA Steel Design & Construction Bulletin Page 1 No. 65, December 2001
types of concrete and composite floor systems in
fire.
Mention was made of the project in DCB No. 64,

on pages 35 and 36.
Since then, the Principal Researcher, Linus Lim,

has established a web page for the project within
the website for the University of Canterbury
Department of Civil Engineering. This web page
gives much more detail on the following aspects
of the project:
background and objectives

test specimen details
parties involved
pictures of the test slabs’ construction.
The website is available at:

http://www.civil.canterbury.ac.nz/postgrads/linus/index.html
Fig. 65.1
ComFlor 210 Used in Slim Floor Configuration
(Century City, Wellington)
Amendment No. 1 to NZS 3404:1997
All those who completed their registration However, the profile is also well suited to
form in their copy of the Steel Structures applications where the decking sits on the top
Standard NZS 3404:1997 should have by now flange of the supporting beam, as shown in
received their copy of Amendment No. 1, dated Fig. 65.2. This is termed down-stand application
June, 2001. If you haven’t received a copy and invokes installation requirements that have
please contact Patrica Langiham of Standards had to be developed locally, as they are beyond
New Zealand on phone (04) 498-3987 or the scope of the UK design guidance – although
patrica.langiham@standards.co.nz the design of the decking for composite action is
not changed.
The amendment has been presented in a user-
friendly format to facilitate rapid transfer of the The design of the decking is straightforward in
material into the standard. either application and is covered by [3]. Design
for fire could also be through the Slab Panel
While the size of the amendment is quite small, Method, as described in DCB Issue No. 60/64 and
some of the changes introduced are significant 62.
and all users of NZS 3404 should be using the
updated copy [2] incorporating Amendment No. 1.
ComFlor 210 to be Made in New Zealand
ComFlor 210 is a long-span (up to 8 metres),

deep deck profile which has been developed in
the UK for use in slim floor construction. This
form of construction involves the decking being
mounted on the bottom flange of the supporting
beams, which are incorporated into the depth of
the finished floor slab. An example is shown in
Fig. 65.1.
The beams are typically made composite with the

surrounding concrete by various means, eg.
through the use of shear studs (Fig. 65.1). This
effective flat slab concept has been developed to
its greatest extent in the UK, where specialist hot- Fig. 65.2
rolled SlimFlor beam profiles are available ComFlor 210 Used in Down-Stand Configuration
from Corus, along with detailed design guidance, (Century City, Wellington)
eg. [3].
When the supporting beams are made composite • In place of 200 mm thick and 250 mm thick
with the concrete slab, which is usually the case, hollowcore floor slab concrete units (HCU)
determination of shear stud design shear capacity in any application
is outside the scope of NZS 3404 [2]. The general
concepts involved are given in DCB No. 55, pp. • For apartment/hotel buildings, in
18-28. The application of these concepts to conjunction with propped beams. Acoustic
ComFlor 210 decking in a downstand performance levels, as specified by [5],
configuration is given in [4]. The shear stud must be met for the former application and
capacity is particularly dependent on adequate similar levels are desired for the latter
transverse reinforcement at the base of the stud; application. Read DCB No. 57 pp. 2-14 for
an example of this is the reinforcing bar seen in general requirements relating to acoustic
Fig. 65.2. performance of steel framed (apartment)
buildings; contact either Charles Clifton at
The deck profile can span up to 8 metres propped HERA or Steve Stickland at Corus NZ Ltd
and 6 metres unpropped between supporting for more information specifically on the
beams, ie. as shown in Fig. 65.2. The ends acoustic performance of elements of
therefore attract high wet concrete loading during construction incorporating ComFlor 210
construction and require support to the sides and
top of the ribs, as well as to the rib base. In the • For office buildings, in conjunction with
slim floor configuration, this support is achieved propped beams.
using cold formed steel stop ends, which are left
in place once the concrete is poured. These stop Other significant advantages that ComFlor 210
ends have a high unit cost and are fiddly to erect. has are:
For the down-stand application, a superior
alternative in the form of re-useable plywood stop
• It provides a relatively light self-weight for
ends has been developed. Fig. 65.2 shows a
the finished floor – 2.81 kPa for 280 mm
beam with the stop ends in place and the decking
thick slab –compared with any flat slab
being erected, while, to the left, a completed
system of comparable span. (200 thick
beam is visible. Used in this manner, ComFlor HCU with topping has 4 kPa self weight)
210 provides a flooring system that is very
competitive in cost with other flooring systems
• It has an inherent fire resistance rating for
involving precast concrete units. Details
load carrying capacity and integrity of up to
regarding the sizing and fixing of these ply stop-
2 hours
ends are available from Corus New Zealand Ltd.
The decking used in New Zealand applications to • It provides a very rigid working platform for
date, such as the Century City development placing of reinforcement and concrete, with
shown in Fig. 65.2, has been imported from Corus a comparable working stiffness in the
in the UK. These applications have allowed construction stage to that shown by 200
constructability issues to be addressed and in- thick HCU floors and more rigid than
place costings to be established. The results double-tee floors.
show the decking to be cost-effective and to offer
a new and innovative composite steel solution, to For further information on any aspect of this
the extent that the go-ahead has been granted for ComFlor 210 profile and application, contact:
Corus New Zealand to produce the decking in
New Zealand for local application and export. Steve Stickland
Customer Services Engineer
The plant and equipment necessary for Corus NZ Ltd
manufacture is currently being developed, with an Phone: 0-9 634 1179
expected launch date for the New Zealand made Mobile: 021 617 309
product of mid July, 2002. Email : steve.stickland@corusnz.com
As part of the development work, the UK design

requirements for application in the slim floor
configuration will be New Zealandised and formal
design and construction requirements for
application in the down-stand configuration will be
developed.
In the meantime, design engineers and specifiers

are invited to consider this ComFlor 210 profile for
floor systems especially in the following instances:
Fire Design Advice Article 65: the design procedure given from DCB No. 58
would be very conservative. Hence the design
Various Examples Covering the fire used for a design adequacy check on this
Design of Structural Members column is the design fire C3MN described in DCB
No. 59 Table 59.1. This fire has a structural fire
for Fully Developed Fires severity (time equivalent) of 100 minutes. The
design adequacy of the concrete filled column
This article has been written by G Charles Clifton, HERA
Structural Engineer subject to this fire is checked in section 4.
1. Introduction and Scope Prior to commencing the first design check, some
information of general interest and relevant to the
1.1 Background to and scope of article design approaches used in sections 2 - 4 is given.
The role of HERA in supporting Fire Engineers is 1.2 Multi-storey steel building structural
to undertake research and provide specialist response to fire
design guidance. This is aimed at ensuring steel
building performance in fully developed fires is It is important to understand the response of a
predictable, meets or exceeds the requirements of multi-storey steel building to fire to appreciate the
the NZBC [5] and provides a cost-effective effects of elevated temperature on the building
outcome. As a general policy, HERA does not and hence to determine the appropriate design
undertake fire engineering design (FED) on procedure to use to check the adequacy of the
specific projects, preferring this work to be done building if subjected to fully developed fire attack.
by practicing Fire Engineers. Occasionally, When an individual steel beam reaches its limiting
however, the necessity to perform a project- temperature (eg. as calculated by NZS 3404 [2]) it
specific FED arises. In such cases, our policy still has sufficient strength to support the design
wherever possible is to generalise the work done long term load (ie. the fire emergency load
and to present the details as design examples in from [7]) indefinitely and without excessive
eg. the DCB, in order to benefit the profession as deflection. The majority of beams over a given
a whole. area will not suffer local buckling of the cross-
section, although some individual members may
This article has arisen from such a situation. The
do so, due to thermal effects. (This would
need arose to perform a specific FED on the car
principally affect smaller members highly
parking levels of a mixed apartment and car
restrained by larger members).
parking building, in order to demonstrate the
adequacy of elements of the structure under a
For beams which just reach their limiting
design car park fire. The Acceptable Solution
temperature from [2], some of the thermal-induced
approach would have been to use the provisions
downward deflection undergone during the fire is
of C/AS1 [6] Para. 6.10.5 for determining the fire
likely to remain. Beams in a structural system
resistance rating (FRR) requirements of car
gain rotational restraint that is available from the
parking levels, however these provisions are
surrounding members, irrespective of the type of
unrealistically severe for an unsprinklered car
end connection used. If the restraint from simple
park, which was the case in this instance.
or semi-rigid connections is ignored when
An Alternative Design solution could have been calculating the limiting temperature (ie. this
simply made by applying the recommendations temperature is based on pinned end supports)
given on page 6 of DCB No. 51. However, those then the permanent deflection, post-fire,
recommendations do not provide any guidance on associated with reaching that limiting temperature
the level of permanent deformation that might be will be minimal. The effects of this beam sag on
expected in the floor system exposed to a car fire any structural and non-structural components
and information on this was sought in this supported by the beam will be negligible
instance. compared to the effects on these components of
the fire itself. On cooling, the structure will have
The Alternative Design approach taken, therefore, the same strength as before the fire. Minor
was to develop an appropriate design fire, subject cracking in the top of a concrete floor slab above
the unprotected steel beams, columns and floor the fire floor, if present, is likely to be of aesthetic
slab to this fire and to demonstrate the adequacy concern only and would be readily repairable.
of these elements. Selected parts of this design
are presented in sections 2 and 3 below. The If the steel temperature is raised above the
columns in question were concrete–filled 300 x 9 NZS 3404 beam limiting temperature associated
SHS (structural hollow section) members. The with simple end support conditions, then the
design of concrete-filled SHS columns for fire beam’s stiffness and strength reduce further and
endurance is covered from pages 25 - 30 of DCB load is redistributed into adjacent cooler parts of
No. 58. However, because a design car fire has the structure which will be both stiffer and
so little influence on this type of column , applying stronger. Larger beam sagging deflections and
some local buckling of the beam cross-section 1.3 Brief summary of appropriate design
may occur in this instance, but the loads applied approaches to use for multi-storey steel
to the structure will continue to be supported in buildings containing unprotected steel
modern steel buildings and in most older steel members
buildings, because of continuity and redundancy
in the structure. Some local permanent damage 1.3.1 For low structural fire severity
of the steel members subject to the highest
temperatures would be sustained, but experience This involves situations where the expected
shows that such members are readily repaired. maximum fire temperature will not exceed around
750oC, the fire duration is short and the region of
The load-sharing due to continuity and fully developed fire is localised. The most
redundancy is important, because it allows common situation for this is in car parking
individual elements in the structure to be heated buildings.
beyond their limiting temperature without affecting
the structure’s overall strength and stability. This In this instance there are two options, these being:
also accounts for the substantially better
performance of multi-storey steel structures in (1.1) Determine the design fire conditions
actual fires that is observed in practice compared appropriate to the situation
with what would be expected from the results of (1.2) Determine the maximum temperature
standard fire tests on individual members. Details reached in the steel member
of this are given in session 4 of HERA Report (1.3) Check that this temperature is not in excess
R4-105 [8], which is an update of the principal of the limiting steel temperature, calculated
article on FED given in DCB Issue No. 54. in accordance with NZS 3404 Clause 11.5.
The use of end restraint conditions in
Therefore it can be seen that the attainment of the increasing this limiting temperature may be
steel limiting temperature from [2] represents a made; pages 13-15 of DCB No. 46 provide
threshold in the expected performance of a steel guidance on how to do this.
beam to withstand a fire without significant or, alternatively;
permanent damage, but does not mean that (2.1) Use design FRRs where these are
either the structure or the individual members available. (For example, see DCB No. 54
will collapse when heated to and beyond the page 17 for FRRs for the structural
NZS 3404 limiting temperature. elements of steel framed car parking
buildings)
Unprotected steel members directly exposed to a (2.2) Ensure that the design fire resistance of the
fully developed fire will heat up rapidly. In element, determined from NZS 3404 [2]
particular, any unprotected elements which can Clause 11.6 equals or exceeds the design
“see” the fire and hence receive radiation directly FRR. This in turn requires the
from it, and which are not directly in contact with a determination of the limiting steel
heat sink material like concrete, will be subjected temperature for the unprotected element.
to a time-temperature history only slightly less
severe than that of the fire. (Tmax,steel ≈ 0.9 The two options are variations on the same basic
Tmax,fire). This is illustrated in Fig. 65.3 on page 7 approach. They determine the design fire
for the bottom flange of a composite steel beam. resistance of a member acting largely in isolation
from the surrounding structure and do not take
This means that, for designs incorporating steel into account the inelastic reserve of strength that
members without specifically applied passive fire is available from a structure with insulated or fire
protection, the appropriate design procedure is resistant columns and unprotected beams subject
very dependent on the following two factors; to severe fire attack. However the structural fire
severity in this instance is too low to generate
(1) Is the member shielded from direct other than localised inelastic response, hence the
exposure to the fire by an effective radiation options are well matched to the expected
barrier, and, if so: structural fire severity.
• How long into the fire will that barrier 1.3.2 For moderate structural fire severity and
dependably remain in place limited extent of fire spread
• What is the fire time-temperature This applies especially to apartment and hotel
history after that barrier is removed buildings, which share the following
characteristics with regard to fire:
(2) If the member is directly exposed to the fire
and most or all of it is not connected to a • The building floor plans are typically divided
heat sink, what are the expected maximum into relatively small firecells, with separating
fire temperatures and durations? walls requiring both fire resistance ratings
and sound resistance ratings, therefore In such instances, many of the floor support
providing effective barriers to fire spread beams may be able to be left unprotected through
• The fire load present is relatively low (FHC application of the Slab Panel Method of floor
1 as specified by [6]) system design. This method is presented in DCB
• There is moderate or better levels of No. 60, with further material in DCB Nos 62 and
ventilation to all regions containing fire load, 64. It is supported by computer software.
due to the requirements for natural light and
amenity, resulting in fully developed fires Unlike the approaches previously mentioned, the
with relatively high peak temperatures SPM design is a high-temperature design
(around 900oC) but short duration. procedure applied to large regions of a floor and
incorporating inelastic response. It is based on
These fire characteristics are such that non-fire- unprotected steel beam elements not in contact
resistant linings, which can function as a radiation with concrete reaching temperatures in excess of
barrier for a specified dependable minimum period 850oC. It also contains detailing requirements to
of time, will shield the unprotected steel members ensure that the expected response can be
from high radiation levels past the peak of the fire achieved.
and into the cooling down phase. Thus, by the
This method incorporates a significant proportion
time the radiation barrier can no longer be relied
of the inelastic reserve of strength known to be
on to remain in place and the steel may be
available from multi-storey steel framed buildings
exposed to the fire, the fire temperatures are
with protected columns in severe fire conditions.
sufficiently cool to limit the temperature rise of the
It is conservative to apply it to low and moderate
unprotected steel member to below the limiting
fire load conditions, where lesser levels of
temperature from NZS 3404 Clause 11.5.
inelastic demand are required to be resisted.
This approach is covered in more detail on pages 1.3.4 Performance criteria to be met
17 - 18 of DCB No. 54 or session 4 of [8]; the
concept is shown in Fig. 46.2 of DCB No. 46. HERA’s FED design provisions are developed
around the building meeting a set of performance
The design approach still determines the design criteria that meet or exceed the requirements of
fire resistance of a member acting largely in the NZBC [5]. These criteria are presented on
isolation from the surrounding structure, however pages 4 - 5 of DCB No. 54 or in session 4 of [8].
it is appropriate as the inelastic demand on a
structure employing this approach, in the event of Turning now to the design examples being
fully developed fire, will be low and localised. presented in this article.
1.3.3 For high structural fire severity and 2. Design Check on Unprotected Steel
considerable extent of fire spread Secondary Beam Subject to Car Park
Car Fire
This covers the general range of FHC 2 and
FHC 3 buildings from C/AS1 [6], where a wide 2.1 Structural floor system characteristics
range of structural fire severity is possible. and loading
In such instances, the duration of severe fire The floor system subjected to the car park fire
conditions will be greater than the dependable comprises the following (only the slab and
survival time of non-fire-rated radiation barriers. secondary beam elements are given, these being
In the event of fully developed fire conditions, it the components relevant to this design example):
must therefore be assumed that unprotected steel
members will typically be subject to temperatures • normal weight concrete slab, 120 mm thick
considerably in excess of the limiting temperature on Dimond Hi-Bond [9]
from NZS 3404. • secondary beams are at 2.8 m centres
• secondary beam size, grade is 310UB40,
For low-rise and medium-rise buildings with Grade 300
sprinkler protection and where the effect of fire • secondary beams are unprotected against
spread to the neighbour doesn’t need fire
consideration, unprotected steel members can • connections to secondary beams are WP30
be an option using an Acceptable Solution to from [10]
C/AS1 [6]. • beam span is 8.3 metres
However, for buildings over 25m in height or • dead load, G = 2.4 kPa
where the Structural Fire Endurance (S) rating • live load, Q = 2.5 kPa
from [6] is required, the Acceptable Solution
The clear height from the floor below to the
requirements for steel beams and columns will
underside of the floor slab above is 2.66 m.
generally preclude the use of unprotected steel
members.
2.2 Design fire characteristics Fig. 65.3 also shows the ISO fire and associated
steel beam bottom flange temperature. This is
The design fire is shown in Fig. 65.3. It required for a comparison of the structural fire
represents the fire from one vehicle undergoing severity between the ISO fire and the carpark fire,
full burnout, as described in [11]. given in section 2.4.
Tests on open carparks [11] show that the fire will 2.3 Check on adequacy of secondary beam
dependably be confined to the car of origin.
(1) From the design fire, the maximum
Tests on closed carparks [12] show that fire temperature reached from the analysis
spread from one car to another may occur, but at in the steel beam bottom flange is
a slow rate, such that, for any one element, the Tsteel, max = 639oC.
influence of one car on fire only needs to be
considered, with that car positioned to give the Generation of both car fire and steel
most adverse exposure to the element under temperatures has been undertaken using
consideration. That approach is taken herein. an in-house spreadsheet; the steel
For the basement height to underside of the temperature is derived from the fire
secondary beams, the design fire is shown in temperature using the heat flow method
Fig. 65.3. and equations given in section 6.7 of the
A comparison of the temperatures in Fig. 65.3 Fire Engineering Design Guide [29].
with those determined experimentally in the (2) Determination of design adequacy of this
closed carpark tests [12] show the design fire beam in a simply supported condition
temperatures and duration of temperature above
500oC to be conservative compared with those (2.1) Fire emergency loading and moment on
recorded experimentally in the BHP test series. beam
The ECCS [11] design car fire is presented G + Qu = 2.4 + 2.5 x 0.4 = 3.40 kPa
as an effective fire source 0.3 m above the
wu,* lineload = 3.4 x 0.5 (2.8 + 2.8) + 0.4
floor on which the car sits. The distance from
there to the underside of the secondary beam is = 9.92 kN/m
(2.66 – 0.3 – 0.3) = 2.06 m. That is the distance w u* L2 9.92 x 8.32
used in determining the design fire, from [11],
*
Mss = = = 85.4 kNm
8 8
shown in Fig. 65.3.
(2.2) Determination of beam limiting temperature
Also shown in Fig. 65.3 is the steel beam bottom in a simply supported condition
flange temperature. This is required for the beam
adequacy check in section 2.3. This uses DCB No. 46 equation 46.3
Carpark and ISO Fire and Steel Temperatures
900
ISO fire Design carpark fire

800 Steel beam temp for carpark fire
ISO fire for 30 mins
Steel beam temp for ISO fire
700
600
Temperature DegC
Carpark fire
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Time (min)
Fig. 65.3
Design Fire and ISO Fire And Steel Beam Bottom Flange Temperatures
φfireMpos = 1.0 x 1.5 x Msx 2.4 Comparison of structural fire severity
= 1.0 x 1.5 x 202 = 303 kNm with ISO fire
φfire = 1.0 (NZS 3404 [2] Amendment Fig. 65.3 shows the steel beam bottom flange
No. 1) temperature for both the design carpark fire and
1.5 = factor accounting for the the ISO fire.
minimum increase in moment
capacity due to composite Under the design fire, two peaks of maximum
action from that for the beam temperature are reached. The reasons for this
alone (see DCB No. 2, p.2) are described in [11]. These peaks are 639oC at
Msx,310UB40= 202 kNm (for the beam alone, 15 mins and 634oC at 36 mins.
from [13] but multiplied by 1/φ) The structural fire severity is the equivalent time
*
under the ISO fire for the critical element in the
Mss 85.4 steel member to reach the maximum temperature
rf = = = 0.28
φfireMpos 303 reached under the design fire. In this instance,
that is teq = 12 mins, which gives Tsteel, ISO, 12 min =
Tl,ss = 905 – 690 rf = 711oC 642oC.
(2.3) Check on beam adequacy in simply The recommenced FRR for structural elements
supported condition in car parking buildings, given in DCB No. 54
page 17, is 15 mins. In this example, Tsteel, ISO, 15
Tl,ss = 711oC > Tsteel,max = 639oC o
min = 706 C which is more severe than the design
⇒ beam is adequate case. However, the beam would still be adequate
when considered in a simply supported condition,
(3) Conclusion as Tlimit = 711 oC from section 2.3 (2.2).
• Beam is adequate without additional 3. Design Check on Floor Slab Subject to
resistance mobilised from the WP 30 Design Car Fire
connections; this means
3.1 Slab temperatures developed from
• Permanent deflection under the design design fire
carpark fire will be minimal.
These are shown in Fig. 65.4. They have been
Some points in regard to this check are as follows:
determined by applying the design fire shown
(i) The utilisation factor, rf, is quite low. This is in Fig. 65.3 to the 120 mm thick slab on Dimond
typical for composite secondary beams, Hi-Bond. This is conservative, as the design fire
whose size is often controlled by is that developed at the level of the secondary
serviceability considerations. For example, beams; the slab soffit, which is at the top of the
in this instance, the span of 8.3 m for the secondary beams and therefore 300 mm further
310UB40 size is controlled by deflection above the fire, will be cooler.
limitations. The Composite Floor
The analysis period covers the time to which
Preliminary Design Charts [14] Tables 2
temperatures in the body and top surface of the
and 3 illustrate this point.
slab reach their maximum. The programs used
(ii) That publication [14] also lists the design for the analysis are SAFIR [1.1] and the pre-
moment capacity for 50% and for 75% processor SAPPHIRE [1.2]. The most thermally
partial composite action. That can be used conductive concrete material model in [1] has
to determine φfire Mpos instead of the been used for these analyses, corresponding to
approach in (2.2) above, which gives a Aggregate Type A from Table 6.1 of NZS 3101
lower bound value. [15].
(iii) The fire emergency loading is determined Determination of the design fire resistance of
from NZS 4203 [7] Clause 2.4.3.4 Load composite concrete slabs cast onto profiled steel
Combination (7). sheeting is undertaken using HERA Report R4-82
[16]. This matches the design fire resistance,
(iv) If the simply supported beam check had determined under the standard fire test conditions,
failed, then the additional resistance to the structural fire severity. In order to apply it to
available from the connections, as given by this design example, the temperatures generated
DCB No. 46 pp. 14 & 15, could have been under the standard fire test for a given time must
used to determine the increased fire be determined and compared with the design fire
resistance. However, this increased induced slab temperatures.
resistance is associated with increased
permanent post-fire deformation.
Temperatures within the slab at the shown selected points, slab exposed to the design car fire
500
450
400
Node 13
Node 175
350
average top of slab
Node 13
300 Node 106
Temperature DegC
250
200
150
Node 175
100
Node 106
50
0
3
12
15
18
21
24
27
30
33
36
39
42
45
48
51
54
57
60
63
66
69
e
m
Ti
Time (min)
Fig. 65.4
Temperatures from Various Locations in Floor
Slab Subjected to the Design Car Fire
Nodes from top of the slab, above the ribs and at the corner,
for 30 minutes exposure to the ISO-fire
800
700
600
Node 13
500
Temperature DegC
Node 175
400 average top of slab
Node 13
Node 106
300
200
100
Node 175
Node 106
0
e
1
3
4
6
7
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
m
Ti
Time (min)
Fig. 65.5
Temperatures From Various Locations in Floor Slab Subjected to
30 mins of Standard Fire
3.2 Comparison with standard fire test Therefore the slab meets the insulation
temperatures requirement.
The temperatures in the slab at the same The recommended FRR for floor slabs in car
locations generated by the first 30 mins of the parks, given in DCB No. 54 page 17, is 30 mins.
standard fire (ISO fire) are shown in Fig. 65.5. In this instance, the design fire exposure is less
severe than this for stability and greater than this
The comparison of temperatures between design for insulation (but still within acceptable limits).
fire exposure and 30 minutes of standard fire
exposure show that: 4. Design Check on Concrete Filled SHS
Column Subject to Fully Developed
For locations on the fire exposed face, the design Office Fire
fire exposure is considerably less severe than the
30 minutes of standard fire exposure 4.1 Design fire used
For locations within the body of the slab and on As mentioned in section 1.1, the columns
the unexposed face of the slab, the temperatures supporting the floor system used in the design
generated by the design fire are greater, but; example and also in previous two sections
comprise 300 x 9 SHS members, filled with
The temperatures reached by the slab away from '
fc,28days = 30 MPa concrete. Such members have
the fire exposed face are less than the minimum
temperatures associated with loss of strength of an inherent fire resistance well in excess of 30
the concrete or slab reinforcement, from Fig. 6.5 mins, hence their adequacy under the design car
of NZS 3101 [15]. park fire shown in Fig. 65.3 is satisfied by
inspection.
In terms of stability (ie. load-carrying capacity) of
the simply supported slab, the basement design In order to properly demonstrate application of
fire is slightly less severe than a 30 minute the fire engineering design procedure for
standard fire exposure, as this load-carrying concrete filled SHS columns given in DCB No. 58
capacity is determined by the strength available pp. 25 - 30 and [17], a more severe design fire is
from the decking and from any reinforcement necessary. The design fire chosen is C3MN from
located near the bottom of the slab. DCB No. 59, Table 59.1. This is one of a family of
design fires developed to cover the range of
3.3 Slab adequacy under design fire structural fire severities likely to be encountered in
FHC 2 and FHC 3 multi-storey buildings with
(1) For stability normal weight concrete floors. The development
of these design fires is described in section 3 of
From section 3.3 of HERA Report R4-82 the article Performance of Steel Structures in Fully
[16], the slab will meet a 30 minute Developed Fires: Fire Engineering Research
standard fire exposure without further Results of Interest on pages 8-10 of DCB No. 59.
consideration, hence a more detailed check
for stability is not necessary. The time-temperature curve for this design fire is
shown in Fig. 65.6 (a) on page 12 herein where it
(2) For integrity is called up as the Design Fire Curve. The
enclosure and fire load characteristics are as
From section 2.5 of [16], integrity will be given in Fig. 59.8 and Table 59.1 of DCB No. 59.
satisfied by the nature of the construction, The design fire has a calculated teq = 100 mins,
principally the presence of the decking in accordance with the equation used in
which seals any crack developed in the developing the S ratings of [6] (equation 59.3 from
concrete during the fire from allowing DCB No. 59). It represents a slice of a large
passage of hot gas and flame firecell and models migrating fire conditions
through that firecell.
(3) For insulation
4.2 Structural system and loading details
The requirement, as referenced from [6], is
for a minimum temperature rise on the The column is part of a gravity load–carrying
unexposed face of 140oC average and system, with simple connections (WP30) between
180oC maximum. the supported beams and the column.
For the slab subject to the design fire, the Design fire emergency compression force is;
actual predicted temperature rise (see Fig.
65.4), is 130oC average and 150 oC N G* + Qu = 1055 kN
maximum.
4.3 Check on adequacy of column 4.3.3 Check on column adequacy
4.3.1 Calculation of Cmax The concrete filling comprises plain, normal

weight concrete with no reinforcement or steel
This uses the procedure presented in [17], as
adapted to New Zealand conditions through fibres added, hence the factor to apply to Cr' is
DCB No. 58, pages 25 - 30. 1.0 (see page 17 of [17]).
Cmax
( )
 a f ' + 20 D 2.5 
=  c 
2
= 1375 kN
φNc,fire = min (1.0 Cr' ; Cmax ) = 1375 kN
 R (KL - 1,000) 

+ Qu = 1055 kN > φNc,fire
*
NG
a = 0.060, from Table 1 of [17], PC, Column is satisfactory.
aggregate type A
f c' = 30 MPa That is the end of the design check on the column
D = 300 mm itself.
R = 100 mins (the teq value)
KL = 0.85 x 2,660 mm = 2278 mm If this column were part of an office building
and subjected to a design fire of the severity of
The value of K used corresponds to one end Fig. 65.6(a), then detailing of the column to vent
pinned, the other fixed, case 2, Fig. 4.8.3.2, steam and detailing of the connections between
NZS 3404 [2]. The column is part of a gravity beam and column are particularly important.
load-resisting system, hence is braced against These aspects and other constructability issues
sideway. Under severe fire attack, the column will are covered on pp. 28 - 30 of DCB No. 58 and the
receive considerable rotational restraint from sections of [17] referenced from there.
columns on adjacent floors. Hence, in
unsprinklered buildings, K = 0.85 is appropriate. 4.4 Comparison of temperatures within the
In sprinklered buildings, K = 0.70 would be column generated by the design fire and
more appropriate, recognising the greater by the ISO fire
extent of deformation allowed in fully developed
fire conditions because of the much lower The column cross section subjected to the design
probability of these conditions occurring. As this fire exposure and to the Standard fire exposure
design example involves an unsprinklered has been modelled by [1] to determine the
building, K = 0.85 is used. Note that this is at temperature rise within the column cross section
variance with the advice from DCB No. 46 to use for each case.
K = 1.0 for unsprinklered building columns; that is
unduly conservative for columns of braced (gravity The results for a range of locations are shown in
load–resisting) systems. Fig. 65.6 (a) and 65.6 (b). The locations shown
are:
4.3.2 Calculation of Cr'
• Node A is on the outer edge of the steel
As described on pages 25 and 26 of DCB No. 58, jacket
the elastic buckling of the concrete core using • Node B is on the inner edge of the steel
ambient temperature properties provides the jacket
second limit on design compression capacity of • Node C is 10 mm into the concrete core
the column under fire conditions. This buckling along one of the principal axes
load is given by Cr' . • Node D is one third of the depth into the
concrete core along the same axis
• Node E is at the centre of the concrete core
Cr' = 0.85φcfc' Ac λ-c2  1 + 0.25λ-c4 - 0.5 λ-c2 
 
These analyses are not necessary in order to
= 1399 kN undertake the design check on the column (for
φc = 0.71 from DCB No. 58, page 27 that only a specified FRR, eg. from [6], or
Ac = 79,524 mm2 (bc = 282 mm) calculated teq , eg from [29], is required). They are
KL fc' presented to illustrate how the temperatures
λc = = 0.42 develop and vary within the column under both
rc π2 Ec
the design fire and standard fire conditions and to
Ec = 2500 fc' = 13,693 MPa show some interesting points. These are;
(all applied fire emergency design load (1) The concrete has a considerable heat sink
is considered long-term). effect on the steel jacket, conducting heat
rc = 0.29bc = 81.7 mm out of the steel and keeping its temperature
(for solid square section ; bc = 282 mm) rise lower than would be the case for a non-
concrete filled SHS. This is especially seen fire for an uninsulated steel beam subjected
in that the peak temperature reached by the to a carpark design fire).
design fire, at around 18 minutes from start
of fully developed fire conditions, is not the However, this approach is not appropriate
time of peak temperature in the steel jacket, for concrete filled steel members. In that
which would be the case without the case, the time equivalent calculated for the
concrete core being present. steel jacket, from Fig. 65.6(a), is 39
minutes. That determined from just within
Also, the rate of temperature rise of the the concrete jacket (node C) is 54 mins,
steel jacket in the first 18 minutes is slower while that for node D is 94 minutes. (These
than the rate of temperature rise of the fire; figures are shown in Fig. 65.6(b)). The
for an unprotected steel element 9 mm thick latter gives the closest agreement with the
exposed to fire and not in contact with calculated teq based on the C/AS1
concrete, these rates would be similar over approach. It also corresponds to the 350oC
most of that time. temperature contour that is associated with
the start of a reduction in concrete strength,
(2) When determining the time equivalent for a as specified by NZS 3101 [15].
natural fire through the use of an insulated
or uninsulated bare steel member, the time If one is wanting to obtain an estimate of
equivalent is the length of time in the ISO the time equivalent for a concrete filled SHS
fire that is required in order to generate the column subject to natural fire exposure on
maximum temperature reached in the all sides, then using the time-temperature
natural fire. (This concept has been used in history from a location one third into the
section 2.4 of this article, for example, to concrete core gives a reasonable answer
generate the equivalent time under the ISO for the time equivalent.
Comparisons of Temperatures at Selected Locations for ISO and Design Fires,

SHS Concrete-Filled Column (with fire C3MN.fct)
1200
1100
ISO Fire Curve
1000
Nodes A,B; ISO Fire
900
800
Temp (DegC)
700
600
500
Nodes A,B; Design Fire
400
Design Fire Curve
300
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time (min)
Fig. 65.6 (a)

Design Fire, ISO Fire and Temperatures from
Nodes A and B Under Each Fire Curve
Comparisons of Temperatures at Selected Locations for ISO and Design Fires,
SHS Concrete-Filled Column (with fire C3MN.fct)
900
800
Node C; ISO Fire
700
600
Node C; Design Fire
Temp (DegC)
500
Node D; ISO Fire

400
Node D; Design Fire

300
200
Node E; Design and ISO Fire
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time (min)
Fig. 65.6 (b)

Temperatures From Nodes C, D and E Under
Design Fire and ISO Fire Curves
Semi-Rigid Joints: each joint’s composition. These details are

presented in Fig. 65.7 for the FBJ and Fig. 65.8
3 Dimensional Views for the SHJ. In each case, two views are shown.
The solid model isometric view is to the left and
HERA has kindly been given a copy of the the exploded view to the right.
drawing program Vectorworks for our use. The
cost of this software is similar to that of the 2D The operation of Vectorworks and transfer of the
program AutoCAD LT, however Vectorworks drawings into Word took some getting used to,
allows 3D solid models to be generated. It also however the capability to produce views of this
contains an object library of standard structural type is impressive.
shapes, which assists the drawing process.
The HERA Structural Engineer would like to
As has been covered in a number of previous acknowledge the generosity of Megabits Trust,
DCB issues, we are developing two new semi- the suppliers of Vectorworks, in supplying us with
rigid joints for seismic-resisting systems. These the copy of Vectorworks 9.
are the Flange Bolted Joint (FBJ) and the Sliding
Hinge Joint (SHJ). Various drawings of each joint Any readers interested in finding out more details
have been presented in earlier Bulletins, for on this 3D drawing program should contact:
example Fig. 58.1 shows the components and
detailing for the FBJ and Fig. 59.27 shows the Dave Best
corresponding details for the SHJ. Megabits Trust
Phone : 0-9-524 7563
The capabilities of Vectorworks allows us to Email : dave@megabits.co.nz
present isometric and exploded views of each
joint, which greatly enhance the understanding of
Fig 65.7
Flange Bolted Joint: Isometric and Exploded View
Fig. 65.8
Sliding Hinge Joint: Isometric and Exploded View
Design of Circular Bolted Furthermore, many of these procedures are
written for unstiffened bolted flange plate
Flange Annulus Connections: connections, eg. as shown in Fig. 63.1.
Part 1 However, there is a significant range of
This article has been written by G Charles Clifton, HERA
Structural Engineer, with input from Nandor Mago, HERA applications that require the bolted connection to
Finite Element Analyst. Drawings are by Bruno be confined to the outside of the structure, or, at
Duerrenberger, Undergraduate Student from the FH most, to extend only a small distance to the
Ravensbury – Weingarten on Study Leave at HERA.
inside. These are typically found on relatively
1. Introduction large diameter circular towers. An example is
shown in Fig. 65.9; this is taken from a
There are a number of design procedures (hypothetical) 2 metre outside diameter tower. In
available for the design of circular bolted flange this case, the plate extends only a short distance
plate connections; see pp. 3 - 4 of DCB No. 60 for into the inside space of the column, so that the
an example. These procedures are all written for column wall to plate weld can be easily made.
connections using a flange plate which is Connections of this type allow full access up the
effectively continuous over the end of the inside of the column.
member, eg. as shown in Fig. 63.1, DCB No. 63.
Effectively continuous means that the flange plate Where these columns are subject to design
runs past the end of the column into the inner bending moment or axial tension, then the
region to a sufficient extent so that negative connection must transfer tension action across the
moment yieldlines in the flange plate can be joint. Because the flanges are annuli and are
developed, rather than flexural yielding occurring typically much thicker than the column wall, the
in the typically much thinner column wall. This pattern of flange yielding will be different to that
doesn’t preclude any openings in the flange plate, developed in a flange plate connection.
but the extent of these must be limited, such that
they will not change the behaviour of the flange The design procedure presented herein is
plate from that on which the design procedure is specifically developed for bolted flange annulus
based. connections, both steel to steel (Fig. 65.9) and
steel baseplate to concrete (Fig. 65.10). It covers
unstiffened annuli and stiffened annuli.
Section
Section
Plan
Plan
Fig. 65.9
Fig. 65.10
Stiffened Circular Bolted Flange
Stiffened Circular Bolted Flange
Annulus Connection Between Two Steel Sections
Annulus Baseplate Connection to Concrete Base
The design procedure and associated information The design actions on the joint are designed to be
is being presented in two parts. resisted on the following basis:
Part 1 - this article - covers the scope of (i) The design moment, M *, generates a
application of the design procedure and presents varying wall axial force around the
the procedure itself, along with a brief connection. In accordance with Blodgett
commentary. Part 1 will also introduce the finite [22], 82% of the moment is resisted by the
element (FE) modelling that has been undertaken two quadrants in the plane of the moment.
as part of a limited verification of the design For the design moment about the vertical
procedure. axis, the compression and tension
quadrants resisting that moment are shown
Part 2 - which will be in DCB No. 66 – will in Fig. 65.11. Quadrant AB carries 82% of
present design examples illustrating different the moment-induced compression,
applications of the method and details of the FE quadrant DC 82% of the moment-induced
study undertaken. tension.
Both articles are presented in numbered sections

for ease of cross-referencing and identification of
specific provisions. N*cw M* N* tw
2. Scope and Range of Design Procedure

Application
2.1 General
The design procedure is an ultimate limit state A D

procedure. It applies to steel to steel or steel to
concrete bolted flange annulus connections
M*
subject to design moment, M *, shear V * , and
Compression Tension
axial force, N *. Quadrant Quadrant
Due to Due to
Moment Moment
The procedure is suitable for members and
connections using the following materials:
• The column steel is grade 250, 300 or 350 B C
• The flange annulus is grade 250, 300 or

350
• Any stiffeners to the flange annulus are
Compression side Tension side of
grade 250, 300 or 350. of connection connection
• For the steel to steel connections, the bolts
are property class 8.8 HSFG to [18]
Fig. 65.11
• For the steel to concrete connections, the
bolts should be stronger than property class
4.6 – a minimum of grade 500 reinforcing (ii) The design shear, V * , is resisted
bar to AS/NZS 4671 [19] is recommended. principally by the side quadrants. In
AISI 4140 bar to [20] has equivalent *
accordance with [21], 82% of V is resisted
properties to the grade 8.8 HSFG bolts and,
when used in the “as supplied” condition by these quadrants, shown as quadrants
and with an ISO cut thread to AS 1275 [21], AD and BC in Fig. 65.11
can be galvanized. (iii) The design axial force, N * , is resisted
uniformly around the connection. Tension
The weld between column wall and flange is positive
annulus is a complete penetration butt weld or a (iv) Compression in the column wall is
double sided fillet weld sized to develop the transferred by direct bearing, across the
design tension capacity of the column wall. The connection from one surface to the other
welds between the stiffeners and their support (v) In steel to steel connections, shear is
surfaces (column wall, flange annulus) can be considered to be transferred by the ultimate
double sided fillet welds or butt welds as required shear capacity of the bolts; in practice it will
by the procedure (see section 3.6 herein). All be transferred by shear friction between the
welds are category SP to [2] contact surfaces, which are clamped by the
fully tensioned (/TB mode) bolts
(vi) In steel to concrete connections, shear is painted in accordance with DCB No. 47,
transferred by shear friction between steel pp. 1 - 3, for long-term durability.
and concrete, unless the design shear force
is very high 3. Design Method for Transferring
(vii) Tension is transferred by flexural and bolt Tension Actions Across the Steel to
tension action through the flanges and Steel Connections
bolts. The tension quadrant is critical for
this and will dictate the flange annulus 3.1 General
thickness, bolt size and spacing and
stiffener details. The first requirement is to determine the design
tension action. This is determined on a per metre
The above method of resisting the design actions width basis, in section 3.2.
imposes some limitations on the joint size, in
terms of the bolt, flange and, where required, Then the stiffened or unstiffened flange tension
stiffener spacing within the tension quadrant. capacity is calculated and its adequacy
These limitations are as follows: determined. This is undertaken in section 3.3 for
a stiffened flange annulus and in sections 3.4 or
(1) In unstiffened flange annulus connections, 3.5 for an unstiffened flange annulus. Typically,
the bolt pitch must be such that there are at section 3.4 will govern for the unstiffened flange
least three bolts contained completely case. When stiffeners are required, the design of
within the tension quadrant. The bolt size these is covered by section 3.6.
and spacing so determined is then carried
around at least the tension side of the
connection. The bolts should be at
approximately equal spacing (bolt pitch, p).
(2) In stiffened flange annulus connections, the

pattern of stiffeners and bolts must be
repeated at least two full times within the
tension quadrant. (Fig. 65.11 shows four
repeats). This pattern is then carried
around at least the tension side of the
connection.
2.2 Steel to steel connections
Additional considerations for steel to steel

connections are as follows:
• Bolt dimensions m1 and n (see Fig. 65.12)

should comply with the relevant MEP
connection dimensions from R4-100 [10]
• Bolts must be fully tensioned to NZS 3404

Clause 15.2.5. The preferred method is the
part-turn method (Clause 15.2.5.2),
especially in external environments.
2.3 Steel to concrete connections
Additional considerations for steel to concrete

connections are as follows:
• Bolts used will be typically formed from AISI

4140 bar to [20]. Refer to items (2) – (4),
page 15, DCB No. 56 for guidance on bolt
and grout/concrete selection and to the
section headed Tightening of bolts once
grout/concrete has cured, pp. 19 - 20 of Fig. 65.12
DCB No. 56, for guidance on this aspect. Layout and Dimensions for Transfer of Tension
Actions Across Connection
• In external environments, the sides and Note: This is a region of the tension quadrant shown in Fig.
bottom of the flange annulus should be 65.11
Stiffener
m2
0.5p
0.5p
m1 n m1 n
Ls
B
F
D
= negative moment yieldline
C
= positive moment yieldline

D
B
A
= negative moment yieldline = tributary length of column wall
C
Stiffener contributing design tension
A
= tributary length of column wall

contributing design tension
Fig. 65.13 Fig. 65.14

Flange Yielding Between The Flange Yielding at an Intermediate
Stiffeners in a Stiffened Flange Connection Bolt in an Unstiffened Flange Connection
0.5p
m1 n
E
= negative moment yieldline

F
C

D
B
= tributary length of column wall

A
contributing design tension
Fig. 65.15
Flange Yielding Around an Individual
Bolt in an Unstiffened Flange Connection
Fig. 65.16
Values of α For Stiffened Flanges (from [23])
Note: The dimension shown as e in this figure is termed n in section 3.3.1 and in Figs. 65.12, 65.13.
N* tw
tw
Mpr,w
Mp,f
N* p
N* p+N* tw
Fig. 65.18
65.17 Mode 2: Bolt Elongation With Flange Yielding
Mode 1: Complete Flange Yielding
3.2 Design Tension Action N* = design axial force on connection;

tension is positive, compression is
The design tension action over the tension negative (kN)
quadrant, arising from the design moment acting
on the column wall, is given by equation 65.1. The design tension action on the tributary width of
*
connection, N tw , is given by equation 65.3.
1.108 M *
*
=
N tmw/m
(do - t w )2
(65.1) *
N tw = (N *
tmw/m + N aw/m
*
)
Ltrib (65.3)
where: where:
*
N tmw/m = moment-induced design Ltrib = the tributary length of column wall
contributing the design tension to the
tension/metre width on the tension
segment under design.
quadrant (kN/m)
M* = design moment (kNm)
For a stiffened connection, Ltrib = spacing between
do = outside diameter of column (m)
stiffeners. This is shown in Fig. 65.13 as Ls.
tw = wall thickness of column (m)
The design action/m width arising from the design For an unstiffened connection, the tributary length
axial load is given by equation 65.2. is that applicable to an individual bolt. In this
case, Ltrib = the average distance from the centre
of the bolt under consideration to the centres of
N* the adjacent bolts (see Figs. 65.14 and 65.15).
*
N aw/m = (65.2)
π (d o - t w )
3.3 Stiffened flange adequacy
where:
* 3.3.1 Effective width determination
Naw/m = design axial force/m width (kN/m)
Leff = max of Leff,1 and Leff,2 (65.4)
Leff,1 = 4m1 + 1.25n + p (65.4.1)
Leff,2 = 0.5αm1 + 2m1 + 0.625n + p (65.4.2)  m1 + n 
 
 m1 
where: Cf = (65.11)
 m2 0.5p  m + n
 +  +  1 
m1 = distance from bolt centre to face of  m1 m1   m1 
column wall (for butt weld) or distance Cw = 1 – Cf (65.12)
from bolt centre to 20% of distance into
column to annulus weld leg length (for In equations 65.5 to 65.12;
fillet weld)
n = distance from bolt centre to outside Mp,f = nominal plastic moment capacity of
edge equivalent width of flange (kNm)
m2 = distance from bolt centre to 20% of tf = flange thickness
distance into stiffener weld leg length fy,f = flange yield stress
(for fillet weld) Leff = as given by equations 65.4
p = distance between bolts Mp,w = nominal plastic moment capacity of
α = as determined from Fig. 65.16 equivalent width of column wall
(kNm)
Refer to Fig. 65.12 for guidance on these tw = column wall thickness
dimensions. fy,w = column wall yield stress
Mpr,w = nominal plastic moment capacity of
Note that Fig. 65.12 shows only two bolts equivalent width of column wall
between the stiffeners. If there are more than reduced by axial force on tributary
two, p becomes the distance between the two length of column wall (kNm)
bolts that are adjacent to the stiffeners. *
N tw = design axial force on tributary length
of column wall from equation 65.3
3.3.2 Design capacity of the tributary (kN)
region of flange
φNs = design section compression capacity
of tributary length of column wall (kN)
As noted in section 3.2 equation 65.3, for a
Cf = factor for contribution of flange
stiffened flange, the tributary region of flange is
yielding to negative yieldline
the region between adjacent stiffeners. This is
development
denoted by Ls in Fig. 65.13.
Cw = factor for contribution of column wall
yielding to negative yieldline
There are two potential modes of failure of this
development
region, as shown in Figs. 65.17 and 65.18. The
n, m1, m2 = dimensions as defined in Fig. 65.12
design tension capacity is given by the minimum
and equations 65.4
of these two modes.
ΣφNtf = design tension capacity of bolts
within the tributary region (two
Mode 1: complete flange yielding
bolts for the case shown in Fig.
65.12) (kN)
 Mp, f + C f Mp, f + C w Mpr,w  φ Ntf
φN tw,1 = 0.9  
 (65.5) = design tension capacity of one bolt
 m1 + tw /2  (kN)
3.3.3 Check on flange adequacy

Mode 2: bolt elongation with flange yielding
φNtw = min (φNtw, 1 ; φNtw, 2) (65.13)
0.9 Cf Mp,f + 0.9 Cw Mpr, w + nΣφNtf
φN tw,2 =
m1 + tw /2 + n If φNtw ≥ N tw
*
, flange is adequate
(65.6)
If φNtw < N tw
*
, flange tension capacity must be
For these equations: increased.
Mp,f = 0.25 Leff tf2 fy,f (65.7)
Mp,w = 0.25 Leff tw2 fy,w (65.8) In practice, an underestimation of up to 5% will be
  * 2  acceptable, based on the FEA studies
Mpr,w = 1.19 Mp,w  1 -  N tw   ≤ Mp,w (65.9) undertaken.
  φN  
 
s 
 3.4 Unstiffened flange adequacy, yielding
φNs = 0.9 tw fy,w Ltrib (65.10) over multiple bolts in bolt group
This is the situation shown in Fig. 65.14. It will

govern in almost all cases, compared with the
individual bolt/flange yielding mode given in
section 3.5. Even though it applies to multiple If φNtw < N tw
*
, flange tension capacity must be
bolts in a group, the calculation is undertaken for
increased.
one typical bolt in that group.
3.4.1 Effective width determination 3.4.4 Alternative bolt/flange yield mode
Leff = 0.5 (pleft + pright) (65.14) If the bolt pitch is very large, then individual
yieldline patterns may form around each bolt, with
where: unyielded regions of flange between each bolt.
pleft = pitch between bolt under consideration This is unlikely to govern (ie. to yield a lower
and bolt to the left capacity than the pattern considered above),
pright = pitch between bolt under consideration however should be checked in accordance with
and bolt to the right. section 3.5.
3.4.2 Design capacity of the typical bolt 3.5 Unstiffened flange adequacy, individual
bolt/flange yielding
As noted in section 3.2 equation 65.3, for an
unstiffened connection, the tributary length, Ltrib, is This is the situation shown in Fig. 65.15.
the average distance from the centre of the bolt
under consideration to the centres of the adjacent 3.5.1 Effective width determination
bolts – ie. Ltrib = Leff from equation 65.14.
Leff = 4m1 + 1.25n (65.17)
Once again, there are two potential modes of
failure. These are given by the following: 3.5.2 Design capacity of the individual
bolt/flange region
 Mp, f + C f Mp, f + C w Mpr,w 
φN tw,1 = 0.9  
 (65.5) This is given by the following;
 m1 + tw /2 
 Mp, f + C f Mp, f + C w Mpr,w 
φN tw,1 = 0.9  
 (65.5)
0.9 Cf Mp,f + 0.9 Cw Mpr, w + nΣφNtf m1 + tw /2
φN tw,2 =  
m1 + tw /2 + n
(65.6) 0.9 Cf Mp,f + 0.9 Cw Mpr, w + nΣφNtf
φN tw,2 =
m1 + tw /2 + n
For these equations:
(65.6)
Mp,f is given by equation 65.7 but using Leff from
equation 65.14. For these equations:
Mpr,w is given by equations 65.8 to 65.10 but Mp,f is given by equation 65.7 but using Leff from
using; equation 65.17.
• Leff from equation 65.14 Mpr,w is given by equations 65.8 to 65.10 but
using;
• *
N tw is calculated from equation 65.3 using
Ltrib = Leff • Leff from equation 65.17
• φNs is calculated from equation 65.10 using
• *
N tw is calculated from equation 65.13 using
Ltrib = Leff
Ltrib = 0.5 (pleft + pright)
Cf = 0 (65.15) • φNs is calculated from equation 65.10 using
Cw = 1.0 (65.16) the same Ltrib
In equations 65.14 to 65.16; m + n

2  1 
 m1 
ΣφNtf = φNtf = design tension capacity for the Cf = (65.18)
  
one bolt under consideration.  2 + 2 m1 + n  
  m 
  1 
3.4.3 Check on flange adequacy
Cw = 1 – Cf (65.19)
φNtw = min (φ Ntw,1 ; φNtw,2) (65.13)
ΣφNtf = φNtf = design tension capacity for the
If φNtw ≥ N tw
*
, flange is adequate one bolt under consideration.
3.5.3 Check on flange adequacy The welds between the column wall and stiffener
*
should be sized to develop Nstffener over the
φNtw = min (φNtw,1 ; φNtw,2) (65.13) height of the stiffener, hs.
If φNtw ≥ N tw
*
, flange is adequate 4. Design Method for Transfer of Shear
and Compression Actions Across the
If φNtw < N tw
*
, flange tension capacity must be Steel to Steel Connection
increased.
4.1 Design for shear transfer
3.6 Design of stiffeners and their
connections in stiffened flange 82% of the design shear transfer takes place
connections through the two side quadrants, ie. AD and BC in
Fig. 65.11.
The stiffener must be able to transfer the following
load from the flange into the wall of the column: The number of bolts in each side quadrant
required is therefore given by:
 L  
*
N stffener = max   φN tw,s - φN tw,us trib,s  ; 0.5φNtw,s 
 Ltrib,us   0.41V *
  nb,s,quad ≥ (65.22)
φVfn
(65.20)
where:
φNtw,s = stiffened flanged tension capacity from where:
section 3.3.3 nb,s,quad = number of bolts required in one of the
side quadrants to resist the design
shear V*
φNtw,us = unstiffened flange tension capacity from
section 3.4.3 (typically) or section 3.5.3 φVfn = design shear capacity of bolt, threads
included in shear plane.
Ltrib,s = tributary length for stiffened flange, from
section 3.3.2 (=Ls) In practice, if the bolt size and number required to
transfer the tension actions is continued around
Ltrib,us = tributary length for unstiffened flange, the connection, then equation 65.22 will typically
from section 3.4.2 or section 3.5.2 readily be satisfied.
The stiffener area in contact with the flange 4.2 Design for compression transfer
and the welds between flange and stiffener
must be sized so that their design tension The compression force is most critical in the
compression quadrant (see Fig. 65.11), where it is
capacity ≥ Nstffener
*
. The stiffener should extend given by;
to within 10 mm of the edge of the flange,
stopping short far enough to run a weld around • Equation 65.1 for moment-induced
the face of the stiffener. *
compression magnitude (termed Ncmw/m ).
The stiffener area in contact with the column • Equation 65.2 for axial force induced
*
wall must be sized so that its design shear compression magnitude (termed Naw/m ).
capacity, incorporating a non-uniformity factor of
0.83, ≥ Nstffener
*
. This is given by: *
Ncw/m *
= - Ncmw/m *
+ Naw/m (65.23)
0.45 hstsfys ≥ Nstffener

*
(65.21) where:
*
Ncmw/m is negative, denoting moment-induced
where: compression
hs = height of stiffener up wall of column
ts = stiffener thickness *
Naw/m is negative if compression, positive if
fys = stiffener nominal yield stress
tension
The stiffener ends should be cut so that they run
perpendicular into the flange and into the column The compression is transferred by bearing across
wall for a depth ≥ tw (weld leg length) or 10 mm, the joint, in accordance with NZS 3404 Clauses
whichever is the least. This is shown in Fig. 65.9, 5.14.1 and 14.3.2.
section, and facilitates welding around the
stiffener end. Where the bolt and stiffener spacing required for
the tension quadrant is continued around the
column, design for compression transfer is easily 5.2.2 Determination of Np* and abase
achieved without further consideration required.
5. Modifications Required for Steel to φfcb = φc0.85 f c'

A2
(MPa) (65.24)
Concrete Connection A1
where:
5.1 General φc = 0.65
'
This is the case shown in Fig. 65.10. The basic fc = specified 28 day concrete compression
detail used is similar to that for the steel to steel stress (designer’s choice but ≥ 25 MPa
connection, except that the flange annulus recommended) (MPa)
typically extends slightly further in both directions.
A2
Fig. 65.19 shows a section through the baseplate = enhancement factor due to confinement,
detail with the notation involved. The deformed A1
shape shown in Fig. 65.19 corresponds to a mode from NZS 3101 [15] Clause 8.3.5.2
2 type failure in the steel to steel connection, as
shown in Fig. 65.18. However, mode 1 could also The effective uniform compression width on the
govern and both need consideration. concrete, abase, is given by;
The modifications required to the design for Np*

tension adequacy steel to steel, given in section 3, abase = (65.25)
Ltrib φ fcb
to account for steel to concrete, are described in
section 5.2. Those required for shear are
where:
described in section 5.3; those for compression in
section 5.4. Np* = prying force component (N)
Ltrib = tributary length for the flange annular
5.2 Design for tension transfer adequacy, base connection detail (as previously
steel to concrete calculated but taken at the outer edge of
the annulus, if desired.) (mm)
5.2.1 General details *
Np must be found as part of the overall design
The modifications required to use sections 3.3, procedure, which is as follows:
3.4 or 3.5, whichever is appropriate, for steel
flange in contact with concrete or grout are simple 5.2.3 Steps involved in procedure
and illustrated in Fig. 65.19. They involve
*
calculating the width of concrete required to resist Step 1: Using Np* = 0.75 N tw , calculate abase
the applied load and prying effects, then taking from equation 65.25
the effective edge of the flange annulus as
extending (n – a/2) out from the centreline of the Step 2: Go into the equation 65.6 for mode 2,
bolt. from the appropriate section (3.3.2,
N* tw 3.4.2 or 3.5.2) substituting (n – 0.5a) for
n, and calculate φNtw2
Step 3: Recalculate Np* = ΣφNtf - φNtw,2 (65.26)
n m+tw/2 Step 4: Recalculate abase and hence φNtw,2
Repeat as required until φNtw,i+1 ≈ Ntw,i
Mpr,w This should take only 1 or 2 iterations

fcb
Step 5: Determine φNtw,1 for mode 1 from

equation 65.5 in the appropriate section
a – ie. 3.3.2, 3.4.2 or 3.5.2
Step 6: Check adequacy of flange from:

N* p φNtw = min (φNtw,1 ; φNtw,2)
N* p+N* tw
If φNtw ≥ N tw
*
, flange is adequate
Fig. 65.19
Modification to Failure Modes to Allow for Steel to
Concrete Baseplate Connection If φNtw < N tw
*
, flange tension capacity
Note: a = abase must be increased.
5.2.4 Practical limit on procedure the same as that under the compression flange of
a moment-resisting column baseplate connection,
abase ≤ (n – tf) is recommended (65.27) as described on pages 16, 17 of DCB No. 56 and
the same expression for concrete bearing width is
5.3 Design for shear transfer capacity, steel used herein.
to concrete
X is calculated for a metre width of wall in the
This can be undertaken in accordance with step 4, compression quadrant as:
section 6.9 of [23]; page 97 therein.
*
N cw/m
82% of shear is, in theory, resisted by the two side X = (mm) (65.30)
quadrants, using a design friction coefficient of 0.3 φfcb
'
x the design compression load on the side

quadrants. However, that design compression where:
load will be low compared with the compression *
Ncw/m = magnitude (taken as positive) of design
load developed in the compression quadrant. compression force/m width in the wall of
Therefore, the design shear will be transferred the column over the compression
from column to annulus, transferred around to the quadrant, calculated using equation
compression quadrant and resisted by friction 65.23 (kN/m)
contact with the concrete in the compression
quadrant. φfcb = design concrete bearing stress from
equation 65.24 (MPa)
If the following two equations are satisfied, then
this mechanism can be taken as sufficient to resist N* cw
the design shear, V*
0.54wftffyf ≥ 0.46V* (65.28)
and
*
0.3 N cw/mLcomp > V * (65.29)
Outside Inside
where:
wf = width across flange annulus at base
Lcomp = 0.39 (do – tw)
= length of compression quadrant
*
Ncw/m = magnitude (taken as positive) of design
45°
45°
tf
compression force/m from equation A B
65.23.
If these are not satisfied, then resist some design

f cb
shear through bolt bearing in the side quadrants,

using page 97 of [23]. Refer to Appendix A56,
DCB No. 56, for differences in notation etc. N cb
between New Zealand design practice and that of = =
SCI Publication 207/95 [23]. X
bs
5.4 Design for compression transfer
capacity, steel to concrete Fig. 65.20
Compression Stress Block in Concrete,
5.4.1 Symmetrical transfer of compression in Compression Quadrant, Centered Under
into concrete Column Wall
The design compression force down the wall of Calculate the stiff bearing length, bs, shown in
the column in the compression quadrant is Fig. 65.20
transferred by bearing directly into the concrete,
as illustrated in Fig. 65.20. bs = 2tf + tw (65.31)
The design check involves determining the width If X ≤ bs, then the design is complete
of concrete in bearing required (ie. the width X in
Fig. 65.20), then checking the adequacy of the
flange plate under these loads. The approach is
If X > bs, then the adequacy of the flange plate to design procedure can be used for splices in
resist cantilever bending beyond the face of the concrete filled SHS columns in seismic-resisting
column wall governs. The check involves: systems. The design actions on these splices are
given by NZS 3404 Clause 12.9.2.2 and the
4mc splices are required to be located remote from
tf,c,min = (65.32) potential yielding regions. This will typically place
φfy,f them within the visible length of column, so the
appearance of the joint – ie. with the external
X t 
2 bolted flanges as shown in Fig. 65.9 – may
mc = 0.5φfcb  - w  (Nmm/mm) (65.33) preclude its use. When applied to concrete filled
2 2 columns, the moment-induced tension in the
column wall generated by M* should be
where: determined on the basis that the steel alone is
All variables are as previously defined carrying the moment internal actions – ie. by using
section 3.2 for tension action and section 4.2 for
The flange thickness chosen, tf ≥ tf,c,min . Use the compression action.
thickness already determined from the tension
side calculations as the starting point. The limitations on connection size given on
page 18, section 2.1, may impose a lower limit on
5.4.2 Unsymmetrical transfer of the use of this procedure. A quick indication of
compression into concrete whether or not those limitations will govern can be
obtained by calculating the estimated number of
If the annulus cannot, for whatever reason, extend bolts that can fit into the tension quadrant,
inside the line of the column wall inner surface, nb,tq,est,from equation 65.34.
then the distribution of column wall compression
force into the concrete is unsymmetrical. 0.39 (d o - t w )
nb,tq,est = (65.34)
Sg
In that case, X is still calculated from equation
65.30. However, its position is different to that
shown in Fig. 65.20, starting at the inner edge of where:
the flange annulus and extending under the Sg = bolt gauge for given bolt size from
column wall as far as is required. R4-100 [10]
If the outer edge of this stress block does not This represents, for example, two bolts grouped
extend beyond the outer edge of the stiff bearing around a stiffener in a stiffened flange connection.
length (ie. point A shown in Fig. 65.20), then no
consideration of plate bending is required. If nb,tq,est ≤ 2.7, either the column is likely to be too
small to use this procedure on, or the bolt spacing
If the outer edge does extend beyond that point, needs to be reduced below that recommended by
then plate bending and eccentric transfer of the [10].
compression force must be considered using
equations 65.32 and 65.33, modified as required For example, if do = 650 mm (a reasonable
for the changed geometry. diameter for a concrete filled SHS column), then,
even with M24 bolts, nb,tq,est = 2.75 In this
6. Commentary to the Design Method instance, the bolt layout would be on a circle of
(do + 2m1) = 780 mm, where m1 = 65 mm in
6.1 Commentary on Introduction accordance with [10]. The length of tension
quadrant, measured on the bolt centreline, is
The design procedure is derived from the 304 mm. If the bolts are equally spaced, then to
provisions of SCI Publication 207/95, especially meet the requirement of section 2.1 (1) for at least
those covering transfer of tension actions. 3 bolts fully within this quadrant, the bolt pitch
must not exceed 304/3 = 101 mm. This is greater
6.2 Commentary on scope and range of than the 90 mm recommendation of [10] and
design procedure application hence would be workable in practice, whereas
going to the next larger bolt size, M30, would not
The design procedure can be used for a wide be practicable.
range of circular bolted flange annulus
connections, from connections in large diameter 6.3 Commentary on design method for
towers through to connection of concrete filled transferring tension actions
steel hollow section columns. As the FEA studies
undertaken to date (see section 7) show that the The design tension action on the tension
joint remains essentially elastic up to attainment of quadrant, arising from the design moment, is
the design ultimate limit state actions on it, the
given by equation 65.1. The background to that length per bolt for the given bolt group
equation is as follows: configuration
• As 82% of the moment is carried by the (2) The effective T-stub has a flange on one
tension/compression quadrants, the axial side only, as shown in Figs. 65.17 and
force generated = 0.82M*/dlever 65.18. This means that either complete
flange yielding or bolt elongation with flange
• dlever is the distance from the centroid of the yielding are the only two failure modes
tension quadrant to the centroid of the possible.
compression quadrant. On the tension
side, measured along the axis in (3) As shown in Figs. 65.13 – 65.15, the
the plane of the moment, this centroid yieldline patterns developed in the flange
is 0.924r from the centre of the section involve a mix of negative moment yieldlines
(r = radius of column measured to wall and positive moment yieldlines. Where a
centreline). On the compression side, negative moment yieldline develops at the
the effective centroid will be closer column wall, the yieldline will typically
to the extreme point of compression develop in the much thinner column wall.
contact and is taken as ((1 + 0.924)/2)r This is incorporated into the failure modes
from the centre. The distance shown in Figs. 65.17 and 65.18 and the
between the two centroids is therefore corresponding equations 65.5 and 65.6. An
(0.924 + 0.962)r = 1.87r. Measured along example is yieldline BE in Fig. 65.13.
the diameter to the wall centreline, this is However, where a negative moment
0.943(do – tw). yieldline develops in the flange – for
example yieldline AB in Fig. 65.13 or
• The tension force from bending moment yieldlines AB, EF in Fig. 65.15 – then this
as applied over the tension quadrant mobilises the greater moment capacity of
= (0.82M*)/0.943(do – tw) the flange. Thus the negative moment
yieldlines are developed by the flange and
• This force is applied over a length of column wall in varying proportions,
tension quadrant = 0.25π(do – tw) depending on the yieldline pattern
governing a particular situation. This is
• The moment-induced tension force per accounted for through the coefficients Cf
metre width of tension quadrant is and Cw, which have been derived from the
therefore given by: yieldline patterns shown in Figs. 63.13 -
(0.82M*) / [0.943(do – tw) 0.25π(do – tw)], 63.15.
which is equation 65.1.
(4) For the unstiffened flange, two cases are
given. Typically the first will always govern.
The design procedure given in this section is
developed from the recommendations of SCI
The FEA studies on the stiffened flange
Publication 207/95 [23] section 2.8.
connection show that the yieldline failure mode for
The SCI procedure is based on an effective this detail, shown in Fig. 65.13, is realistic. More
T-stub approach, in which: on these in section 7 below and in the Part 2
article, next DCB Issue.
(i) The effective length of an equivalent T-stub
based on the expected yieldline pattern is The design tension to be carried by the stiffener,
determined, then given by equation 65.20, is based on the
maximum of the following:
(ii) The tension capacity of this equivalent
T-stub is calculated. This capacity is • The difference between the stiffened and
governed by either complete flange unstiffened design capacity, or
yielding, combined bolt elongation and • One half of the stiffened design capacity
partial flange yielding or complete bolt
elongation. The FEA studies show that the stiffeners attract a
significant proportion of the tension force,
In applying the SCI procedure to a flange annulus commensurate with that predicted by this
connection, the following modifications must be equation. Their thickness should equal or exceed
made: the column wall thickness.
(1) The effective length is calculated based on In equation 65.21, the 0.45 = 0.9 x 0.6 x 0.83.
the provisions of [23], which is the effective The 0.9 is the strength reduction factor. The 0.6
is the factor converting tensile yield stress to
shear yield stress and the 0.83 is the non-
uniformity factor, from NZS 3404 [2] Clause side), this is given by 0.6 x the design section
5.11.3, for shear resistance across a rectangular capacity of the flange. On the right hand side (the
plate. design action side), the total shear passing point
A (or point B) into the compression quadrant is
6.4 Commentary on design method for given by (0.41V* + (1 – 0.82) x 0.5V*) = 0.46V*.
transfer of shear and compression
actions across the steel to steel If all the shear is to be transferred into the
connection concrete within the compression quadrant, then
the shear capacity = 0.3 x the compression force
These provisions are very straight-forward and (from [23]); this is equation 65.29.
don’t require specific explanation.
7. Finite Element Analysis Verification
In practice, if the bolt/flange/stiffener requirements Study
for tension transfer are carried around the full
circumference then the shear and compression 7.1 Scope and aims of study
capacity will typically also be satisfied.
A limited verification study is being undertaken in
6.5 Commentary on the modifications order to determine the following:
required for the steel to concrete (1) Is the joint behaviour under loading below,
connection at and beyond the design loading in line
with the predicted behaviour?
For bolted flange annuli subject to design tension,
if the flanges start to separate at the bolt line, the (2) The design procedure is an ultimate limit
point of compression contact shifts to the outer state procedure and is based on inelastic
edge of the flange, as shown in Fig. 65.18. This is actions developing in selected joint
well supported by experimental testing. components under the design actions. At
what proportion of the design load does
For a flange annulus supported on concrete, this plasticity start to develop?
assumption is not valid. Instead, a zone of
concrete in bearing will support the flange, as (3) What extent of plasticity is developed at the
shown in Fig. 65.19. The approach that has been design loads and where?
taken herein is to take the effective flange
extension beyond the bolt contreline as running to (4) Is the pattern of flange yieldline
the centre of this concrete bearing area. In development shown in Fig. 65.13 realistic
practice, that is probably conservative. for a stiffened flange detail?
An iterative procedure is required to establish the A detailed description of the FEA study will be
magnitude of prying associated with this, as given given in Part 2 of this article. This article briefly
in section 5.2.3. describes the example joint that has been
modelled and the key results obtained.
Having determined what the prying force, hence
the width of concrete in compression and hence The FEA program ABAQUS/Standard [24] has
the design tension capacity would be for the mode been used for these analyses.
2 form of failure, the possibility of complete flange
failure (mode 1) giving a lower design tension The FEA modelling has been undertaken by
capacity must be considered. This is calculated in Nandor Mago, HERA Finite Element Analyst.
step 3 and the minimum value from the two
modes checked in step 6. 7.2 Brief Description of Joint Being
Modelled
The design for transfer of shear and Fig. 65.21 shows the joint being modelled in the
compression in the steel to concrete study.
connection, presented in sections 5.3 and 5.4
respectively, carry explanatory notes in those The joint is a stiffened flange annulus, of the type
sections and hence don’t require additional shown in Fig. 65.9. It was modelled as occurring
commentary, except for equation 65.28. 1 m above ground on a 5 m high cantilever tower,
subject to design bending moment and shear
Equation 65.28 is derived on the basis that the force generated by an applied point load at the
shear force being transmitted from each shear top.
quadrant into the compression quadrant (ie. past
the points A and B in Fig. 65.11) must not The advantage of symmetry has been used to
generate a sufficiently large axial force to reduce model half the joint, with an axis of symmetry
the bending capacity of the flange. On the left through the centre. The load is applied at the top,
hand side of the equation (the design capacity in the plane of symmetry.
Fig. 65.21
Stiffened Circular Bolted Flange Annulus
Connection Modelled in FEA Verification Study
The joint modelled is that being used in a design (ii) S* (design actions)
example which will be presented in Part 2 of this (iii) 1.25S*
article, DCB No. 66. Key details of the connection (iv) 1.5S*
and design actions are as follows:
Results of the analyses will be presented in Part 2
• Column details are: of this article. At the time of writing this,
do = 2000 mm preliminary results for all levels of applied load are
tw = 16 mm available.
Grade 250 steel
7.3 Key results from modelling
• Flange annulus details are:
wf = 150 mm These are as follows:
m1 = 65 mm
m2 = 65 mm (1) There is negligible plasticity developed in
n = 55 mm the joint components under 0.75S*
tf = 25 mm (maximum local strain 0.3%)
Grade 250 steel (2) Very minor and localised plasticity is
developed in the stiffeners and flange
• Bolt details are: closest to the point of maximum tension
32 number M30 8.8/TB (the tensioning has under S*
been modelled) (3) The bolt tensions in the tension quadrant do
not increase appreciably following pre-
• Stiffener details are: tensioning and up to application of the
shape, spacing as shown in Fig. 65.9 design actions on the joint
grade 250 steel (4) The bolt tensions in the compression
quadrant do not increase following pre-
Design actions at the connection, S*, are tensioning
(5) Review of the magnified deformed shape of
M* = 3681 kNm the flange in the tension quadrant under S*
V* = 740 kN shows a deformed shape consistent with
The joint performance has been determined for the yieldline pattern postulated in Fig. 65.13
the following levels of loading. (6) The inelastic demands on the joint
components under 1.5S* are within the
(i) 0.75S* (corresponding approximately to dependable capacity of all joint
the maximum serviceability load) components.
New Cold-Formed Stainless properties are to be used – see also Clause 3.1
for more guidance on this
Steel Structures* Standard is
Available Section 3: Members
(Structures* means any fabricated object made
from stainless steel, from tanks to piping to This is the key section for member design,
cladding systems to structural supporting covering section capacity determination for
systems). members subject to axial forces, bending moment
and combined actions.
Scope and Format of Standard.
There is a special section for tubular members,
Despite the fact that New Zealand is one of the recognising that many applications involve the use
largest users of stainless steel in the world ( in of these members and that the design of these is
terms of tonnage used for the size of the different to, and typically more straight-forward
economy), up to now we have not had a New than the design of open sections.
Zealand Standard for the design of stainless steel
structures. Section 4: Structural assemblies.
That situation has now been rectified with This section gives requirements for design of
the publication of the state-of-the-art standard compound members and details for providing
Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Structures, AS/NZS lateral restraint to a range of members. The latter
4673:2001 [25]. provisions are cross-referenced back to the
relevant member capacity determination
The design requirements for stainless steel in provisions of section 3.
structures bears more similarity to the design
requirements for thin gauge structural steel than it Section 5: Connections.
does to those for application of “heavy” structural
steel. This is because many stainless steel This covers determination of the capacity of
members are custom formed from thin gauge welded and bolted connections, using the
plate, rather than comprising hot-rolled or welded specified grades of stainless steel weld metal and
sections with relatively stocky elements. bolts.
Furthermore, many grades of stainless steel
contain significant extents of cold working, which It provides considerable detail on the grades of
must be accounted for in determining the material stainless steel bolts to be used.
properties and design capacities.
Section 6: Testing.
For these reasons, the format of AS/NZS 4673 is
very similar to that of AS/NZS 4600 Cold-Formed
As with cold-formed steel elements, in quite a few
Steel Structures [26].
instances, the determination of design capacity is
outside the scope of established calculation
This article very briefly outlines the content of the
provisions and requires the use of experimental
new Stainless Steel Structures Standard and goes
testing. This section provides the testing
on to mention sources of design guidance.
framework requirements in terms of procedures,
loads and reporting provisions.
Content of AS/NZS 4673
Appendices.
This is as follows:
Appendix A contains the list of related documents
Section 1: Scope and General.
Appendix B contains mechanical properties. This
Section 1 presents the scope of the Standard - in is essential first up reading for those not familiar
clause 1-1 - , and notation and definitions. It also with stainless steel design, as the properties
outlines the design requirements, especially the exhibit some significant differences to those of
interface with NZS 4203 [7]. carbon steel, especially in regard to the lack of a
clearly defined yield point.
Section 2: Elements
Appendix C is arguably the most useful starting
This section contains the effective section point into the standard for the unfamiliar. It gives a
provisions which account for the effect of local detailed description of stainless steel properties,
buckling and shear lag. It also details when full covering effect of alloying elements, surface
section properties and when effective section finish, mechanical behaviour, physical properties,
HERA Steel Design & Construction Bulletin Page 31 No. 65 December 2001
selection for durability, details of available grades,
selection of these grades for given applications
References
and references for more information. 1.1 Franssen, JM et.al.; SAFIR: A Computer
Program for Analysis of Structures
Appendix D does for fasteners what Appendix C Submitted to the Fire; University of Liege,
does for steel plate and sections. Belgium, 1998/2001.
Appendix E provides guidance on the applicability 1.2 Mason, J; SAPPHIRE: A Pre-Processor for
of elastic structural analysis to continuous beams SAFIR; Sinclair Knight Merz, Wellington,
and frames constructed from stainless steel. 2000.
Appendix F provides some guidance on design 2. NZS 3404: 1997, plus Amendment No. 1:
and detailing for high-cycle fatigue. The provisions 2001, Steel Structures Standard; Standards
are written for use in conjunction with NZS 3404 New Zealand, Wellington.
Section 10.
3. Mullet DL and Lawson RM; Design of
Slimflor Fabricated Beams Using Deep
Appendix G contains a small amount of guidance
Composite Decking; The Steel
on design for fire.
Construction Institute, Ascot, England,
1998, SCI Publication P248.
Appendix H provides requirements for section
property determination 4. Hyland C. et.al: Composite Down-Stand
Steel Beam Behaviour with a Profiled
Appendix I provides effective width requirements Deep-Deck Slab; Australian Structural
for compression elements with stress gradients. Engineering Conference, Gold Coast,
Australia, 2001; The Institute of Engineers,
Appendix J provides a very good set of provisions Australia, Canberra, Australia, 2001.
for design of hollow section lattice girder
connections subject to static loading. 5. NZBC:1992, New Zealand Building Code;
Building Industry Authority, Wellington.
Sources of Design Guidance.
6. C/AS1: 2001, Acceptable Solution for Fire
As has been previously mentioned, the new Safety; Building Industry Authority,
Standard has many similarities to AS/NZS 4600 Wellington.
[26]. DCB No 55, pp.2-15, contains a very detailed
design example on design of a cold-formed, thin- 7. NZS 4203:1992, General Structural Design
walled single angle chord truss member subject to and Design Loadings for Buildings;
combined compression and in-plane moment. Standards New Zealand, Wellington.
That design example will be of assistance to those
struggling with the concepts of member and 8. Clifton, GC and Robinson, J; Notes
section buckling in all its various modes. See Prepared for a Seminar on The Behaviour
especially the section entitled Important general and Design of Multi-Storey Steel Framed
considerations on page 15 of that issue, which will Buildings for Severe Fires, Revised June
also have relevance in design of thin-walled 2001; HERA Manukau City, 2001, HERA
stainless steel sections to AS/NZS 4673 [25]. Report R4-105.
There is a good range of design examples in the 9. Hi-Bond Design Manual; Dimond Structural,
Euro-Innox Design Manual [27], which may be of Auckland, 1997.
assistance, as the design provisions of [25] are
also similar in format and content to those in [27]. 10. Hyland C; Structural Steelwork Connection
Guide Incorporating Amendment No 1;
Finally, HERA will be running a seminar series on HERA, Manukau City, 1999/2001, HERA
the new standard in February 2002. The seminar Report R4-100.
notes to be published [28] will be another valuable
source of design guidance. They will cover 11. Fire Safety in Open Car Parks: Modern
aspects of durability, availability and Fire Engineering; ECCS, Brussels, 1993,
constructability in addition to the design provisions ECCS Technical Note No. 75.
of the new Standard [25].
12. Bennetts, ID et.al; Fire and Unprotected
Steel in Closed Carparks; BHP Melbourne
Research Laboratories, Melbourne,
Australia, 1998, Report No.
MRL/PS98/87/001.
13. Design Capacity Tables for Structural Steel, 26. AS/NZS 4600:1996, Cold-Formed Steel
Third Edition, Volume 1 : Open Sections; Structures; Standards New Zealand,
Australian Institute of Steel Construction, Wellington.
Sydney, Australia, 2000.
27. Design Manual for Structural Stainless
14. Composite Floor Preliminary Design Steel; European Stainless Steel
Charts; Steltech Structural Ltd, Auckland, Development and Information Group, Nickel
1999. Development Institute, England, 1994.
15. NZS 3101:1995 (incorporating 28. Notes Prepared for Seminar on Designing
Amendments 1 and 2, 1997), Concrete Stainless Steel Structures, HERA, Manukau
Structures Standard; Standards New City, 2002 (to be published February,
Zealand. 2002).
16. Barber, DJ; Calculation of the Fire 29. Buchanan, AH (Editor); Fire Engineering
Resistance of Composite Concrete Slabs Design Guide; Centre for Advanced
With Profiled Steel Sheet Under Fire Engineering, University of Canterbury,
Emergency Conditions; HERA, Manukau Christchurch, 1994 (Note that the Second
City, 1994, HERA Report R4-82. Edition, published 2001, is now the current
edition).
17. Kodur, VKR and MacKinnon, DH; Design of
Concrete-Filled Hollow Structural Steel
Columns for Fire Endurance; AISC
Engineering Journal, First quarter, 2000,
pp. 13-24.
18. AS/NZS 1252:1996, High Strength Bolts

With Associated Nuts and Washers for
Structural Engineering; Standards New
Zealand, Wellington.
19. AS/NZS 4671: 2001, Steel Reinforcing

Materials; Standards New Zealand,
Wellington.
20. ASTM A 320M-94, Specification for Alloy

Steel Bolting Materials for Low
Temperature Service, American Society for
Testing and Materials, West
Conshohocken, PA, USA.
21. AS 1275:1985, Metric Screw Threads for

Fasteners; Standards Australia, Sydney,
Australia.
22. Blodgett, OW; Weld Failures: They Could

Be the Result of Violating Simple Design
Principles; Welding Journal, March 1982.
23. Joints in Steel Construction: Moment

Connections; The Steel Construction
Institute, Ascot, England, 1995, SCI
Publication P207/95.
24. ABAQUS/Standard; Finite Element Analysis

Program; HKS Inc, Pawtucket RI, USA,
2001.
25. AS/NZS 4673:2001, Cold-Formed Stainless

Steel Structures; Standards New Zealand,
Wellington.

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17-19 Gladding Place

Phone: +64-9-262 2885

No. 65 December 2001

World Trade Centre Twin Towers Collapse References 32

Mention was made of the project in DCB No. 64,

Since then, the Principal Researcher, Linus Lim,

background and objectives

The website is available at:

ComFlor 210 to be Made in New Zealand

ComFlor 210 is a long-span (up to 8 metres),

The beams are typically made composite with the

As part of the development work, the UK design

In the meantime, design engineers and specifiers

Carpark and ISO Fire and Steel Temperatures

ISO fire Design carpark fire

4.3.1 Calculation of Cmax The concrete filling comprises plain, normal

Comparisons of Temperatures at Selected Locations for ISO and Design Fires,

Fig. 65.6 (a)

Node D; ISO Fire

Node D; Design Fire

Fig. 65.6 (b)

Semi-Rigid Joints: each joint’s composition. These details are

Both articles are presented in numbered sections

2. Scope and Range of Design Procedure

The design procedure is an ultimate limit state A D

• The column steel is grade 250, 300 or 350 B C

• The flange annulus is grade 250, 300 or

(2) In stiffened flange annulus connections, the

2.2 Steel to steel connections

Additional considerations for steel to steel

• Bolt dimensions m1 and n (see Fig. 65.12)

• Bolts must be fully tensioned to NZS 3404

2.3 Steel to concrete connections

Additional considerations for steel to concrete

• Bolts used will be typically formed from AISI

= positive moment yieldline

= positive moment yieldline

= tributary length of column wall

Fig. 65.13 Fig. 65.14

= negative moment yieldline

= positive moment yieldline

= tributary length of column wall

contributing design tension

3.2 Design Tension Action N* = design axial force on connection;

Leff,1 = 4m1 + 1.25n + p (65.4.1)

3.3.3 Check on flange adequacy

This is the situation shown in Fig. 65.14. It will

3.4.1 Effective width determination 3.4.4 Alternative bolt/flange yield mode

In equations 65.14 to 65.16; m + n

0.45 hstsfys ≥ Nstffener

5. Modifications Required for Steel to φfcb = φc0.85 f c'

The modifications required to the design for Np*

Step 3: Recalculate Np* = ΣφNtf - φNtw,2 (65.26)

n m+tw/2 Step 4: Recalculate abase and hence φNtw,2

Repeat as required until φNtw,i+1 ≈ Ntw,i

Mpr,w This should take only 1 or 2 iterations

Step 5: Determine φNtw,1 for mode 1 from

Step 6: Check adequacy of flange from:

x the design compression load on the side

0.54wftffyf ≥ 0.46V* (65.28)

If these are not satisfied, then resist some design

shear through bolt bearing in the side quadrants,

18. AS/NZS 1252:1996, High Strength Bolts