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Volume 21 Number 4 - April 2021

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Integrity
2021
April 28 – 29

VERSATILE.
Always a leading innovator, we supply customers with cutting-edge
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focus on flexibility, reliability, cost and quality, leads to offerings
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 31 36 43

CONTENTS
WORLD PIPELINES | VOLUME 21 | NUMBER 4 | APRIL 2021

03. Comment NDT TECHNOLOGIES

It's child's play 31. Around the bend
05. Pipeline news Dominic Giguere, Zetec, USA.
New guidelines for ROV/AUVs; major contracts for Saipem, EnerMech and
NDT Global; plus check the status of upcoming events (physical or virtual). REPAIR AND REHABILITATION
36. Carbon composite to the rescue
REGIONAL REPORT Luc Perrad, DENSO Group Germany.
10. Resilience in testing times
Gordon Cope takes a look at how the Gulf of Mexico is getting back on its
feet after facing a year full of trials and tribulations.
Luc Perrad, DENSO Group Germany, discusses the company’s new
carbon fibre-based repair system, designed to restore and extend
the service life of pipelines.

L
ight and stable – for a long time, well-known technologies have made use of the properties of plastic
fibres, such as rotor blades for wind turbines or solar panels in space travel. However, wing panels for
aircraft or entire car bodies are also manufactured using carbon. Automotive manufacturers are aware
Gordon Cope takes a look at how that if you master lightweight construction using carbon fibres, you can build fast sports cars. And many
tennis duels in Wimbledon would have been slower if carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP) weren’t used in tennis
the Gulf of Mexico is getting back rackets. Lighter than aluminium – harder than steel.
on its feet after facing a year full of
Quick and cost-effective pipeline repairs using CFRPs

T
trials and tribulations.
One of the special properties of so-called carbon composite materials is that some of them have a higher strength
he Gulf of Mexico, a mainstay of US oil and gas than steel. For this reason, they also play an important role in building pipelines. As temperatures, mechanical
production for over a century, was hard-hit by the loads and long-term chemical influences have a permanent corrosive effect on the steel on the inside and on the
emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic in March outside, serious defects can occur in the pipe wall. Whether this is repaired with a steel sleeve or the damaged
2020. While the pain was widespread throughout section is completely replaced, the pipeline must first be decommissioned at great expense.
last year, there are signs that the region may see better However, this is entirely different if the pipeline is repaired with the help of carbon
times ahead. composite materials: DEXPAND®-CF70, the new composite repair system
from DENSO Group Germany, allows repairs to be made to
Onshore
Thanks to the devastating decline in demand, crude
prices fell sharply and drilling and completions dropped
dramatically. Onshore production in the prolific Permian
basin shale play (which underlies West Texas and New
Mexico), fell from 4.4 million bpd in September 2019 to
4.15 million bpd in September 2020. Rig counts in the basin
fell from 485 in March 2020 to 128 by October 2020.
The rapid expansion of both oil and gas pipelines in the
Permian basin that occurred over the last several years has
now led to a glut of transportation, with resultant deals to

PAGE

PAGE
Figure 1. Pipeline repair using DEXPAND®-CF70.

36 37 36
10 11
10 43. Composite repair: still going strong
Matt Green and Tim Mally, CSNRI, USA.
CORROSION PREVENTION
HYDROGEN PIPELINES
16. Finding underutilised strength in an old pipeline
Ajay Arakere, Senior Engineer and Marlane Rodriguez, Operations Manager – 46. A bright future ahead for hydrogen
Pipeline Integrity, Corrpro Companies. A. S. Tazedakis, N. Voudouris, E. Dourdounis, Corinth Pipeworks, Greece, and
G. Mannucci, L. F. Di Vito, and A. Fonzo, RINA Consulting – Centro Sviluppo
Materiali SpA, Italy.

Image: Corinth’s plant in Thisvi, Greece, including four pipe

mills, coatings/CWC and own port.

Ajay Arakere, Senior Engineer and Marlane Rodriguez, Operations Manager – Pipeline
Integrity, Corrpro Companies, present a methodology for pipeline safety designed A. S. Tazedakis, N. Voudouris, E. Dourdounis, Corinth Pipeworks, Greece,
to reduce the number of unnecessary excavations and assess only those corrosion and G. Mannucci, L. F. Di Vito, and A. Fonzo, RINA Consulting – Centro
defects most critical to the integrity of a pipeline. Sviluppo Materiali SpA, Italy, discuss the certification of steel pipelines
for the transportation of hydrogen.

W
hile pipeline incidents have declined over
the past five years, there are still significant
incidents that result in injury or death
and property damage.1 When quantified,
numerous incidents have caused over US$3 billion in
property damage since 2017.2 Excavation damage and external
corrosion are two of the leading causes of significant pipeline
incidents.
Many of the pipelines currently in service were
constructed before 1980, and there are even pipelines built
during World War II. Good practices such as coatings and
cathodic protection (CP) for corrosion protection have not
always been standard protocol; thus, older pipelines can
be expected to have corrosion and pitting damage. Since
many of these pipelines are now under the jurisdiction of

H
a regulatory agency, like the US’s Pipeline and Hazardous
Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA), the assessment ydrogen is the most environmentally ozone are produced from the use of either

PAGE
friendly carrier of energy: when
consumed it solely emits water. Energy
carrier means that its potential role
has similarities with that of electricity. Both
hydrogen and electricity can be produced
hydrogen or electricity.1 Consequently, hydrogen
is currently enjoying unprecedented political and
business momentum, with the number of policies
and projects around the world expanding rapidly;
in July 2020, the EU Commission adopted a new

16
by means of various energy sources and
technologies. Both are versatile and can be used
in many different applications. No greenhouse
gases, particulates, sulfur oxides or ground level
16 17
PAGE
dedicated strategy on hydrogen in Europe, which
explores actions to support the production and
use of clean hydrogen, focusing in particular on
the mainstreaming of renewable hydrogen.

22. Methods for AC mitigation

46 47
46
Andreas Junker Olesen, PhD and Engineer at Metricorr, Denmark.
OFFSHORE OPERATIONS
UNPIGGABLE: INSPECTION SOLUTIONS 53. How to fund the future of subsea
Neil Gordon, Subsea UK.
27. The back and forth of data gathering
Bas Roosken, ROSEN Group, Europe, and Morten Solberg, KTN AS, Norway.

®
Reader enquiries [www.worldpipelines.com]
ON THIS MONTH'S COVER Volume 21 Number 4 - April 2021

For over 30 years, 3X ENGINEERING has developed a large range of composite products for pipeline
rehabilitation and has performed many successful composite repairs all over the world.
Not only does 3X manufacture and commercialise its own products, it also offers a complete
ISSN 1472-7390

integrated service, from the design of the repair to onsite installation. The company provides highly
qualified engineers and technicians to perform and supervise repair operations.
Today represented by over 50 distributors all around the world, 3X is able to quickly operate onshore,
offshore and subsea to reinforce pipelines suffering from various defects.
For more information, visit www.3xeng.com

Member of ABC Audit Bureau of Circulations

Copyright© Palladian Publications Ltd 2021. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. All views expressed in this
journal are those of the respective contributors and are not necessarily the opinions of the publisher, neither do the publishers endorse any of the claims made in
the articles or the advertisements. Printed in the UK.
 ON
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NE
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28th and 29th April 2021 ER
EN
14:00 GMT CE
Exclusive presentations from experts in the
pipeline integrity sector
With participation from:

#Integrity21
Register for free worldpipelines.com/integrity2021
 COMMENT
IT’S CHILD’S PLAY
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O
ver the course of the last year,
Volvo Construction Equipment
(Volvo CE) has sold over one
million machines. A new
and game-changing partnership ensured
that, even in the midst of a pandemic,
the equipment manufacturer was able to
release to market its biggest ever range of
excavators, loaders, haulers and trucks, which
were sold in almost every major toy store.
Did I mention we’re talking about toy trucks
here? That part is rather crucial.
Volvo CE signed up with toymaker
Dickie Toys to embark on its first venture
into fully-immersive play sets for all ages.
It is the company’s most comprehensive
collaboration to
date, featuring not
only machines THE PIPELINE
from Volvo CE,
INDUSTRY
NEEDS TO
but Volvo Trucks
and Mack Trucks
too. This venture
follows on the
FIND A WAY
heels of successful TO PROLONG
THIS NATURAL
partnerships with
toymakers such as
LEGO® Technic and ENTHUSIASM
AND CURIOSITY
Bruder.
Tim Birks,
Merchandise and
Licensing Manager
at Volvo CE says: “Dickie Toys was a natural
choice. We share the same core values,
we are aligned in our desire for good
quality products and we have always been
impressed with the ‘feel-good factor’ of
their toys. And it’s been comforting to know
that these toys have played an important
role in keeping children around the world
entertained and engaged during some of the
hardest months of the pandemic.”
“Children are fascinated by huge
construction vehicles,” says Oliver
Naumann, Managing Director of Dickie
Toys. It’s comforting to know that children
all over the world are drawn to play with
construction vehicle toys. The oil and gas
pipeline industry needs to find a way to
prolong this natural enthusiasm and curiosity,
so that adolescents and young adults feel
equally as drawn to the sector.
Next month’s issue of World Pipelines
will include an interview I recently carried
out with the winners of The John Tiratsoo
Award for Young Achievement, which was
awarded by Young Pipeliners International,
in partnership with PPIM, in February. The
award recognises the achievements of
pipeline professionals under the age of
35 and this year the two winners are so
inspirational. Jess Tufts, Superintendent, Gray
Oak Pipeline and Kaella-Marie Earle, Engineer
in Training at Enbridge Gas Inc. talked about
their career highlights so far, their mentors
and the message they would give to other
young pipeliners, or
to those wondering
whether the industry is
right for them.
You must read
the full interview in
the May issue, but I
can’t resist giving you
a preview here. Jess
said: “This industry
offers an abundance of
opportunities, and there’s
something for everyone...
I get satisfaction out
of knowing that what
I do every day makes a
positive impact.”
Before joining Enbridge, Kaella – who
is an Anishinaabekwe from Wiikwemkoong
Unceded Territory and Aroland First Nation
– was an anti-pipeline and environmental
activist for years. I’ll let Kaella take the floor
here: “Those first few months at Enbridge
changed my world. I realised oil and gas is
full of many great people who share my
vision of a future with low carbon emissions,
championing communities, and including
more people at the decision-making table.
“You won’t regret a career in pipelines.
Take it from me, the former anti-pipeline and
climate change/environmental activist. You
can work in pipelines and still care about the
land, and have a meaningful career where you
can enact as much change as you want.”
The time is now for a
real breakthrough in
pipeline inspection.

Real-time digital imaging is the new standard in

pipeline inspection. NEXRAY is the new standard
in real-time digital imaging.

The NEXRAY real-time radiography system is made

up of two main components—a medical-grade
digital detector and an x-ray source—used to
generate inspection images digitally and deliver
real-time image output.

Engineered to inspect the integrity of girth welds,

NEXRAY is designed for onshore, offshore, spoolbase,
and tie-in use in both small-diameter and large-
diameter applications.

A Division of STANLEY Oil & Gas I STANLEYInspection.com

WORLD NEWS
NuStar announces pipeline capacity expansion
project for Albuquerque market
NuStar Energy, L.P. has announced a plan to develop incremental
pipeline capacity that will allow for the delivery of approximately
6000 bpd of additional refined products, including gasoline,
diesel and jet fuel, into the Albuquerque, New Mexico (USA)
region.
NuStar will upgrade pump stations on a pipeline system it
jointly owns with Phillips 66 Partners that transports refined
products from Amarillo, Texas to Albuquerque. In addition to
increasing capacity on the system, the project will install larger
and more efficient electric pumps and a modern, efficient,
diesel-driven pump, providing for higher flow while reducing
emissions by eliminating two diesel-driven pump stations. The
project is expected to be completed by mid-2022.
“The Albuquerque Pipeline upgrades will help ensure ample
refined product supply for the market which has lost
production due to a recent refinery closure in the state,” said
NuStar President and CEO Brad Barron. “Working with Phillips 66
Partners, we are excited that we can provide this additional
capacity for our shippers and the region while also achieving
the environmental benefits this project provides.”
Barron also noted that this project announcement comes on
the heels of another project in a neighbouring region that
resulted in increased supply for Colorado. In August 2020,
NuStar completed the reactivation of an idled pump station on
its Colorado Springs Pipeline system. This effectively increased
the pipeline’s transportation capacity by approximately
6000 bpd of refined products.
Bentley Systems enters into US$1.05 billion agreement to acquire Seequent
Bentley Systems, Incorporated, the infrastructure engineering
software company, has announced that it has entered into a
definitive agreement with investors led by Accel-KKR to acquire
Seequent – a leader in software for geological and geophysical
modelling, geotechnical stability, and cloud services for geodata
management, visibility, and collaboration – for US$900 million
in cash, subject to adjustment, plus 3 141 361 BSY Class B shares.
The acquisition of Seequent is expected to initially add
approximately 10% to each of Bentley Systems’ key financial
metrics (ARR, annual revenue, and EBITDA) and is expected to
be measurably accretive to Bentley’s organic growth rate.
Most significantly, the combination will deepen the
potential of infrastructure digital twins to help understand
and mitigate environmental risks, advancing resilience and
sustainability.
The acquisition is subject to customary closing conditions
and regulatory approvals, including New Zealand Overseas
Investment Act consent as well as clearance under the Hart-
Scott-Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act. Upon closing,
Seequent will operate as a stand-alone Bentley subsidiary,
EnerMech secures new five year deal with
Chevron Australia
Global integrated solutions specialist EnerMech has been
awarded a five year contract by Chevron Australia to provide a
range of integrated services to its Western Australian oil and gas
facilities.
This agreement will see EnerMech continue to deliver
pipeline services including pipe cleaning, nitrogen purging and
process plant drying, integrity leak and pressure testing,
hydraulic hose integrity management and specialist hydraulic
services.
Paul McCarthy, EnerMech’s Regional Director for Asia
Pacific said: “Having worked together since 2016, we have built
up a trusted relationship with Chevron and we are proud to be
continuing our work together over the next five years and
beyond.
“This award recognises our ongoing commitment to serving
Chevron and will allow us to build on the foundations we have
in Australia as we further enhance our technology offering.”
EnerMech employs staff across 40 locations around the
world. The connection with Australia goes back to 2009 when
it launched in Perth. The company has expanded across
Australia to provide a full complement of EnerMech’s
mechanical, electrical, instrumentation and inspection services
to a wide range of industries.
The team of experts has since grown and developed,
delivering integrated solutions on some of the most complex
challenges across pre-commissioning, commissioning,
shutdown and maintenance.
with Seequent’s current Chief Operating Officer Graham
Grant, succeeding its retiring CEO Shaun Maloney, reporting to
Bentley’s Chief Product Officer Nicholas Cumins.
Seequent, founded and headquartered in Christchurch,
New Zealand, has more than 430 colleagues in 16 office
locations, serving geologists, hydrogeologists, geophysicists,
geotechnical engineers, and civil engineers in over 100
countries, and the world’s top mining companies.
Its established presence in mineral-intensive geographies
such as South America and southern Africa is expected to
accelerate Bentley’s overall opportunities in these regions with
significant infrastructure requirements. In turn, Bentley’s
established presence in China, and its mainstay reach across
civil engineering sectors, is expected to accelerate Seequent’s
expansion in new markets.
Seequent’s products include Leapfrog, its leading product
for 3D geological modelling and visualisation, Geosoft for 3D
earth modelling and geoscience data management, and
GeoStudio for geotechnical slope stability and deformation
modelling.
APRIL 2021 / World Pipelines 5

IN BRIEF
BRAZIL
Forum Energy Technologies has
announced that it has entered
into a partnership with Deepsea
Technologies Equipamentos
Industriais Ltda to represent its
operations in Brazil, as part of the
business’ long-term growth
strategy in South America.
CANADA
TC Energy Corporation and TC
PipeLines, LP (TCP) have
announced that they have
completed the previously
announced merger pursuant to an
Agreement and Plan of Merger
dated 14 December, 2020. The
merger resulted in TC Energy
acquiring all of the outstanding
publicly-held common units of
TCP and TCP becoming an
indirect, wholly owned subsidiary
of TC Energy.
UK
Maersk Training UK has launched
the first half of its refurbished
Aberdeen safety and survival
centre which has undergone a
£720 000 refurbishment to ensure
it meets the needs of the industry
as it looks to the future and the
energy transition. The investment
has allowed for the training
facilities to be upgraded and
strengthens the centre’s safety
offerings to the North Sea
workforce.
Australia
DNV is supporting Energy
Networks Australia’s
demonstration on how it will
enable the blending of renewable
and decarbonised gases into its
networks by 2030, and de-risk
conversion of the networks to
100% renewable and decarbonised
gas by 2050. The plan is
co-funded by Australian Pipelines
and Gas Association, the peak
body representing Australasia’s
pipeline infrastructure.
6 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021
WORLD NEWS
ClassNK releases guidelines for ROV/AUV
Leading classification society ClassNK has
released its “Guidelines for ROV/AUV” which
summarise the performance and safety
requirements for remotely operated
underwater vehicles (ROVs) and autonomous
underwater vehicles (AUVs) as part of its
activities to meet industry needs related to
the establishment of safety standards for
innovative technologies and third-party
certification.
Up until now, ROVs and AUVs have been
mainly used for oceanographic surveys and
offshore oil and gas field development, but
in recent years their utilisation as a means
for maintaining offshore wind power
generation facilities and pipelines has been
steadily increasing. Although the utilisation
of ROVs and AUVs is increasing worldwide,
no international standardisation of such
technologies has yet been implemented,
and the utilisation of ROVs and AUVs has,
for the most part, been limited to certain
fields.
With this in mind, in order to contribute
to the safe and effective use of ROVs/AUVs,
ClassNK developed the guidelines which
establish requirements related to the
equipment and basic items that are
Saipem awarded new contract by Qatargas for North Field Production
Sustainability Pipelines Project
Saipem has received from Qatargas a Letter
of Award for a new contract worth over
US$1 billion, related to the North Field
Production Sustainability Pipelines Project
located offshore and onshore the North-East
coast of the Qatar peninsula.
The additional contract (EPCL package)
entails the engineering, procurement,
construction, and installation of offshore
export trunklines and related onshore tie-in
works and is part of the development of the
North Field production plateau, which also
includes the EPCI of offshore facilities (EPCO
package) previously awarded to Saipem in
February.
The scope of work for this award (EPCL
package) includes three export trunklines
starting from their respective offshore
platforms to the Qatargas North and South
Plants in Ras Laffan Industrial City for a total
length of almost 300 km, as well as
generally required for the operation of
these vehicles, as well as precautions and
safety measures, based on the knowledge
obtained through demonstration
experiments with experts and companies
making advanced efforts.
The guidelines also explain related
terms, classifications, and utilisation
examples so that they can be used as
introductory material on ROVs/AUVs. For
implementing specific application cases of
ROVs, they include the requirement for
ROVs service suppliers as well as the
procedures in using at ship surveys such as
in-water surveys, internal hull surveys of
flooded compartments, and damage
verification. Appendices that contain
excerpts of relevant rules and the results of
demonstration experiments into the
application of ROVs to ship surveys are also
provided for supplementary purposes.
Recognising that the utilisation of
ROVs/AUVs will be expanded in various
fields, the society will gather the opinions
and feedback of the industry and continue
to update the guidelines in order to meet
the needs for safety standards development
and third-party certification.
associated onshore tie-in works and
brownfield activities on existing onshore and
offshore facilities. Pipelaying operations will
be executed by the DE HE and Saipem
Endeavour vessels.
Saipem will enhance the overall project
execution, comprising both EPCO and EPCL
scope of work, by combining relevant
planned schedules and project management
and will start activities immediately. Project
completion is expected by mid-2024.
Stefano Porcari, Saipem E&C Offshore
Division COO, commented: “This additional
contract awarded by our key client Qatargas
strengthens our consolidated relationship
and represents a further proof of the trust in
Saipem’s ability to deliver challenging
projects and is a sign of success of our
positioning strategy in Qatar. We are very
proud to increase our contribution to such a
strategic development for the country”.
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 CONTRACT NEWS
EVENTS DIARY Ancala Midstream secures gas transportation and processing contracts
with Lundin Energy Norway
NOW ONLINE:
19 - 30 April 2021 Ancala Midstream Acquisitions (Ancala into Ancala Midstream’s capacity in the SAGE
CORROSION 2021 Midstream) has secured a life-of-field System in 2021 and will increase Ancala
https://www.nacecorrosion.org/ contract to transport and process gas from Midstream’s throughput in the SAGE System
the Solveig field located in the Norwegian to 55%.
sector of the North Sea. Jim Halliday, Chief Executive of Ancala
28 - 29 April 2021
Integrity 2021
The Solveig field is operated by Lundin Midstream, commented:
Energy Norway AS (Lundin), one of Europe’s “The addition of two new fields and the
https://www.worldpipelines.com/
integrity2021/ leading independent oil and gas exploration substantial reserves growth from the prolific
and production companies. First gas is Edvard Grieg area, provides further evidence
expected in 3Q21 and will be processed of the strong prospectivity in the SAGE
RESCHEDULED: through Ancala Midstream’s capacity in the catchment area, as well as the confidence our
25 - 27 May 2021 Beryl pipeline and the Scottish Area Gas customers have in the SAGE System as their
Subsea Expo
Evacuation pipeline and terminal (SAGE offtake system of choice. We have worked
Aberdeen, Scotland System) at St. Fergus in Scotland. closely with Lundin to develop innovative
https://www.subseaexpo.com/ Aberdeen headquartered Ancala solutions to the technical challenges faced
Midstream will also provide transportation and in doing so reduced project development
and processing for Lundin’s extended costs for the Solveig and Rolvsnes Owners.
8 - 10 June 2021
Global Energy Show 2021
production test on the Rolvsnes field which “Ancala Midstream’s growth since 2017
is expected to commence production in shows that our operating and commercial
Alberta, Canada
3Q22 and is also located in the Norwegian strategy is delivering results. We would like
https://www.globalenergyshow.com/
Sector of the North Sea. to thank the other SAGE owners for their
Solveig is the first of two new fields tying collaboration.”
RESCHEDULED:
13 - 16 September 2021
Gastech Exhibition & Conference Trans Adriatic Pipeline and NDT
2021 Global to complete survey for TAP
Singapore
NDT Global, a leading supplier of ultrasonic THE
https://www.gastechevent.com/
inline inspection, acoustic resonance
technology (ART), and advanced data analytics
MIDSTREAM
13- 17 September 2021 are proud to announce they have been
awarded the contract to complete a baseline
UPDATE
IPLOCA 54th Annual Convention
inspection survey for Trans Adriatic Pipeline • Black Bear Transmission sells
Prague, Czech Republic
www.iploca.com
(TAP) AG, headquartered in Baar, Switzerland. Alabama gas gathering assets
This 878 km large-diameter gas pipeline
system possesses many challenging • Creaform releases Pipecheck 6.1
RESCHEDULED: characteristics, including mountainous
8 - 11 November 2021 terrain, high elevation profile, high wall software for NDT
Abu Dhabi International Petroleum thickness and a complex subsea depth
Exhibition & Conference 2021
profile. NDT Global’s ART Scan™ technology • Phillips 66 names new President
(ADIPEC)
Abu Dhabi, UAE
manages all these challenges, while and COO
seamlessly combining wall thickness,
https://www.adipec.com/exhibition/
geometry, and mapping survey capabilities • TMK announces 2020 IFRS
into a single inspection.
Willem Vos, Head of Product results
RESCHEDULED:
5 - 9 December 2021 Management commented:
23rd World Petroleum Congress “NDT Global are excited to begin this • Global offshore pipelines
Houston, USA baseline inspection programme with Trans market to reach US$17.8 billion
Adriatic Pipeline. This award further
https://www.wpc2020.com/
illustrates that gas pipeline operators
by 2027
recognise the advantage of high accuracy UT Follow us on LinkedIn to read more about the articles
inspections and further solidifies the future linkedin.com/showcase/worldpipelines
of acoustic resonance technology in the
global gas pipeline market.”

8 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021

10
Gordon Cope takes a look at how
the Gulf of Mexico is getting back
on its feet after facing a year full of

T
trials and tribulations.
he Gulf of Mexico, a mainstay of US oil and gas
production for over a century, was hard-hit by
the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic in
March 2020. While the pain was widespread
throughout last year, there are signs that the region may see
better times ahead.

Onshore
Thanks to the devastating decline in demand, crude
prices fell sharply and drilling and completions dropped
dramatically. Onshore production in the prolific Permian
basin shale play (which underlies West Texas and New
Mexico), fell from 4.4 million bpd in September 2019 to
4.15 million bpd in September 2020. Rig counts in the basin
fell from 485 in March 2020 to 128 by October 2020.
The rapid expansion of both oil and gas pipelines in the
Permian basin that occurred over the last several years has
now led to a glut of transportation, with resultant deals to

11
 producers fighting to fill new and old lines. Kinder Morgan offered
discounts of 50% on its Eagle Ford line. Magellan sweetened tariffs
for customers on its Permian BridgeTex network, whose contracts
expired in 2020. Energy Transfer enticed customers with a volume
incentive programme on its Permian Express system.
Projects have also been delayed. In June 2020, Phillips 66 put
the 400 000 bpd Red Oak pipeline (designed to transport crude
to the Texas Gulf Coast via Cushing, Oklahoma) on hold. Enterprise
Products Partners deferred the start-up of its 450 000 bpd
Midland to Echo 4 crude pipeline by six months, to 2Q21. Energy
Transfer downscaled its planned 500 000 bpd Ted Collins pipeline
from Houston Ship Channel to Nederland, Texas, to 275 000 bpd.
Enterprise and six other partners are forging ahead with the
Wink-to-Webster network, a 1.5 million bpd crude and condensate
system in Texas that will service ExxonMobil’s 560 000 bpd
refinery in Baytown and its 362 000 bpd refinery in Beaumont. The
system is expected to enter service in 2Q21. Energy Transfer is also
continuing with its expansion of its 570 000 bpd Bakken-to-USGC
crude network. The expansion to 750 000 bpd relies primarily on
adding pump stations, which is a fraction of the cost of new-build.
Most new gas pipelines projects in the Permian are still on
track. The 2 billion ft3/d Permian Highway pipeline (PHP), and
the 2 billion ft3/d Whistler pipeline (each designed to takeaway
gas from West Texas for delivery to the Gulf Coast, South
Texas and Mexico), are expected to be completed this year. In
January 2021, Double E submitted a request to the Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission (FERC) to begin construction on the
Double E pipeline, a 135-mile conduit designed to move up to
1.35 billion ft3/d of natural gas from the Summit Lane Plant in the
Permian basin to the Waha Hub. Double E has secured ExxonMobil
as an anchor shipper (which also holds a 30% stake in the project).
The line is expected to enter service late in 2021.
US offshore
Offshore Gulf projects have larger capex and longer lead times,
making them more immune to price shocks than shale plays.
Nonetheless, Baker Hughes reported that the USGC offshore rig
count had dropped from 22 in March 2020 to 12 by April, the
lowest count in a decade.
The biggest impact on offshore production last year was
from hurricanes. The 2020 season (which runs roughly from
1 May to 1 November), was one of the worst in recorded history.
The Atlantic and Gulf region experienced 30 named storms,
with five hurricanes and one tropical depression disrupting
crude production. In August alone, two major hurricanes, Marco
and Laura, landed in Texas and Louisiana mere days apart;
shut-ins related to high seas, winds and rain reduced crude oil
production for that month by 27%, or 453 000 bpd, to an average
of 1.2 million bpd. At Laura’s peak, nearly half of 643 offshore
production platforms were shut-in, dropping the region’s daily
crude production by 84%.
While oil production crept back up to over 1.7 million bpd in
September, Hurricanes Delta and Zeta hit the region in October,
dropping average production for the month to 1.29 million
bpd. According to the EIA, it wasn’t until December 2020 that
production recovered to 1.92 million bpd; in all, producers lost
42 million bbl of production due to hurricanes in 2020 alone, just
under the 44 million bbl lost during the previous decade in total.
12 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021
In order to keep exploration and development costs down,
offshore explorers are looking for prospects that will add
incremental reserves to existing plays. In late January 2021, Kosmos
Energy made a significant oil discovery in the Winterfell prospect.
The well, drilled in 5300 ft of water to a depth of 23 000 ft, was
testing a sub-salt Upper Miocene prospect in the Green Canyon
region. The well encountered 85 ft of net oil pay in two intervals.
The find, which is located within tie-back distance, will be further
delineated, adding to Kosmos’ 100 million bbls of potential
reserves in the play.
“We are pleased to have started the New Year with
exploration success at Winterfell validating our proven basin
exploration strategy, which is focused on low cost, short cycle,
low carbon development solutions,” said Andrew G. Inglis, Kosmos
Energy’s Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, in a company
statement.
Operators have also dramatically reduced the costs of
Greenfield platforms due to better supply-chain logistics,
standardised hub designs, and sizing hubs for nearer-term output
rather than long-term. Shell drastically altered its Vito project
in the Mississippi Canyon area, shaving 70% off the costs of the
original concept. When it enters production in 2021, the four-
column, semisubmersible floating production unit will have the
capacity for 100 000 bpd of crude and 100 million ft3/d. BP’s Mad
Dog 2 project, also expected to enter production in 2021, will have
a capacity of 140 000 bpd. The initial cost in 2013 was estimated
at more than US$20 billion, but BP and partners spent three years
simplifying and standardising the design, reducing costs by over
60%, to US$9 billion.
Some offshore operators are selling Gulf assets to concentrate
on other basins. Hess sold its 28% interest in the Shenzi Field
in Deepwater Gulf of Mexico to operator BHP Billiton for
US$505 million. “Proceeds will be used to fund our world class
investment opportunity in Guyana,” Chief Executive Officer John
Hess said.
Offshore lease sales
The Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental Shelf (OCS), covering
approximately 160 million acres, is estimated to contain
approximately 48 billion bbls of undiscovered, technically
recoverable oil and 141 trillion ft3 of undiscovered, technically
recoverable gas.
A US Gulf of Mexico oil and gas lease round held in late
November 2020 proved surprisingly robust. The Bureau of Ocean
Energy Management (BOEM), raised US$120 million from 23
companies bidding on 93 blocks. One-third of those blocks were
in 1600 m or more, with Repsol Equinor placing a successful bid
of US$121 million on ultra-deepwater block NG15-06 in the Walker
Ridge exploration region. “Despite circumstances imposed by the
coronavirus, we are confident that industry remains interested in
acquiring new leases to support their portfolios,” said Mike Celata,
Director of BOEM’s Gulf of Mexico Region. “The Gulf of Mexico
is a world-class resource area that serves a key role in our nation’s
energy security.”
Challenges
One of the first moves under President Biden’s administration was
to order the Interior Department to enact a 60 day moratorium
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 on issuing oil and gas leases on all federal lands, minerals and
waters “to the extent possible” and undertake a “rigorous review”
of existing leasing and permitting practices (the order will not
restrict activities on land held in trust for Native American tribes).
The Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), subsequently
cancelled a March 2021 lease sale that would have offered
78.2 million acres in the Gulf of Mexico. Currently, leases on
federal lands account for approximately 10% of US supplies.
If the moratorium should eventually turn into a permanent
ban, such a move would have a significant negative impact on the
Gulf of Mexico. The American Petroleum Institute (API) estimates
that a ban would cause offshore crude production to drop 44% by
2030, and offshore gas production to fall by 68%. Imports would
have to increase by 2 million bpd, resulting in US$500 billion being
spent on foreign supplies.
The Biden administration also cancelled TC Energy’s Keystone
XL pipeline. First proposed in 2008 as a 2000-km ‘bullet line’ to
deliver 830 000 bpd of Alberta crude to the USGC, the Obama
administration refused to approve a cross-border permit. Upon
his election, President Trump used an executive order to reverse
the decision, but Biden’s move is considered to be the nail-in-the-
coffin for the US$8 billion project.
The government of Alberta, which had invested US$1.5 billion
in the project, was understandably upset. “We are deeply
disturbed that one of President Biden’s first actions in office has
be to rescind the presidential permit for the Keystone XL pipeline
border crossing,” said Alberta Premier Jason Kenney. “This is a
gut punch for the Canadian and Alberta economies. Sadly, it is
an insult directed at the United States’ most important ally and
trading partner on day one of a new administration.”
COVID has had a significant negative impact on Gulf
deepwater export terminals. Prior to the pandemic, there were
a dozen proposals to build facilities that could accommodate
very large crude carriers (VLCCs), capable of carrying up to
2 million bbls to market. Currently, exporters must use smaller
vessels to transport crude out to VLCCs moored in deeper waters.
The 18% drop in Permian production – as well as decreased
consumption in consumer markets – has halved exports from
the US, which has taken the urgency out of the stampede,
and there are now only three export proposals before federal
maritime regulators. Phillips 66 and Trafigura are slow-walking
their application for the Bluewater Texas Terminal (BWTX) project
in Corpus Christi, supplying regulatory-compliance information
as needed. Enterprise Product Partners and Enbridge’s Sea Port
Oil Terminal (SPOT) in the Houston Ship Channel is pushing its
approval process into latter 2021, and Sentinel Midstream has
suspended permit reviews for the Texas GulfLink deepwater port
in Freeport.
Environmentalists are also stepping up opposition. Sierra Club
has submitted a petition to Maritime Administration opposing
the Bluewater terminal. “There is huge community opposition
around these projects,” said Sierra Club attorney Devorah Ancel.
While hurricanes mostly affected offshore production, extreme
cold impacted onshore fields. A Polar vortex hit Texas and the
USGC in February 2021, blanketing the state in snow, ice and severe
cold. Wells froze and refineries shut due to power outages. Analysts
estimated that more than 30 million bbl of production was lost, as
well as 3 million bpd of refinery production for more than a week.
14 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021
The future
BloombergNEF, a research service, estimates that US shale oil
producers have cut their average breakeven costs from US$44/bbl
in 2019 to under US$36/bbl in 2020 through improved efficiencies,
optimised well and field operations, and renegotiated service
contracts. With the announcement of OPEC+ production cuts in
early 2021, the price of WTI crude has crept above US$60.
Consolidation of shale players is well underway. Two years ago,
Concho Resources was valued at US$32 billion. In October 2020,
ConocoPhillips offered US$9.7 billion in order to consolidate land
holdings in the Permian. Chevron also concluded the purchase
of Noble Energy and WPX merged with Devon. Pioneer Natural
Resources bought Parsley Energy for US$4.5 billion, combining
the two Permian basin-only crude producers into a 328 000 bpd
entity. All of the deals were stock-only transactions, reflecting the
difficulty of raising cash.
Regardless of Keystone XL’s cancellation, USGC refiners are
increasingly relying on Canadian heavy crude to fill their feedstock
slates. Enbridge is the largest crude exporter to the US, shipping
over 3 million bpd on its extensive network. The Calgary-based
company is increasing capacity to the US through incremental
additions. The renovation of Line 3 running through Minnesota and
the expansion of Southern Access connecting to Patoka, Illinois
(both expected to be completed in 2021), will add approximately
375 000 bpd capacity to the US Midwest. From there, the reversal
of Marathon and Plains All America Capline Pipeline from Patoka
to Louisiana will create 1.2 million bpd of new access to the Gulf
Coast.
Prices are showing signs of stabilising. In January, Saudi
Arabia announced an extra 1 million bpd production cut for
1Q21, spurring WTI prices to exceed US$50/bbl and Henry
Hub gas prices to reach US$2.70/million Btu. So far, crude
prices have remained strong, and analysts estimate that cash
from operations (CFO) for US shale operators will rise from
US$55.7 billion in 2020 to US$73.6 billion in 2021, paving the
way for increased capital expenditures. With some Permian
break-evens currently hovering around US$40/bbl, operators
have re-deployed crews in the basin, and the rig-count was
approaching 200 in late January 2021 (and offshore rigs
increasing to 16). Operators are also allocating more capital to
bring drilled but uncompleted (DUC) wells online. The Permian
basin contains over half of all US DUCs. In June 2020 it had
swelled to 2400 wells, but by early 2021 it had dropped to 1900,
a 20% reduction.
Paradoxically, the Biden administration’s moves may, in the
end, bode well for domestic producers. Goldman Sachs analysts
note that the president’s proposed US$1.9 trillion stimulus
would boost US demand by 200 000 bpd while at the same
time restricting supply through drilling bans. The result will be
to prop up crude prices for the next several years.
Eventually, a semblance of normalcy will return to the
energy sector as vaccines help the pandemic recede and
raise fuel consumption. While renewable energy sources will
continue to make strides, an immense appetite for fossil fuels
will persist for several decades to come, allowing upstream,
midstream and downstream stakeholders to once again make
long-term investments in one of the world’s most prospective
jurisdictions.
Ajay Arakere, Senior Engineer and Marlane Rodriguez, Operations Manager – Pipeline
Integrity, Corrpro Companies, present a methodology for pipeline safety designed
to reduce the number of unnecessary excavations and assess only those corrosion
defects most critical to the integrity of a pipeline.

W
hile pipeline incidents have declined over
the past five years, there are still significant
incidents that result in injury or death
and property damage.1 When quantified,
numerous incidents have caused over US$3 billion in
property damage since 2017.2 Excavation damage and external
corrosion are two of the leading causes of significant pipeline
incidents.
Many of the pipelines currently in service were
constructed before 1980, and there are even pipelines built
during World War II. Good practices such as coatings and
cathodic protection (CP) for corrosion protection have not
always been standard protocol; thus, older pipelines can
be expected to have corrosion and pitting damage. Since
many of these pipelines are now under the jurisdiction of
a regulatory agency, like the US’s Pipeline and Hazardous
Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA), the assessment

16
17
 of a pipeline’s heath with regards to integrity and corrosion
is a common practice today. Assessment typically includes
the excavation, inspection, and remediation of all identified
corrosion defects that are greater than 50% wall loss, as well
as modelling to determine a time frame for other identified
corrosion anomalies to reach a critical size.
During the design of a pipeline, a wall thickness is
determined that includes mill tolerances, defect tolerances,
and tolerances for time-dependent threats, such as external
corrosion, that could compromise a pipeline’s integrity. Out of
all the tolerances considered during the design phase, external
corrosion would be the most uncertain time-dependent
feature that would require maximum tolerance. However, after
a pipeline has been in service for decades, and regular above-
grade electrical surveys and constant monitoring have been
performed, we could almost certainly know the pipeline’s
corrosion characteristics.
Design philosophies have changed over the years. Older,
more conservative design methods have been replaced by
modern design principles that, without a reduction in safety,
allow for higher operating stresses. For example, in the 1950s,
the wall thickness of pressure equipment was designed so
that the pipe or pressure vessels’ maximum hoop stress but
would not exceed the allowable stresses. Now, modern design
methods are based on well-established fracture mechanics
principles which permit the use of higher permissible
stresses. Therefore, older pipelines have large safety factors
and tolerances which result in the underutilisation of wall
thickness material. To ensure efficient utilisation of all
thickness material, a methodology was developed to calculate
a new nominal wall thickness which could potentially save
pipeline operators from excavating significant amount of
pipe unnecessarily.
Figure 1. Methodology approach.
18 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021
Theoretical case study
The hypothetical case looked at pipeline construction from
several decades ago that did not have an external coating or CP.
When pipeline integrity became more widely monitored and
federally regulated in the US, the hypothetical pipeline was dug
up and inspected for corrosion, then an external coating was
applied to the pipeline. Due to regulatory requirements and
advancements in technology, this hypothetical pipeline also
has inline inspection (ILI) data to use in assessing the pipeline’s
condition.
Due to the years without external coating or CP, the
assumption is that general corrosion exists along the pipeline
along with areas of severe deep pitting. Based on the
conservative wall thickness design, many of these corrosion
defects would be at 50% of the nominal wall thickness and
considered detrimental to the pipeline’s safety. Therefore, it
would require immediate excavation and remediation. We
assumed that internal pressure is the only loading acting on the
pipeline and external corrosion is the predominant threat.
Hypothesis
The authors believe that the aforementioned case (or similar
events) is a story that many pipeline operators could tell
about one or more pipelines in their portfolio. Despite vintage
pipelines having experienced severe corrosion, we believe
there is still sufficient remaining strength in the pipeline for
safe operating conditions (MAOP). Thus, we were motivated
to develop a methodology to identify and target only the
most critical corrosion defects accurately. Our goal was to
apply commonly used standards in the industry to identify
the corrosion defects that have the most significant risk to the
pipeline’s integrity, and reduce the total quantity of unnecessary
pipeline excavations and repairs.
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Figure 2. External corrosion defect.
Optimised nominal wall thickness
We can accomplish our goal by determining an ‘optimised’
nominal wall thickness, using information known about the
pipeline and its external corrosion threat. We will apply that
knowledge to commonly used American Petroleum Institute
(API) and American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
standards. The following two approaches were considered:
bottom-up and top-down.
Bottom-up
This approach uses ASME B31.4, which is the design code for
the mechanical design of liquid systems. We determined for the
minimum wall thickness required on the internal design pressure
(or MAOP), the pipe’s outside diameter and an allowable stress
of 72% of the specified minimum yield strength (SYMS). This
bottom-up approach sets the bottom line for your optimised
wall thickness.
Top-down
The top-down approach is similar to an API 579 Level I
assessment and utilises wall thickness averaging. This method
is used extensively in the refining and petrochemical sectors
to analyse small segments of pressure components. Then, we
use the data available for the pipeline to determine the average
remaining wall thickness. This approach was validated using
the co-efficient of variation (CoV). Our theoretical test sets
found the CoV to be less than 10%, suggesting the method is an
acceptable one.
In both approaches, allowances for corrosion and repairs
should be taken into consideration when utilising them to
determine an optimum wall thickness. This method will allow
for a conservative and safe approach.
As seen in Figure 1, using engineering judgment and
conservative assumptions about future corrosion growth, as well
as allowances for possible repairs and optimised the established
thickness. In the test case, the %SMYS for the optimised wall
thickness was slightly higher than the current operating stress.
However, there was still enough remaining wall thickness to
withstand the internal pressure and some secondary bending
stresses. It was assumed that internal pressure is the only
primary load acting on the cross-section of the pipeline.
Corrosion defect analysis
Once a new ‘optimised nominal wall thickness’ is determined,
it can be applied to defects already identified in the pipeline.
Figure 2, an external corrosion defect, shows what happens
when the optimised nominal wall thickness is used; a new
20 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021
corrosion defect depth and length are
determined.
An external corrosion defect can
sometimes grow to unacceptable depths
and potentially cause failure due to active
corrosion. Therefore, to evaluate a pipeline’s
condition in the future, it is prudent to
estimate the time it will take for the defect to
grow to an unacceptable depth and fail. This
is done by modelling the growth of the fault
using a predicted corrosion rate. The accurate
prediction of the corrosion growth rate is critical, and therefore,
should be somewhat conservative. Corrosion growth rates can
be determined in many ways depending on the available data
for a specific pipeline. Some methods can include:
) Comparing multiple ILI tool runs over multiple years.
) Performing actual thickness measurements in a laboratory or
on the pipeline when it’s excavated.
) Utilising Uhlig’s data for freely corroding steels and
cathodically protected steels based on soil drainage and soil
resistivity.
) Estimating corrosion growth rate is, therefore, an important
parameter and accurate prediction is critical.
Defects acceptance criteria
Defect assessment curves were constructed using the modified
B31G equation based on the newly established optimised wall
thickness. A minimum safety factor of 1.25 is recommended in
ASME B31.G, but we utilised a very conservative safety factor
that corresponded to 100%SMYS. We used this safety factor
and the MAOP to develop an ‘acceptance criteria’ curve for
defects, meaning any defects that fell below the curve would
be considered unacceptable for the pipeline’s safe operation. A
second ‘acceptance criteria’ for defects was also based on the
anomalies that were greater than 50% of the new optimised
wall thickness.
Using our hypothetical data set and the optimised wall
thickness, we found a 70% reduction in unacceptable anomalies
compared to the nominal wall thickness.
Conclusions
Statistical and risk-based methods are often explored to
determine the optimum way to assess pipeline safety. The
approach presented above achieves the same objective but is
based on ASME and API codes’ proven design principles.
With the leading threats to a pipeline being excavation
damage and corrosion, it is believed that this approach would
increase pipeline safety by reducing the number of unnecessary
excavations and assessing only those corrosion defects most
critical to the integrity of the pipeline.
References
1. 2021 Report for America’s Infrastructure: https://infrastructurereportcard.org/
cat-item/energy/
2. USDOT Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration: Pipeline and
Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (dot.gov).
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 Andreas Junker Olesen, PhD and Engineer at Metricorr, Denmark,
outlines various methods to stop AC corrosion, based on present
knowledge about the mechanisms involved.

22
H
ow do you stop AC corrosion? Undoubtedly,
this is a question that countless pipeline
operators have asked themselves when
experiencing an induced AC voltage on their
pipelines from high voltage transmission lines. The
answer is not easily found in an ordinary Google-search,
primarily because the available literature points in many
directions and is strongly influenced by commercial
interests. This article will attempt to outline various
methods to stop AC corrosion, based on the
present knowledge about the involved
mechanisms. The author wrote his PhD

23
 on “AC Corrosion of Cathodically Protected Pipelines” and An alternating current can pass in different ways, as
has authored several peer-reviewed papers and conference outlined below:
proceedings on the topic.1 ) Through charging and discharging of the electrochemical
double layer i.e. as current passing through a capacitor,
What is causing AC corrosion? which is unlikely to contribute to any corrosion.
As the name implies, AC corrosion is caused by an alternating
current passing through the metal-electrolyte (pipe-soil) ) Through electrochemical reactions carrying a charge, such
interface. While the actual corrosion mechanism is still as oxidation and reduction reactions, which may cause
debated, we have a pretty good understanding of the corrosion.
influencing factors.
The fraction of the current that potentially carries charge
electrochemically is determined by many factors. One of
Induced AC Small Defect Excessive CP these is the AC frequency. The fraction of the AC current
discharge that contributes to corrosion is small for higher
Pre-requisites frequencies. At 50 - 60 Hz, which is the common AC signal
in the transmission grid, the fraction is perhaps only a few
Increased AC Increased DC percent, but this may still be sufficient to cause significant
Current (CP) Current corrosion. Smaller coating defects will cause the current to be
concentrated locally, thus increasing the AC corrosion risk.
Whether the electrochemical reactions actually lead to
Ohm’s Law Alkalinity
corrosion, or not, is highly dependent on the metal’s surface
oxides, solution chemistry, pH, hydrogen evolution and
Reduced Spread Resistance electrochemical potential, all of which are strongly affected
by cathodic protection (CP). Therefore, a fundamental part
Figure 1. Autocatalytic nature of AC corrosion on cathodically
protected pipelines (Figure from NACE SP21424-2018). 2 of understanding what AC corrosion is, is understanding the
role of CP. AC corrosion is often
observed when there is inadequate CP
510 1200
or excessive CP, in combination with
Thickness (ER)
500 1000 an alternating voltage. This implies
Corrosion rate (48 hrs)
Corrosion rate (μm/y)

that there is an intermediate CP range

Thickness (μm)

490 800
where corrosion does not occur. This
480 600 has been found empirically to be
Corrosion rate reducing
C around -1.0 VSCE, but dependent on
470 Corrosion stopped 400
D
electrolyte properties. In this range
460 200
there may still be an alternating
450 0 current passing through the metal-
01/06 15/06 29/06 13/07 27/07 -1
20 B Turn down CP electrolyte interface, but the surface
Low AC interference -1.1 properties are such that this does
CP Potential (VCSE)

A -1.2 not lead to active corrosion. This is

15
AC voltage (V)

-1.3 possible via redox reactions within

10 -1.4 some passive films, for example.
-1.5 The most relevant industry
5 Uac
-1.6 standards on the topic are NACE
Eon
0 -1.7
SP21424-2018 or ISO 18086:2019,
50001/06 15/06 29/06 13/07 27/07 that correctly outline both AC and
Jac 14
400 -Jdc 12
DC current densities as important
10
parameters in the evaluation of AC
JAC (A/m2)

-JDC (A/m2)

300 corrosion risk.2,3 Figure 1 illustrates the

8
“autocatalytic nature of AC corrosion
200 6
of cathodically protected pipelines”
4
100 as described in NACE SP21424 and it
2
states that three pre-requisites are
0 0
01/06 08/06 15/06 22/06 29/06 06/07 13/07 20/07 27/07 needed for AC corrosion to occur:
Date induced AC; a small coating defect;
and excessive CP. Acknowledging that
Figure 2. Remote monitoring data from ER probe on AC interfered pipeline. A) Natural period
of low AC interference leads to lowering of corrosion rate. B) Operator changes the pipeline corrosion is caused by AC current,
on-potential from -1.6 V to -1.2 V(CSE). C) As a result of the change in on-potential, the AC this describes the self-perpetuating
corrosion rate reduces. D) AC corrosion has been stopped by a change of CP settings. mechanism in which CP enhances the

24 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021

 MetriCorr
alternating current density and thereby the driving force for
Corrosion & Cathodic Protection
corrosion. Remote Monitoring
How to stop AC corrosion
Back to the relevant question: how to prevent pipeline
corrosion caused by AC interference? There is more than one
way to do this, all being indirectly mentioned in Figure 1 as the
three pre-requisites.
Remote Monitoring is
Option 1 – Remove induced AC the Best and Cheapest
This is the obvious solution, given that it is the driving force
AC Mitigation Available
for corrosion, but it is an expensive solution with conventional
mitigation designs, and it is practically impossible to
How?
completely remove induced AC. Even a few volts of AC might
The purpose of AC mitigation
still be enough to cause AC corrosion.
is to prevent AC corrosion of
buried pipelines. From a cor-
Option 2 – Remove small defects
rosion perspective, it is the AC
Imagine a perfect world with no coating defects at all. It
current density that is the driv-
would effectively stop all forms of corrosion – but it does not
ing parameter. Several stud-
exist. Poorly coated pipelines with larger defects and a low
ies have shown that this can
coating impedance are well ‘grounded’ and less likely to suffer
readily be reduced by care-
AC corrosion, but this raises other concerns with respect to
ful control of the applied CP.
CP.
)DU PRUH HႇHFWLYH WKDQ $&
grounding installations.
Option 3 – Remove excessive CP
The trick is to keep a balance
This implies aiming for the previously mentioned intermediate
between AC and CP, and to
CP range where corrosion does not occur, despite an induced
GRFXPHQW WKH HႇHFWLYHQHVV
AC voltage. This solution is readily available to most pipeline
of this strategy. This has nev-
operators with rectifier-controlled CP. It may necessitate a
er been easier, than with the
higher level of monitoring to verify the effectiveness of this
ICL (interference corrosion
strategy.
logger), Masterlink (RMU),
and high sensitivity ER probes
Each of these three actions potentially eliminates
from MetriCorr.
AC corrosion on their own but will also be effective in
$QDO\]H &3 HႇHFWLYHQHVV E\
combination. Option 2 is not practically possible. In fact,
the most intuitive parameter;
implementation of modern high impedance pipeline coatings
the corrosion rate! And a lot
makes it even more plausible to have fewer and smaller
more.
coating defects where AC current discharge may concentrate.
For this reason, new pipeline coatings are often blamed for
being partially responsible for the increase in AC corrosion
incidents. But this is unfair, since better coatings are beneficial
Measured parameters:
for more accurate CP control and effective implementation of
• Corrosion rate (μm/y)
option 3.
• Pipeline potential (V)
Options 1 and 3 are left to the pipeline operator as the only
On
viable solutions to a potential AC corrosion problem. Which
,QVWDQWRႇFRXSRQ
of the two options is the better alternative is always up to
,QVWDQWRႇSLSHOLQH
the operator to determine, since there may be a number of
IR-free (calculated)
circumstances to consider, apart from AC interference. Typically,
Native (option)
safety and economy become the governing factors. AC
• DC current density (A/m2)
mitigation may be necessary from a safety perspective (touch-
• AC voltage (VRMS)
voltage <15 V in the US) while adjusting a rectifier and setting
• AC current density (A/m2)
up remote monitoring is the cheaper alternative to prevent AC
• 6SUHDGUHVLVWDQFHȍP
corrosion, compared to conventional AC mitigation installations.

Example of CP control
Figure 2 shows monitoring data from an ER probe installed
on a high-pressure gas pipeline in a utility corridor with three
different 60 Hz powerlines (46, 138 and 345 kV).4 This was one of

MetriCorr – www.metricorr.com – info@metricorr.com

 five monitoring positions on the line that showed the worst AC
corrosion. During the first two and a half weeks of monitoring,
it was established that AC corrosion was indeed a reasonable
concern, with measured corrosion rates as high as 1200 μm/y
(48 mpy). During this period, it was also established that:
) Continuous monitoring of the AC level is necessary, due to
large daily and weekly fluctuations. A spot reading of the
AC level ‘at the wrong time’ will not provide insight into
the general interference level.
) Lowering of the AC level, naturally occurring at (A),
effectively lowers the AC corrosion risk, indicating that AC
mitigation would be an effective strategy.
) Despite the AC voltage being below 15 V, this is more
than enough to generate critical corrosion – at this CP
potential.
The operator was advised to reduce the rectifier output,
which was done at (B). The recommendation was between
-1 to -1.1 VCSE, but the level was not changeable to beyond
-1.2 VCSE due to a nearby permanently installed zinc anode.
Nevertheless, the effect on the corrosion rate was immediate,
as the corrosion rate fell during the following days, despite
constantly high AC levels (C). After approximately one month,
corrosion had been brought to a complete stop (D), achieved
by a simple change of the rectifier output level. Towards the
end of the shown period, both AC and
DC current densities are lowering despite
unchanged pipeline potential and AC
interference level. This is caused by an
increase in the soil resistivity and proves
that ‘the autocatalytic nature of AC
corrosion’ (Figure 1) has effectively been
stopped.
The continued safe operation of
the pipeline is verified by the absence
of corrosion on this and the other four
ER probes installed on the interfered
pipeline section. Conventional AC
mitigation, which is potentially a million-
dollar investment, was not necessary.

Conclusion
AC interference and AC corrosion risk
can be handled in different ways. The
autocatalytic nature of AC corrosion
(Figure 1) is the key to stopping
corrosion, i.e. by addressing the three
pre-requisites: induced AC; small
Heavy Duty Through-wall Reference Electrode coating defects; and excessive CP. If
all of these are present, AC corrosion
is a considerable risk factor. By far the
7KURXJK KZDOOOUHIHUHQFH HHOHFWURGHVVDUH
HXVHGGIRUU easiest one to change is the CP level.
PHDVXULQJ JFRUURVLRQ QSRWHQWLDOORQ
QWKHHLQVLGH
HRII
FRQGHQVHUUZDWHUER[HVFLUFXODWLQJ JSLSHVWDQNV V References
DQGGYHVVHOV 1. JUNKER OLESEN, A.; “AC Corrosion of
7KHVH HHOHFWURGHV VDUHHLQVWDOOHG
G Cathodically Protected Pipelines”; Technical
E\\WKUHDGLQJJLQWRRD
DWDSSHG GKROH
HRQQWKH
HZDOOD
D 2.
University of Denmark; Lyngby; 2019.
NACE SP21424-2018; “Alternating Current
MXQFWLRQQER[[LV
VW\SLFDOO\\DWWDFKHGGWR
RWKHHRWKHUU Corrosion on Cathodically Protected Pipelines:
HQGGWR
RSURWHFWWWKHHZLULQJJFRQQHFWLRQV Risk Assessment, Mitigation, and Monitoring”;
NACE International; 2018.
$YDLODEOH
HLQ
QWKUHH
HVL]HV 3. ISO18086:2019; “Corrosion of metals and alloys
– Determination of AC corrosion – Protection
criteria”; ISO; 2019.
4. JUNKER, A.; NIELSEN, L. V.; HEINRICH, C.; MØLLER,
P.; “Laboratory and Field Investigation of the
Effect of the Chemical Environment on AC
Corrosion”; NACE CORROSION; Paper 10844; 2018.

HOHFWURFKHPLFDOOGHYLFHVLQF
ZZZHGLFSFRP
P__ZZZHGLFSEORJ
Bas Roosken, ROSEN Group, Europe, and Morten Solberg, KTN AS, Norway, detail an
inspection carried out to discover the integrity status of an unpiggable pipeline, off
the coast of West Africa.

I
t is a constant back and forth: from sea to land and back to sea. Large oil producers have extensive terminals for offshore
production, where product moves from platforms to onshore crude oil storage terminals through pipelines. Arriving onshore,
the product is treated and imperfections separated out, to then be temporarily stored in tanks. Once product fills the tanks, the
crude oil is transported back onto the ocean to massive ships called Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCCs), where the product’s long
distribution journey really begins. Every step of the way, the integrity of the infrastructure the product passes through is of utmost
importance.

Choosing and preparing a reliable approach

For an offshore operator in West Africa producing approximately 300 000 bpd of crude oil, this was no exception. Having previously
inspected one of the pipelines gathering product from the platforms to the onshore tank storage and encountering significant
corrosion, the integrity of the 42 in. export line going to the VLCCs became a concern; an inline inspection (ILI) was needed,
especially since the line had not been inspected since its fabrication in 2009.
When constructed, this 42 in. line was designed to be piggable and fitted with an onshore launcher and a subsea receiver.
However, the receiver was not in operation, reversing the direction of the flow was not possible and the pipeline was, in fact,
deemed unpiggable. In addition, the pipeline routing was challenging, as various horizontally and vertically oriented combinations
were present. To put it simply, the pipeline runs from the onshore tank facility towards the sea; a flange is present before entering

27
 the water, but it then dips directly downward, continuing
vertically until it reaches the seabed, where it runs horizontally
to the subsea loading buoy.
After additionally considering the cost of a subsea
operation, the need for a one-way entry approach became
clear, with access to the pipe from onshore. This would lead
to either a bi-directional or a tethered inspection. Weighing all
the options and considering all the factors, the operator and
the ROSEN Group chose to utilise an ultrasound (UT) tethered
inspection approach. KTN AS (a company of the ROSEN
Group) provided this solution; a self-centralising crawler
with UT sensors, equipped with a tether. The tether not only
acts as a failsafe mechanism, it also provides much-needed
power to the tool train. The solution also mitigates the need
for product flow. In addition, a live data feed is transmitted
to tool operators onshore who can monitor the inspection
progress, noticing any pipeline particularities and monitoring
the tool’s positioning in the pipeline using circumferential
welds as guides. The unique tractor design with support
wheels divided over the full circumference of the inner pipe
wall allows for the negotiation of this unpiggable pipe. The
KTN tethered solution was able to pass through all bends in
this particularly complex pipeline route.
An additional benefit of the crawler approach is the ability
to focus its attention on particular sections of the pipeline. In
this case, for example, it was determined that the first 500 m
from the launch site, including the riser section and the first
few spools of the subsea line, would need a closer look. Given
that this crawler can move back and forth, multiple passes
could be made of this section.
The operation
To access the pipeline for inspection, the operator provided a
seven-day window. This would include fully decommissioning
the line and returning it back to service, allowing for a five
day ILI period. This window of opportunity was created by
stacking various VLCCs. However, the onshore storage tanks
would be filled after the seven-day period – from the offshore
platforms that remained in operation – and the pipeline would
be needed again to avoid a compete production shutdown.
More than usual, timing was key.
As seems to be the norm, the COVID-19 pandemic of
course caused a series of difficulties and delays. Initially
scheduled for June/July 2020, the project was postponed to
November 2020. All required equipment was shipped by sea or
airfreight to minimise its time onsite, allowing for additional
testing of the ILI equipment in Bergen, Norway. During this
time, additional trial runs allowed for validation of the ILI tool
performance specifications according to API 1163. All personnel
mobilised onsite two weeks prior to the inspection execution
for mandatory self-isolation before going to the site.
With everything, and everyone, onsite, execution could
begin. Due to operational challenges, the decision was made
to divide the inspection into two sections. This would allow
tool operators to start with the long-run inspection and then
concentrate on the designated high-focus area. The inspection
tool was launched through the onshore flange before the
vertical dip into the ocean. Once the tool was in the pipeline,
28 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021
24 hour operation ensured that as much of the line was
inspected as possible. At 2.5 km per 12 hour shift (just over
200 m/hr), the tool crawled into and back out of the pipe.
All the while, onshore tool operators monitored the progress
of the inspection. The tool traveled approximately 7.8 km
offshore towards the loading buoy, covering enough distance
to be able to perform an integrity assessment on the rest of
the pipeline.
After the return inspection has been completed, the focus
turned to the first 500 m after the launch site. Dedicated
time was allocated to allow several inspection passes of this
section – once again back and forth, much like the product.
The complex routing of the pipeline allowed the tool to
rotate, making sure that the 480 sensors on the sensor ring
inspected the complete inner pipe wall of this high-focus area.
The live feed from the tether assured that welds were marked
as the ILI tool passed them, allowing data evaluators to mix
and match several ILI data sets.
The technology on board the inspection solution was
UT. Although UT has many upsides, especially for corrosion
detection and sizing, one clear downside is the sensitivity of
the sensors to debris. As this specific pipeline was unpiggable,
no cleaning was conducted prior to the inspection. Lack of
pipeline cleanliness, or rather the presence of debris, can
create a series of challenges for inline inspection, including
data loss due to UT signal attenuation.
In this case, it resulted in debris accumulation on the ILI
tool’s sensor ring, which could result in data gaps. However, as
the crawler is able to travel into and out of the pipe, data is
recorded in both directions; therefore, full sensor coverage is
made possible in the debris-covered sections of the inner pipe
wall. The live monitoring of the inspection progress through
the tether provides assurance that high-quality data is collected
for precise data analysis of any anomalies. Ultrasound as a
measurement technology also requires a liquid couplant. And
although the crawler unit on the tool train propels itself –
unlike conventional ILI, where the transport medium pushes the
inspection tools through the pipe – a couplant was needed. To
achieve this, the pipeline was drained to just below the level
of the onshore flange, where the inspection tool was inserted.
The stagnant product was kept in the line to provide a couplant,
remaining stationary throughout the inspection.
With time to spare within the inspection window, the tool
was retrieved from the pipeline, allowing operations to return
to normal. At no point during the inspection did the offshore
platforms stop producing. The tanks were filled and once the
inspection was complete, they were emptied into VLCCs as per
usual operation. This meant no interruption of production.
Facilities like this one off the coast of West Africa must
run a tight schedule to meet production demands; a vital part
of operations is ensuring the safety of all involved assets. This
tethered crawler approach provides a no-compromise solution
for collecting the data needed to understand the integrity
status of an asset, without interrupting valuable production
time. The crawler moved back and forth through the line
collecting data, so the product can safely move back and forth
from tank to ship – all without a back and forth on safety vs.
production.
THE FUTURE
OF CORROSION
PREVENTION
Introducing AMPP, the Association for Materials Protection
and Performance. After more than 70 years, NACE
International and SSPC have united as the global authority
for corrosion prevention knowledge. We are creating the
future of materials protection and performance and leading
the way for the industries we represent. AMPP members
protect people and places around the world from corrosion,
and together we are building a safer, protected, and
preserved world.

Learn more about AMPP. www.ampp.org

 Wherever you are,
World Pipelines is
with you.
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Dominic Giguere, Zetec, USA, explains
how flexible ultrasonic probes
and scanners are helping to make
pipe elbow corrosion inspections
faster and more effective.

U
ltrasound has been a game-changer for
nondestructive examinations of internal pipeline
corrosion. The latest phased array UT instruments
are compact and portable, and can process a stream
of inspection data to create vibrant high-resolution images
of corrosion and other damage. Handheld scanners with
magnetic encoded wheels and 2D array probes make it easy
for technicians to monitor the probe position and orientation
as they inspect curved surfaces. Any gaps in coverage show
up on the instrument’s colour display in near-real-time, so
technicians can feel confident that they’re covering the pipe’s
entire inner topology with a high probability of detection.
While phased array UT has become a preferred way to test
pipeline wall thickness, one type of degradation can still throw
inspection teams a curve: flow accelerated corrosion (FAC) in
pipe elbows and induction bends.

31
 What is FAC?
FAC occurs in pipelines when the movement of fluid causes
deterioration on the interior wall. One of the most common
examples is carbon steel or low alloy steel pipe elbows,
where the flow of water or wet steam gradually wears aways
the protective oxide layer on the inside surface of the pipe.
The exposed bare metal starts to corrode, exhibiting grooves,
striations, shallow pits and other signs of material loss. The
pipe wall becomes thinner and the risk of metal failure
increases.
A number of factors affect a material’s resistance to FAC,
including the composition of the steel; the chemistry and
temperature of the fluid; and the fluid’s velocity, pressure and
turbulence as it moves through the pipe.
While the terms FAC and erosion corrosion are often
used interchangeably during elbow inspections, FAC doesn’t
necessarily include abrasion due to particles in the fluid,
impingement caused by water droplets in steam or cavitation
that occurs when a liquid is subjected to rapid pressure
changes. However, these conditions can aggravate the
problem.
Figure 1. UT scanner for pipe elbows.
Figure 2. Left: A 1D linear array probe is ideal for most inspections of welds and
other defects. Right: The beam-skewing capability of 2D matrix array probes means
more accurate wall thickness measurements and better detection of mis-oriented
flaws.
32 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021
With ultrasound, technicians and asset owners can monitor
rates of material loss in straight pipe runs. However, pipe
elbows are a unique challenge.
With a phased array UT probe, ultrasonic waves enter
the material being tested at precise intervals and a set angle.
When a wave encounters a defect, some of that energy
reflects back and generates an echo. The time it takes for this
energy to come back to the probe is calculated and analysed
by the UT instrument’s software and is presented on the
display as a C-Scan for the technician to interpret.
However, it’s difficult for a rigid UT probe to traverse the
intrados (inner radius) and extrados (outer radius) of a pipe
elbow in a concentric position so ultrasonic signals reflect
back properly. Technicians can use a combination of probes
and wedges to accommodate the convex and concave shapes
and variations in material thickness along the pipe elbow, but
this adds time, complexity and cost to the inspection.
What’s the next step? Ultrasound technicians and asset
owners have a handful of options if they want to check for
FAC and other defects in pipe elbows.
Spot checks
One approach is to draw a grid on the outside of the pipe to
use as a reference for spot thickness measurements along the
elbow – it’s referred to as a time-based scan mapped over a
grid system.
The technician uses a standard 1D linear array probe to
check the wall thickness wherever the grid lines cross, or to
cover the entire interior of the box.
Either way, drawing a grid and taking thickness
measurements by hand, box by box, is tedious work. The only
record of examination it produces is a table listing the nominal
wall thickness and the minimum thickness at each point
on the grid, and there’s no code or standard to dictate grid
spacing or the number of inspection points. Ultimately, this
technique can leave a lot of area in the pipe elbow unchecked
and undocumented.
Radiography
Another option is radiography. Radiographic
inspections use either portable X-ray or gamma
ray generators to direct a beam into the
pipe elbow. A detecting device – an imaging
plate (undeveloped film sealed in a cassette)
– captures the beam after it penetrates
the material. The process produces a two-
dimensional image (radiograph) of varying
densities according to the amount of radiation
that penetrates the material and reaches the
film. Advancements in technology allow the
ability to wrap image plates around pipes.
Unlike digital phased array ultrasound
inspections which provide immediate results,
the latent negative image on a radiograph
must be processed using chemical developer,
stop bath and fixer. Inspection quality depends
on accurate alignment of the beam with the
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Types of ultrasonic probes
When you hear the term ‘array’ applied to ultrasonic
testing, you may just as well be talking about
the range of transducer choices available for UT
inspections.
Array probes come in a variety of shapes, sizes,
frequencies and the number of elements. If you
manage or direct nondestructive testing service
providers for pipeline inspections, it’s important to
understand two main types of probe technology.
1D linear array probes
A 1D linear array probe is the most common type of
array for straight beam and angle beam inspections.
Think of it as a long transducer that’s capable of
generating and receiving a single ultrasonic beam. No
matter how a 1D linear array probe is oriented, the
focal point and angle of the beam are fixed.
A 1D linear array probe will meet the requirements
for most weld and component-integrity inspections,
including reliable detection of surface and subsurface
defects and wall-thickness measurements. Because of
their versatility and cost effectiveness, 1D probes are
used in flexible array probes and scanners developed
for the detection of flow accelerated corrosion in
pipeline elbows.
2D matrix array probes
2D matrix array probes have elements along two
directions. This enables the rapid acquisition of data
and the ability to perform a complete volumetric
inspection. By exciting each element in a highly
controlled manner, a phased array UT instrument
and software can produce a precise beam shape
at multiple angles and generate two and three-
dimensional views of a flaw with speed and accuracy.
2D matrix array probe assemblies and portable
phased array instruments are now common for
pipeline inspections. These tools have powerful
software that allows technicians to virtually position
probes on the specimen to ensure maximum
volumetric coverage, and then simulate an inspection
step by step.
Ultimately, the technician’s choice of probe will
depend on the job at hand. What kind of access does
the inspecting technician have? What materials are
used in the welds? What conditions exist around the
inspection site (high temps, humidity, etc.)?
The wrong ultrasonic probe type can sometimes
give you the same actionable results as having no
probe at all. If you’re an asset owner, the more
information you can provide to the technician, the
more straightforward their probe choice will be.
34 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021
material surface as well as proper exposure time based on the
properties of the material.
Because of the safety issues surrounding radiation, a
radiographic inspection may require permits and clearing the
area of other personnel to ensure they are not accidentally
exposed. Here, standards established by organisations like the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and the
American Petroleum Institute (API), as well as the experience
and judgment of the technician, play a critical role in
equipment setup and testing.
Flexible array probes
A flexible ultrasonic array probe and scanner can map both
straight and elbow aspects of a pipe, and significantly reduce
inspection time compared to radiography and conventional
UT and grid systems.
Introduced only within the past few years, flexible array
probes have a pliable foam wedge that shapes the array of
ultrasonic elements to meet the contour of the pipe elbow.
This allows the probe to stay concentric throughout the
inspection.
The combination of a flexible array probe and an
encoded scanner enhances the technician’s ability to
generate a complete map of the inner surface of the elbow
and characterise corrosion. Flexible array probe scanners
weigh 1 kg and are easy to handle: magnetic wheels keep the
scanner firmly in place as the technician guides it along a
scan line or the centreline of the pipe. An encoder maps the
pipe’s scan axis while the technician can index increments
in the second axis with the press of a single button on the
scanner.
The newest flexible array scanner, Zetec’s ElbowFlex, has
a 64 element array and is capable of surface-mapping the
interior of pipe elbows from 4 in. nominal pipe size (NPS)
to flat. Its encoded data can be saved at a high resolution
to generate a detailed C-Scan image of the entire interior
surface of the pipe elbow.
Choosing a couplant
Like other ultrasonic probes, a flexible array probe requires a
couplant to help ensure a reliable signal.
The most common approach is a water chamber, but
water can be messy on a pipe elbow inspection, especially
for the technician with a handheld scanner. There are
alternatives to water, including acoustic-capable polymer
materials that can be moulded around the pipe elbow.
Polymer membranes such as Aqualene – a soft, pliable
thermoset elastomer – conform to the elbow’s convex and
concave shapes and stay there, minimising the need for water
while providing a reliable way to transfer ultrasonic energy.
Other options include standard coupling gel or a mixture of
water and gel.
As ultrasound has become a proven technology for
pipeline testing, flexible phased array probes and elbow
scanners can eliminate a crucial blind spot. They can help
technicians and asset owners make more informed decisions
about managing FAC and other previously hidden wear-
related defects that may be just around the corner.
Acc u r at e • To u g h • r e l i a b l e
THE LEADING BRAND OF HOLIDAY
DETECTION EQUIPMENT SINCE 1953

SPYINSPECT.COM • (713) 681-5837 •

PR ES EN T ED BY
Figure 1. Pipeline repair using DEXPAND®-CF70.

36
 Luc Perrad, DENSO Group Germany, discusses the company’s new
carbon fibre-based repair system, designed to restore and extend
the service life of pipelines.

L
ight and stable – for a long time, well-known technologies have made use of the properties of plastic
fibres, such as rotor blades for wind turbines or solar panels in space travel. However, wing panels for
aircraft or entire car bodies are also manufactured using carbon. Automotive manufacturers are aware
that if you master lightweight construction using carbon fibres, you can build fast sports cars. And many
tennis duels in Wimbledon would have been slower if carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP) weren’t used in tennis
rackets. Lighter than aluminium – harder than steel.

Quick and cost-effective pipeline repairs using CFRPs

One of the special properties of so-called carbon composite materials is that some of them have a higher strength
than steel. For this reason, they also play an important role in building pipelines. As temperatures, mechanical
loads and long-term chemical influences have a permanent corrosive effect on the steel on the inside and on the
outside, serious defects can occur in the pipe wall. Whether this is repaired with a steel sleeve or the damaged
section is completely replaced, the pipeline must first be decommissioned at great expense.
However, this is entirely different if the pipeline is repaired with the help of carbon
composite materials: DEXPAND®-CF70, the new composite repair system
from DENSO Group Germany, allows repairs to be made to

37

The advantages of
DEXPAND®-CF70 at a glance
Because the repair is carried out during ongoing
operations without shutting down the pipeline, there
are clear advantages compared with repairs using steel
components or replacing a damaged pipe section:
) Cost-effective: around 75% cost savings compared
with replacing the section of pipe.
) Quick: more than 50% time savings.
) Simple: no work to do with additional machines.
) Safe: no gas flames for application, no welding
and therefore no fire or explosion hazard. This is
particularly important for works in chemical plants
and refineries.
Figure 2. System structure of DEXPAND®-CF70.
Figure 3. Exceeded minimum hardness requirements.
38 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021
the pipeline whilst operations are ongoing – a quick and
cost-effective alternative to other processes.
This product, of tried-and-tested DENSO quality, was
launched in May 2020, expanding the existing range of
services for corrosion protection and road construction
offered by DENSO Group Germany of Leverkusen.
DEXPAND-CF70 repairs damaged sections of steel pipes
and restores the material’s original structural integrity, i.e.
its intact state. The pipelines can then be recommissioned
safely at the original operating pressure – guaranteeing
long-lasting operation.
“Steel pipelines, whether they transport gas, water
or oil, are very costly. For this reason, it is necessary to
operate them for as long and as safely as possible. The
question of the service life of such transport systems is
therefore essential,” explains Thomas Kaiser, Managing
Director of DENSO Group Germany. “With our new
product DEXPAND-CF70, we are extending the service
life of pipelines by many years. We are thus once again
focusing on forward-looking solutions that contribute to
safety.”
Sophisticated technology with
verified safety
The carbon fibres used in DEXPAND-CF70
are amongst the strongest industrially-
manufactured fibres. Pipeline repair systems
based on carbon fibres are currently the most
resilient non-metallic systems. In long-term
trials which correspond to the equivalent
of 100 years of use, they demonstrate the
highest levels of long-term durability.
Where is a product with such excellent
properties used? The system is suitable for
repairing defects where up to 80% of the
original wall thickness has been lost. Only
when even more extensive damage and
leakages have taken place is the system not
used. The good news for all operators is that
with DEXPAND-CF70, almost all damage that
occurs in practice in transportation pipelines
can be quickly and easily repaired whilst the
pipeline is in operation.
Gasunie Deutschland, the operator of the
ETL 05 natural gas pipeline (pipe diameter
DN 250, 10 in.) near Bielefeld, Germany,
was already able to see this at the end of
November 2020. STRABAG AG Directorate
North, which was commissioned to carry out
the construction work, repaired two defects
with DEXPAND-CF70 on 30 November at
an ambient temperature of 0˚C (+32˚F). The
defects in the pipeline had led to a reduction
in wall thickness of up to 32%. The repair was
carried out with the line staying permanently
in service within only three hours. The
minimum requirements for Shore D hardness
were even exceeded at both locations in less
than 24 hours: an excellent proof of the performance of
DEXPAND-CF70. The following day, the gas pipeline could
be operated again at its original operating pressure.
In general DEXPAND-CF70 system is suitable for
operating temperatures of up to 70˚C (+158˚F). For quick
repairs to the damaged areas, project-specific repair kits
are available at short notice.
The independent laboratories of TÜV-Süd (certificate
IS-AN11-Muc/ml-1915) have verified the fatigue strength of
the section repaired using DEXPAND-CF70. Up until now,
the planned usage period was generally up to 20 years.
However, DEXPAND-CF70 is one of the few systems which
has been certified for an unrestricted service life.
and a high-strength, mechanical reinforcement consisting
of DEXPAND®-CF70 Carbon fabric and DEXPAND®-CF70
Wetout. With the help of the Putty filler, dents in the
pipe surface are first of all filled in and evened out.
The Primer is a dual component epoxy adhesive, which
ensures that the power of the repair system is perfectly
transferred to the pipeline surface. The high strength
mechanical reinforcement consists of the carbon fabric,
a carbon fibre fabric, and the Wetout, a dual component
resin. The Wetout forms a bond with the layers of the
fabric and ensures that the mechanical loads are evenly
distributed. Finally, an additional corrosion protection
system based on PE/butyl rubber completes the

Clear advantages with

DEXPAND-CF70
DEXPAND-CF70 restores the
integrity of pipeline systems on a
long-term basis, extending their
service life. As the repair can
be carried out during ongoing
operations without shutting
down the pipeline, there are
clear advantages compared to
replacement or repair with steel
components.
“If we take into account the
costs for shutdowns as well as the
cost of materials and labour for
replacement using a steel sleeve,
there are cost savings of around
75% associated with the use of
DEXPAND-CF70. In addition, the
affected defect is repaired more
than twice as quickly,” says Luc
Perrad, Head of International Sales
at DENSO. Replacing a section
of pipeline or repairing it with a
steel sleeve takes around four to
five days. By comparison, the time
required when using DEXPAND-CF70
is only two days as a maximum.
Since there is no need to empty
the pipeline, or carry out welding
operations, working with this
innovative product is not only
extremely economical, but also
ecological, safe and simple.
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of pipeline operation Expanding on our industry-leading decoupler
DEXPAND-CF70 is a unique
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components, which are guaranteed technology uses sophisticated solid-state
to repair the damaged pipe on power electronics to deliver fast, accurate
a long-lasting basis. The system readings during interrupted survey testing.
comprises the DEXPAND®-CF70
Putty, the DEXPAND®-CF70 Primer
Learn more about the next generation of
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 protection of the pipeline – for safe pipeline operation
for decades.
The procedure – four steps to success
If an operator is interested in using DEXPAND-CF70 when
damage has occurred, the process is clearly structured
according to responsibilities to ensure a smooth repair.
Step one begins with the damage assessment by the
pipeline network operator: it determines the data
Figure 4. Easy application of DEXPAND-CF70.
From a family company to
a family of companies
) Since it was founded in 1922, DENSO Group
Germany has grown into an international family
of companies, with subsidiaries in six European
countries and sales partners in more than 100
countries around the world.
) By 1927, the company was already revolutionising
the passive corrosion protection of pipelines with
the invention of the DENSO tape (petrolatum
tape). To this day, the company is considered to
be synonymous with the world’s first reliable
corrosion protection for pipelines.
) DENSO is now known as a specialist for product
and system solutions in corrosion protection and
sealing technology. With the “Made in Germany”
quality guarantee as well as its pioneering
developments, DENSO offers greater security and
durability for new builds and renovations.
40 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021
concerning the damaged pipe section as well as the
current operating conditions (in addition to pressure and
temperature, other conditions such as remaining pipe wall
thickness, steel quality used or pressure range form part
of this). These data provide the basis for the use of the
DEXPAND-CF70 system.
The second step is the calculation of requirements by
DENSO. Based on the operator’s data, a DENSO calculation
tool calculates the materials required to restore the
integrity of the pipeline, particularly with regard to
the number of reinforcement layers. In the third step,
DENSO produces and delivers the tailored, project-
specific repair kit to the pipeline operator. Then,
the actual repair takes place: the pipeline network
operator will have the pipeline repaired by qualified
processing partners certified by DENSO, taking into
account the currently valid processing information.
Conclusion
If a pipeline is repaired with the help of carbon
composite materials, it does not have to be taken out
of service beforehand in a cost-intensive manner, as is
the case with other methods. DEXPAND-CF70, the new
composite repair system from DENSO Group Germany,
enables the pipeline to be repaired while it is still in
operation and restores its original structural integrity.
This extends the service life of a pipeline by decades.
Almost any damage that occurs can be repaired quickly,
economically, easily and safely with DEXPAND-CF70.
Shortly after its market launch, DEXPAND-CF70
was able to live up to its claim in practice. Gasunie
Deutschland, as the operator of the ETL 05 natural gas
pipeline, was very satisfied with both the application
of the product and the speed of the entire process.
What are carbon fibres
& why are they an ideal
material?
Carbon fibres are industrially produced, high-tensile
fibres. Fabrics made of carbon fibres bonded with
a reactive resin are characterised by extremely high
adhesive strength and stiffness with low elongation
at break.
) The best results in long-term testing –
corresponding to 100 years of use – are
achieved using carbon fibres e.g. for pipeline
repairs.
) They are among the strongest industrially
produced fibres, and their strength is sometimes
higher than steel.
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Matt Green and Tim Mally, CSNRI, USA, describe the testing of a 25 year old
repair completed with composite repair sleeves, that left pipe sections even
stronger than before.

S
ince the first composite repairs were introduced
to the industry more than 30 years ago, composite
materials have been used to address a broad range of
defects, from cracks, fractures, and leaks to internal
and external corrosion, mechanical damage, abrasion, and
axial defects. Composites evolved over the decades from
repair sleeves that could be used on standard straight
piping runs to flexible wraps that can be applied to
wrinkle bends and components with complex
shapes. Their versatility has made them
the go-to solution for a broad range
of anomalies, and they have been
installed around the world to
resolve asset integrity and safety
concerns. Although many have
been in service for years, there
have been few occasions when
a repair has been recovered to
allow designers to see how it
has endured the test of time. A
rare opportunity at the end of
2020 provided just such a chance,
when a pipeline owner replaced
a section of pipe that had been
repaired using a Clock Spring®
composite repair sleeve in 1995.

In the beginning
The Clock Spring coil is made up
of eight layers of pretensioned
unidirectional e-glass composite that
is installed with a high-modulus filler
material and a high lap-shear strength
methyl methacrylate adhesive. Designed
to structurally reinforce and permanently

43
 restore external anomalies, the sleeve can repair a broad range
of mechanical damage and corrosion defects, and can restore
a pipeline with up to 80% wall loss to full strength. It has
been tested to 8000 psi internal pressure and has a design
life beyond 50 years, qualifying it as a permanent repair by
regulators around the world.
The repair sleeve was the subject of an extensive 10
year research and development programme, and was the
pioneer for the approval of composite repairs across the
Figure 1. The testing programme for the 25-year old Clock Spring® repair
was designed to gradually increase pressure to 1455 psi (100.3 bar),
which is 1.5 times the MAOP of the pipeline, where the MAOP was
970 psi (66.9 bar). The composite repair showed no damage when the
repaired pipeline section was pressurised to the target value of 1455 psi
(100.3 bar) and held at that pressure for five minutes. (Photo courtesy of
CSNRI).
Figure 2. The repaired pipeline section was pressurised to and then
held at that pressure for five minutes. After successfully holding the
repaired pipeline section at the target value of 1455 psi (100.3 bar) for
five minutes, pressure was increased until the pipeline finally ruptured
at 2180 psi (150.3 bar). Interestingly, the rupture was not on the Clock
Spring repair but on a section of pipe outside of the repair area. (Photo
courtesy of CSNRI).
44 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021
industry. In 1987, the Gas Research Institute (GRI), assembled
a team of pipeline professionals and research organisations
to direct a comprehensive programme to verify the sleeve’s
effectiveness, durability, and performance characteristics.
The decade-long testing programme, which assumed worst-
case conditions, included extensive burst testing, stress
rupture tests, field validations, cathodic shielding testing, and
cathodic disbondment test. Technical evidence of the sleeve’s
performance was submitted to the United States Department
of Transportation, which revised its code in the year 2000
to allow Clock Spring as a viable permanent repair. The GRI
testing programme remains the most thorough and trusted
composite testing programme ever conducted.
The original repair
In 1995, an owner, operator, and developer of an integrated
portfolio of natural gas pipelines, found corrosion on a
carbon steel pipeline operating at 750 psi (51.7 bar), with a
maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) of 970 psi
(66.9 bar). There were multiple corrosion defects in the
pipeline, the worst of which was 12 in. (305 mm) long with
63% corrosion. The determination was made to repair the
line using the Clock Spring composite repair sleeve.
With the pipeline in service, technicians cleaned and
inspected the pipeline for any additional defects prior
to molding filler into corroded areas. The filler acts as a
load-transfer agent to transfer the stresses from the pipe
to the composite sleeve. Following an inspection to ensure
that the repair sleeve could be placed properly, technicians
installed the sleeves and secured them to the damaged
line. Within an hour, the composite repairs were fully
cured, and the pipe was restored to safe service.
Withstanding the test of time
After 25 years of continuous service, the section of
composite-repaired pipe was scheduled for inspection
and replacement to conduct validation tests. The pipeline
company contacted CSNRI late in 2020 and asked if there
was any interest in inspecting the repaired segment of pipe
that was being removed from service. Because there are
few opportunities to examine composite repairs that have
been in service for a quarter of a century, the company was
eager to subject the repair sleeves to testing.
Once the pipe section was received, it was fitted with
end caps and fittings to conduct a full-scale pressure
test. The testing programme was designed to gradually
increase pressure to a target value of 1455 psi (100.3 bar),
which is 1.5 times the MAOP of the pipeline, where
the MAOP was 970 psi (66.9 bar). The repaired pipeline
section was pressurised to 1455 psi (100.3 bar) and then
held at that pressure for five minutes. After a successful
hold at the target value, pressure was increased until
the pipeline finally ruptured at 2180 psi (150.3 bar). It is
noteworthy that the pipe ruptured not on the repaired
section of pipe, but on a section of pipe outside of the
repair area.
Additionally, samples of the Clock Spring repair were
removed from the tested sections, and coupon-level
tensile testing was conducted. The results of the tensile
testing on the samples removed from the tested pipeline,
which had just successfully held up to the full-scale pressure
test, showed that the tensile strength of the 25 year old repair
sleeve was still 90 000 psi (6205.3 bar). This validates that no
degradation occurred in the composite repair from the time of
installation through continuous operation for 25 years.
This test programme validates the durability of the
composite repair, underscoring the findings of the 10 year
research and development programme led by GRI in 1987 that
established the Clock Spring composite repair sleeve as a
viable, permanent repair solution, and reinforcing the claims
that the Clock Spring can last longer than 50 years in service.
More testing yields positive results
Although there are not a lot of opportunities to carry out
testing on 25 year old repairs, there are many ways to develop
and execute test programmes to provide performance data
for composite repairs. Ten years ago, CSNRI participated in
third-party testing in conjunction with the Pipeline Research
Council International (PRCI) and Stress Engineering Services on
another of its composite repair solutions, Atlas™, to determine
its efficacy in addressing external corrosion.
Atlas is a high-strength, high-stiffness carbon fibre solution
for repairing pipeline and piping structures. Designed for
repairs that require strain reduction induced by dynamic
loading conditions, this composite repair system includes
a bi-directional carbon fibre system installed using a high-
strength epoxy resin. Field saturated and applied, this
carbon-fibre system contours to seam and girth welds and
when combined with high-strength load transfer filler, helps
minimise strain on complex pipeline anomalies. This solution
is most commonly used for pipelines and piping systems that
have suffered external corrosion and pitting or third-party
damage such as dents, gouges, and scratches and is also
appropriate for wrinkle bends, imperfect welds, manufacturing
flaws, and cracks or crack-like features.
The third-party testing for this product simulated
external corrosion at depths of 40%, 60% and 75% in depth
on hundreds of 12 in. (0.3 m) diameter pipe spools to test
the longevity of the composite repair. Each specimen
was wrapped with an engineered carbon fibre and epoxy
composite repair and then buried in wet Texas soil under
a coating and cathodic protection to simulate how a
composite repair would perform under similar conditions in
the field. The pipe segments were pressure cycled 900 times
per year over a 10 year period. At the conclusion of each
year of the test programme, pipe segments were recovered
Table 1. Third-party test results for the Atlas™ Carbon Fiber Repair System (data courtesty of CSNRI)
Manufacturer Corrosion Burst Burst
Defect Pressure Pressure
(psi) Year 0 (psi) Year 1
CSNRI 40 4125 4040
60 4118 4089
75 4296 4263
and subjected to a burst test to determine their performance
characteristics after exposure to wear. Testing from year zero
to year 10 showed no degradation either in the appearance
or the performance of the composite repair. In fact, the
final burst pressures from each year of testing from one to
10 were within 3 - 5% of each other, showing remarkable
consistency of results.
Many other studies have been undertaken – or are
ongoing – to prove the value and longevity achievable with
composite repair systems on high-pressure and highly cyclical
pipelines. One such programme was carried out by the Gas
Technology Institute (previously GRI) in 2013 in which a part
of the study was dedicated to testing long-term tensile and
adhesion strength of composite systems. The results further
validate the durability of these types of repairs and illustrate
why they are so valuable to asset owners.
Scores of testing programmes have been completed on
composite repairs over the years by industry sponsors and
third parties, as well as end users and composite system
manufacturers. As more and more test results and data
become available, there are additional reasons for industry
confidence in the ability of composites to perform in the
long term for a variety of defects to keep pipelines operating
safely and efficiently.
Continuous improvement
Composite technologies are not only safe and relatively
simple to install, they also deliver benefits that other repair
solutions cannot, allowing installation on active lines,
enabling repair on complex geometries and in areas with
tight access, and providing reliable performance for decades
of service.
Continuous testing and validation are important for
quality assurance, meeting regulatory requirements, and
verifying manufacturing process, but the biggest benefit of
extensive testing is that it removes the grey areas, providing
industry with products it can trust. This 25 year test
demonstrates that composites can be counted on to perform
to the levels that the laboratory tests initially indicated and
can be trusted to be reliable for decades to come.
Over the years, successful composite repair installations
have changed the way owners and operators extend the
field life of their assets. Tested, validated, and field-proven
composite solutions are readily available, and continuing
R&D efforts are creating even more advanced products. As
the superior performance of composite solutions becomes
more well-known, more companies will look to composites
to deliver long-lasting, reliable performance.
Burst Burst Burst Burst Burst
Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure Pressure
(psi) Year 2 (psi) Year 3 (psi) Year 5 (psi) Year 7.5 (psi) Year 10
4087 4123 4188 4177 4247
4084 4191 4241 4089 4122
4388 4397 4316 4328 4322
APRIL 2021 / World Pipelines 45
A. S. Tazedakis, N. Voudouris, E. Dourdounis, Corinth Pipeworks, Greece,
and G. Mannucci, L. F. Di Vito, and A. Fonzo, RINA Consulting – Centro
Sviluppo Materiali SpA, Italy, discuss the certification of steel pipelines
for the transportation of hydrogen.

46
 Image: Corinth’s plant in Thisvi, Greece, including four pipe
mills, coatings/CWC and own port.

H
ydrogen is the most environmentally
friendly carrier of energy: when
consumed it solely emits water. Energy
carrier means that its potential role
has similarities with that of electricity. Both
hydrogen and electricity can be produced
by means of various energy sources and
technologies. Both are versatile and can be used
in many different applications. No greenhouse
gases, particulates, sulfur oxides or ground level
ozone are produced from the use of either
hydrogen or electricity.1 Consequently, hydrogen
is currently enjoying unprecedented political and
business momentum, with the number of policies
and projects around the world expanding rapidly;
in July 2020, the EU Commission adopted a new
dedicated strategy on hydrogen in Europe, which
explores actions to support the production and
use of clean hydrogen, focusing in particular on
the mainstreaming of renewable hydrogen.

47
 The transport of gaseous hydrogen through pipelines is
not a novel concept. It has been indeed realised by use of
mild carbon steel for almost a century and it is estimated
that there are over 4500 km of hydrogen linepipes in
operation worldwide.2 Typical pipeline size is 300 mm
or less, manufactured with X52 or lower strength steels
and in comparison to natural gas, H2 pipelines normally
operate at relatively conservative conditions.3 However,
owing to the low volumetric energy density of hydrogen
(0.0108 MJ/L) in comparison to natural gas (0.0364 MJ/L)
and the forecasted expansive utilisation of renewable
energy sources, it will be necessary to transmit hydrogen
at high pressures using large pipelines in order to be
financially competitive. The combination of high pressure
and large size pipe demands the use of higher strength
steels.
Applicable standards and practices
There is a limited number of standards that can be used
for material qualification for pipeline gaseous hydrogen
transportation:
Figure 1. Design pressure factors for X60M for Option B vs Option A in areas
characterised as Location Class 1, Division 2.
Figure 2. Outline of KIH testing procedure.
48 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021
) International/European standardisation bodies are
working on revising EN 1594, EN 16348 and EN 12732 in
order to consider H2 and H2/natural gas (NG) mixtures
also.
) EIGA (European Industrial Gases Association) published
a document (IGC Doc 121/14) which recommends
maximum steel grade to be used and suggests testing
to be carried out, but without specific instructions on
how to qualify the material.
) ASME B31.12 is a US standard for material qualification
for use with H2 and H2/NG mixtures. Two basic
approaches are adopted: Design Options A and B,
which are briefly described in the following section.
It is worth highlighting that the EIGA document makes
specific suggestions to limit the effects of hydrogen
embrittlement on materials, such as appropriate material
classes, compositional and strength limits, and suggests
appropriate testing methods, but is a recommended
practice and not a standard. At the same time, new EN/
ISO standards under revision are expected
to follow the ASME B31.12 approach for the
material qualification of pipelines for high
pressure gaseous hydrogen transportation;
ASME B31.12 is now the most used standard
for material qualification and can be
expected to be the reference one also in the
future.
The ASME B31.12 Hydrogen Piping and
Pipeline Code was initially published in 2008,
in order to deal with design, construction,
operation, and maintenance requirements for
piping, pipelines, and distribution systems
in hydrogen service.4 The B31.12 committee
has developed two design methods that can
be considered in conjunction with steel/
piping specifications (i.e. API 5L PSL2) and
acceptable manufacturing routes for welded
pipes (HFW, SAWL or SAWH).5
The first (Option A) is
prescriptive and similar to
design processes contained in
ASME B31.8 Natural Gas Pipeline
Code. It considers the use of
lower basic design factors, F,
and a material performance
derating factor, Hf, derived from
pressure and tensile strength
relationships.
The second (Option B) is
performance based, using a
fracture mechanics approach (on
the basis of ASME Section VIII,
Div. 3 – Alternative Rules for
Construction of High Pressure
Vessels). The qualification of
 Figure 3. Compact tension specimens in RINA laboratory.
Table 1. Overview of CPW pipes tested for fracture toughness (KIH) in pressurised hydrogen.
the pipeline materials is performed by use of fracture
mechanics and crack propagation testing that empowers
the use of enhanced design factors and withdraws the
limitations on pressure due to the use of the Hf derating
factor.
When designing a pipeline for hydrogen transportation,
the benefits of compliance with ASME B31.12 Option B
can be substantial. This is illustrated in Figure 1 for an API
X60M grade: the design factor for Option B can be 72% of
the specified yield strength for all applicable pressures up
to 20.7 MPa (3000 psi). On the contrary, the same design
factor for Option A is limited to a maximum yield strength
percentage of 43,7% or even lower, due to additional
limitations of the material performance (Hf) factor when
the design pressure approaches 3000 psi (20.7 MPa).
The latest version of ASME B31.12, specifies for Option
B that fracture toughness qualification testing is required
to validate the minimum threshold stress intensity factor
(KIH) at the design pressure and 100% H2 concentration.
The test on the pipes should be performed at the base
metal, weld metal and heat affected zone positions, on
three heats of the pipe material, in compliance with
ASTM E1681 according to the constant displacement
configuration, with the additional prescriptions of ASME
B31.12 and ASME BPVC Section VIII, Division 3. 6,4,7,8
The KIH value that qualifies the material in accordance
with ASME B31.12 Option B is 50 ksi√in (or 55 MPa√m)
unless otherwise specified by design analysis. It should
be noted that the latest version of the ASME B31.12 code
has removed the requirement to perform specific FCGR
50 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021
testing for the qualification of a hydrogen line pipe and
generic curves are provided, applicable for all carbon
steels in gaseous hydrogen up to 20.7 MPa (3000 psi)
service pressure.
Fracture toughness qualification testing
Aiming to validate the performance characteristics of high
grade API 5L pipes in pressurised hydrogen, CPW organised
a number of fracture toughness qualification (KIH) tests
under the ASME B31.12 code Option B scheme, including
both High Frequency Welded (HFW) and Longitudinal
Submerged Arc Welded (SAWL) pipes. All tested pipe
material is presented in Table 1.
All ASME-based hydrogen material tests were
performed in RINA Consulting – Centro Sviluppo Materiali
SpA, an acknowledged European company specialised in
the development of new materials and in the performance
assessment of materials and equipment in new operating
windows; with regard to the subject, RINA has specific
skills and laboratories specialised to evaluate materials
and components performance in presence of gaseous
hydrogen up to 1000 bar external pressure.
The procedure for KIH fracture toughness testing
is presented schematically in Figure 2. Samples are
machined in bolt-load compact configuration (Figure 3).
The determination of the threshold stress intensity factor
involves a specimen containing a machined notch, which
is placed in base material and, for HFW pipes, in bond
line or, for SAWL pipes in weld metal and Heat Affected
Zone crossing the fusion line (Coarse Grain HAZ) at the
maximum extent. This notch is extended by fatigue
cracking under controlled conditions for maximum
loading. The fatigue pre-cracked specimen is then
placed in a glovebox filled with a nitrogen atmosphere,
under very low oxygen and moisture levels as required
per ASME code. The specimen is then loaded by means
of a bolt to the attainment of the target Crack Mouth
Opening Displacement, established on the basis of the
target stress intensity KIAPP for plain strain conditions.
After loading, the samples are put inside the test
chamber under controlled conditions and the test
chamber is then charged with pure hydrogen gas at the
target test pressure and maintained at this pressure
for 1000 hours. After the specified test period, the
specimen is examined to assess whether the initial
fatigue crack did or did not grow. The specimens
are heat tinted and broken open in liquid nitrogen.
The fracture surface is then examined by optical Figure 4. Visual and SEM examination of representative post-exposure
observation and scanning electron examination results from the 26 in. x 15.9 mm HFW test item.
microscope.

Results and evaluation

The results of all validated fracture
toughness KIH tests are summarised
in Table 2. Four samples per material/
notch were prepared in order to obtain
at least three valid results per position.
According to KD-1047 clause of ASME
code for the constant displacement
method, if the average measured
crack growth does not exceed 0.01 in. Figure 5. Representative micrographs of X70M HFW pipe on PM (left) and weld seam (right)
presenting a fine polygonal ferrite microstructure. Etching: Nital 2%.

Table 2. Results of fracture toughness ASME KIH testing.

APRIL 2021 / World Pipelines 51

 Table 3. Chemical analysis of tested pipes (% WT.).
ASME B31.12 Option
B & Appendix G: steel
chemistry requirements and
recommendations
) Desired microstructure of polygonal and
acicular ferrite.
) TMCP made steel is recommended.
) Phosphorus content ≤ 0.015% wt.
) Recommended carbon content ≤ 0.07% WT.
) Recommended carbon equivalent (Pcm) X52-
X60 ≤ 0.15% WT, X65-X80 ≤ 0.17% WT.
) Maximum UTS 110 ksi (758 MPa).
) Nb micro alloyed steel is recommended.
(0.25mm) KIH is equal to 50% of KIAPP.7 Taking this clause
into consideration, the KIAPP initial stress was selected
to be at least double of the minimum threshold stress
intensity value required by the code of 55 MPa√m.
No hydrogen crack growth was noticed at any specimen
after visual and SEM examination at high resolution. In
all cases also the SEM micrographs highlighted a dimpled
fracture surface in front of the fatigue pre-crack, extending
a few microns (Figure 4). Presence of this surface represents
an evidence of a newly generated surface, formed as a
consequence of the load application by the bolt and
serving as a site for hydrogen permeation during the
hydrogen 1000 hr exposure.
Conclusions
According to the up-to-date test results for HFW and SAWL
pipes in grades up to L485M/X70M, all tested specimens
in base metal, weld and HAZ (where applicable) positions
demonstrated high resistance against hydrogen-assisted
crack growth and the measured values for the KIH fracture
52 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021
toughness property were always higher than the minimum
required value of 55 MPa√m. Furthermore, the observed
fracture mechanism does not pose any evidence of brittle
or low-energy cracking phenomena.
The excellent resistance of the tested pipes against
hydrogen embrittlement was endorsed by the chemical
analysis characteristics of the tested pipes (Table 3) as
in all cases the steel quality was characterised by low
carbon content and carbon equivalent (PCM) and high
levels of cleanliness (very low P, S). In addition, the TMCP
processed coils (or plates, for the case of the SAWL pipe)
presented in all cases a fine polygonal or acicular ferrite
microstructure with finely dispersed pearlite and no or
minimal banding (Figure 5). Such characteristics in steel
chemical composition and microstructure are in-line with
the recommendations of the hydrogen linepipe code (side
bar).
The certification of pipes for the transportation of
pure gaseous hydrogen or H2/NG gas mixtures without
additional design pressure limitations can be therefore
achieved, on the basis of pipe material’s fracture resistance
properties qualification following design ‘Option B’
requirements of code ASME B31.12.
It has been therefore demonstrated that the
requirements of the code for the pipe material are
consistently feasible, thus certification of a higher grade
line pipe for 100% hydrogen transportation using Option
B can be provided. This certification can be the first step
towards the efficient transportation of larger volumes of
hydrogen through the steel pipeline network in the future.
References
1. IEA Report for the G20, “The future of hydrogen: Seizing today’s
opportunities,” June 2019.
2. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, “https://h2tools.org,” H2 Tools.
[Online].
3. XU, K., “Hydrogen Embrittlement of carbon steels and their welds,” in
Gaseous hydrogen embrittlement of materials in energy technologies,
Oxford, Woodhead Publishing, 2012.
4. ASM B31.12-2019, “Hydrogen Piping and Pipelines,” 2019.
5. HAYDEN, L. E. and STALHEIM, D., “ASME B31.12 Hydrogen pipeing and pipeline
code design rules and their interaction with pipeline materials. Concerns,
issues and research,” Prague, Czech Republic, 2009.
6. ASTM E1681-03 (2013), “Standard Test Method for Determining Threshold
Stress Intensity Factor for Environment-Assisted Cracking of Metallic
Materials,” 2013.
7. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, “Rules for Construction
of Pressure Vessels, Division 3, Alternative Rules for Construction of High
Pressure Vessels.”, 2013.
Neil Gordon, Subsea UK, explains how firms developing new technologies for the
subsea industry can improve their access to crucial funding for their R&D drives.

T
he unprecedented events of 2020 and the
repercussions on the oil and gas industry
have been well-documented. The year itself
is behind us, but the impact of the litany
of global challenges which came together to create a
perfect storm – affecting economies around the world
– will remain with us for some time.
The focus is, however, on the future and how we
best position and prepare ourselves for recovery. A
crucial element of that recovery will be driven by the
subsea supply chain and the innovative, disruptive
technology which it is developing to meet the
challenges post-COVID-19 of the energy transition and
race to net-zero.
In the ongoing demand for a safer, more efficient,
cost-effective and lower carbon industry, a weakened
subsea supply chain could be one of the biggest threats
we face. The devastation caused by the pandemic,
coming on the back of a fragile recovery in oil and gas,
has been too much for many companies with several
casualties, inevitable redundancies and restructuring
and a subsequent lack of capital to invest in people,
equipment and research and development.

53
 Protecting, supporting and positioning the supply chain
so that it has the capability to rise to the challenges and help
deliver the energy transition must therefore be a priority for
all stakeholders.
There are three points in the recently announced UK
Government 10 point energy plan which are of major interest
to the underwater engineering industry and its supply chain.
These are offshore wind, hydrogen and carbon capture (CCUS)
– all of which will, in some form or other, rely on the subsea
expertise, particularly around pipelines, which has been honed
in the North Sea oil and gas sector and now leads the way
around the world.
When these pilot projects start emerging, it is crucial that
the subsea supply chain is involved from the outset in order
for it to develop the technology and skills that will be needed
to make these pilots successful and, once proven, exported
around the world.
The depth of experience built up over the decades to
support the subsea pipeline infrastructure will have a vital role
to play in bringing these new technologies to market.
Our oil and gas pipelines traverse the deepest and harshest
seas throughout the world. Constantly subjected to undersea
hazards and a changing environment, ongoing research and
development into new technologies which advance and
overcome the challenges of internal and external subsea
inspection and monitoring, is vital and will have a place in the
growing blue economy industry.
As pipelines age, smarter and more sophisticated methods
of corrosion mapping and inspection are essential, with the
technology being developed having applications across the
wider sphere of subsea activity.
Advances in underwater robotics and AUVs are pushing
the boundaries of our capabilities further than ever before.
Analysis techniques which can monitor and identify changes
in the seabed and how they impact on pipeline infrastructure
are continuously being developed and refined, building
Figure 1. Blue Ocean Monitoring – light class AUV pipeline inspection.
54 World Pipelines / APRIL 2021
our knowledge and enhancing our underwater engineering
expertise.
As a trade body, which represents the UK’s underwater
engineering sector, Subsea UK’s role is to help members
identify where opportunities lie in the UK and around the
world to support these existing and emerging industries. One
of the ways we do that is by making sure that companies have
all the tools they need to identify and capitalise on those
opportunities.
Funding
Against the backdrop of the current economic climate, where
resources are constrained due to the oil price collapse and the
global pandemic, one of the most important tools to hand
will be access to funding. The ability to identify and secure
sources of funding, which will support the R&D activity that
ambitious companies need to take their ideas and innovation
to the next level, will be key.
In the UK, funding from UKRI (UK Research and Innovation)
alone is worth around £6 billion per year. Add to that, the
availability of grants from sources as diverse as Innovate UK,
the European Space Agency, the UK government’s Defence and
Security Accelerator and Eurostars, and the potential to apply
for and secure vital funds for R&D activity is huge. Multiply
that by the availability of R&D funding and grants in nations
around the world, and the potential is truly immense.
However, for many companies that funding pot can seem
like an elusive, almost unattainable prize. The subsea sector
has, to a large extent, been built on the ingenuity of SMEs.
Capable of developing technologies that operate in the
deepest, harshest underwater environments in the world,
many of these companies’ engineering expertise does not
extend to the specifics of successfully completing a funding
bid – a skill in its own right.
A survey of the UK’s subsea SMEs found that in many
cases, they miss out on securing funding support because
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 they do not know it exists, they believe the process for

ADVERTISERS’ applying is too complex or they have tried and been knocked
back before. It is likely subsea companies around the world
are confronted with the same challenges and frustrations.
DIRECTORY Improving funding applications
Advertiser Page To help address this and to increase the number of firms able
to access funding for vital R&D, Subsea UK has developed a
3X Engineering OFC, 15
series of webinars – the de facto way of communicating in
current times – which are providing real, practical advice to
ABC 33 equip companies with the knowledge to help give them a
better chance of success.
Aegion OBC We partnered with Scottish Enterprise and the wider
Enterprise Europe Network to deliver these. Despite the
AMI Coatings 55 name, its reach goes well beyond Europe, taking in 60
countries from North America to the Far East.
AMPP 29 Within those 60 countries is a network of more than 600
partner organisations, and their expertise in helping the SME
Corinth Pipeworks 49 community navigate the complexities of the various funding
programmes is invaluable.
CRC-Evans 4
This is a highly competitive market, so much so that
the average success rate for companies applying for UK and
international funding is 10% across most streams. That figure
Dairyland Electrical Industries 39
sounds, and is, low until we understand why. Quite simply in
many cases it comes down to a lack of adequate preparation
DeFelsko 41
and often sloppy submissions which have not been given the
care and attention they deserve and demand.
DENSO GmbH 13 To have any chance of success, funding applications
which are submitted must have the competitive edge. They
Electrochemical Devices, Inc. 26 must be clear, complete, well-prepared, and they must
include all the information that has been asked for. The
Gastech 19 mantra, repeated time and time again by the experts, is read
the question, and make sure you fully understand it before
Girard Industries 33 answering.
Much too often, opportunities to secure potential
Integrity 2021 2 funding – no matter how good the concept is – slip away
because applicants do not answer the question in the way
those assessing it are looking for, or they gloss over the
Intero Integrity 21
answer because they think it might preclude a funding award.
If a funding stream requires a collaboration with
IPLOCA 41
partners, do not make an application if you do not have
that collaboration in place. If your project costs exceed the
MetriCorr 25 stated value, this is not the funding opportunity for you. If
you think your concept is so good that the rest does not
Pigs Unlimited International LLC 29 really matter, you’re wrong.
Being confident that you are on the cusp of unleashing
PIPECARE IBC cutting edge technology on the world is not enough. That
confidence has to be backed by a sound, deliverable business
Pipeline Inspection Company 35 plan, and there must be identified and researched market
potential with a clear indication of commercialisation.
Propipe Limited 42 Access to funding which supports R&D programmes
can transform a ground-breaking idea or concept into a
ROSEN Group IFC
proven, commercialised solution for pipelines. Alongside
this, the results of this R&D will be critical when it comes
to achieving net-zero and developing hydrogen and CCUS
STATS Group 9
projects at a scale to deliver the energy transition.

Winn & Coales International Ltd 7

World Pipelines 30, 42

WPC 35
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